US-China Education Review 2013 4B

US-China Education Review
B
Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)
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Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Educational Sociology, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Ghazi M. Ghaith Professor Gner Tural Professor Michael Eskay
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US-China Education Review

B
Volume 3, Number 4, April 2013 (Serial Number 23)
Contents
Educational Psychology
Secondary School Students Motivation and Achievement in Combined Science CHOW Shean Jen, Bob Chui Seng YONG Impact of Deprivations in Childhood on the Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in Ghetto Areas in Lagos, Nigeria Simeon Dosunmu, Rhoda Sowunmi 229 213
Educational Sociology
The Role of Language and Education in Eradicating HIV/AIDS in Africa: Evidence from Parents, Teachers, and Students Foluso O. Okebukola, Hassan H. Adegbite, Tunde Owolabi Public Sensitization as a Tool for Preventing Domestic Violence Against Women in Nsukka Education Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria Oyeoku E. K., Meziobi D., Ezegbe N. B., Obikwelu C. L. FPDR (Family Presence During Resuscitation) as It Is Portrayed on Prime-Time Media Zohar Lederman 253 245 237
Higher Educational Management

Absence Excuses in Freshman College Classes and Solutions Pengfei Song 261
Educational Economics and Management

Construction of Chinese Listed Companies Governance Risk and Its Oversight Mechanisms Shi Hong, Qi Linkai 269
History of Education
Shapers of Their Destiny: A History of the Education of Cuban Children in the United States Since 1959 276 Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr.
US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 April 2013, Vol. 3, No. 4, 213-228
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Secondary School Students Motivation and Achievement in Combined Science

CHOW Shean Jen
DPM Al-Muhtadee Billah College, Brunei Darussalam
Bob Chui Seng YONG

Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei Darussalam
This study investigated students motivation and achievement in combined science. A sample of 324 Year 11 students from eight government secondary schools in Brunei Darussalam participated in the study. Of the sample, 141 were boys and 183 were girls and their average age was 16.4 years. The motivation instrument used was adapted from the science motivation questionnaire (Glynn, Taasoobshirazi, & Brickman, 2009) and consisted of 24 items. Results show that this group of students displayed a moderate level of intrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-determination and self-efficacy and a high level of extrinsic motivation and assessment anxiety in learning-combined science. Results also demonstrate significant differences in motivational orientations towards learning-combined science between boys and girls and between high ability and low ability students. Furthermore, correlation analyses show that there were significant positive associations between students motivational orientations and science achievement. Keywords: achievement, combined science, motivation, secondary students
Introduction
The prominent place given to science in the school curriculum means that every Bruneian child has the opportunity to study science right from the primary to the secondary level of education. Concomitantly, much effort has been expended to enhance the quality of science education in schools. Despite the attention, as many as 75% of students fail to make the grade after completing 8-year-old of schooling to enter into the science stream. Instead, they are placed in the art stream and study combined science as one of the core subjects. A disturbing trend witnessed in recent years is the low percentage of less than 20% of these students who manage to obtain Grades A-C in combined science in the GCE (general certificate of education) ordinary level examination, a public examination for 16+ years old. In 2011, only 0.58% of students obtained Grade A, 5.42% obtained Grade B, and 11.8% obtained Grade C in combined science (Ministry of Education, 2012). This is a cause for concern, since this will not augur well with Bruneis vision of becoming a fully developed nation by 2035. Future progress requires citizens who are scientifically and technologically literate. In recognition of science as the fundamental force behind social and economic development as well as a major contributor to citizenship and public understanding of scientific issues, the country responded by giving
CHOW Shean Jen, M.Ed., Department of Biology, DPM Al-Muhtadee Billah College. Bob Chui Seng YONG, Ph.D., associate professor, Science Education Academic Group, Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Institute of Education, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.
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STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE
more emphasis to science education. The importance of scientific literacy is evident and highlighted in the learning outcome for science which, among others, to enable students,
to reason, think creatively, make logical and responsible decisions and solve problems; and to understand the impact of science on the phenomenal technological changes that have accompanied it and its effects on medicine and to improve the quality of life, on industry and business and on the environment. (The National Education System for the 21st Century, 2008, p. 37)
As one of the researchers has been teaching combined science for more than 10 years, her observations and interactions with this group of students have made her aware of lack of motivation to study combined science as a possible reason for low attainment. This observation underscores the urgent need for such a study to be conducted to find out if indeed students motivation is the main contributing factor for low achievement in combined science. In addition, compelling evidence of the importance of motivation and its association with achievement (Reynolds & Walberg, 1991; Skaalvik & Rankin, 1995; Volet & Jarvela, 2001; Wong & Csiksezentmihalyi, 1991) also adds impetus for such a study to be conducted. The present study used the SMQ (science motivation questionnaire) adapted from Glynn, Taasoobshirazi, and Brickman (2009) as an instrument to measure students motivation. The original questionnaire was first developed by Glynn and Koballa (2006). This instrument was chosen, because it has been widely used by researchers in over 70 countries illustrating its adaptability across cultural contexts. The first aim of the present study was to investigate students motivational orientations towards learning combined science. The second aim of the study was to compare boys and girls motivation to find out if the two groups of students respond differently to different motivational orientations. The third aim of the study was to find out if students who achieve at a low and high level have different motivation. Lastly, the fourth aim was to establish the relationship between motivation and achievement in combined science. The study is, therefore, significant as it provides useful information to teachers and educators in their efforts to improve achievement by fostering students motivation to learn combined science.
Literature Review
Evidence documents motivation as an important determinant predicting students achievement (Beal & Stevens, 2007; Broussard & Garrsion, 2004; Johnson, 1996; Sandra, 2002; E. M. Skaalvik & S. Skaalvik, 2006; Zhu & Leung, 2011). Motivation, like other attitudinal behaviors, encompasses many aspects and one such aspect is motivational orientations. According to Steward, Bachman, and Johnson (2010), motivational orientations act as a driving force that encourages a person to engage in a task. Motivational orientations consist of several constructs and among these are intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-efficacy, self-determination, and assessment anxiety. Intrinsic motivation is an inner force that motivates students to engage in academic activities, because they are interested in learning and they enjoy the learning process as well (Schiefele, 1991). Harter (1978) explained that intrinsic motivation is the true drive in human nature, which drives individuals to search for and to face new challenges. Their abilities are put to the test and they are eager to learn even when there are no external rewards to be won. Students with learning goals of seeking understanding for mastery of science content and skills are said to be intrinsically motivated (Cavallo, Rozman, Blinkenstaff, & Walker, 2003). Csiksezentmihalyi and Nakamura (1989) stated that intrinsically motivated individuals possess the following
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characteristics: They engage in both mental and physical activities holistically, they remain highly focused throughout these activities with clearly defined goals, they are self-critical, they self-reflect on their own actions realistically, and they are usually relaxed and not afraid to fail during learning. A research study done by Stipek (1988) concluded that intrinsically motivated students learn independently and always choose to do challenging tasks. They persevere to complete the tasks they have undertaken. They integrate their knowledge acquired in school with their experiences gained from outside school. They often ask questions to broaden their knowledge and learn regardless of any external push factors or help from teachers, and they take pride in their work and express positive emotions during the learning process. Highly intrinsically motivated students are able to learn new concepts successfully and show better understanding of the subject matter (Stipek, 1988). Unlike intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation drives students to engage in academic tasks for external reasons. Extrinsic motivators include parental expectations, expectations of other trusted role models, earning potential to enrol in a course later and good grades. According to Benabou and Tirole (2003), extrinsic motivation promotes effort and performance with rewards serving as positive reinforcers for the desired behavior. Extrinsic motivation typically produces immediate results and requires less effort in comparison to intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The down side of it is that extrinsic motivators can often distract students from true independent learning. Another problem with extrinsic motivators is that they typically do not work over the long term. Once, the rewards are removed, students lose their motivation (DeLong & Winter, 2002). As extrinsically motivated, students tend to focus on earning higher grades and obtaining rewards, Biehler and Snowman (1990) believed that extrinsic motivational factors can diminish students intrinsic motivation. Such observation has also been reported by Bain (2004) who concluded that extrinsic rewards have negative impacts on intrinsic motivation. In the case of relevance, it has been commonly equated with students interest in a task that they do (Hanrahan, 1998; Matthews, 2004; Osborne & Collins, 2001). Levitt (2001) interpreted relevance as importance, usefulness, or meaningfulness to the needs of the students. Keller (1983) defined relevance as a more personal interpretation, i.e., a students perception of whether the content or instruction satisfied his/her personal needs, personal goals, and/or career goals. When students themselves decide on the topics of interest in school science, relevance takes on a personal meaning when students hearts and minds are captured (Gardner, 1985; Osborne & Collins, 2001; Reiss, 2000). Thus, school science will only engage students in meaningful learning, if the curriculum has personal value and enriches students cultural self-identities. According to Holbrook, Rannikmae, Yager, and De Vreese (2003), students perceive science education as relevant to them through three areas: Firstly, usefulness of science in the society which means they are more interested to learn if the content is related to societal issues; Secondly, students interest towards science learning which means that students are motivated to learn and do the tasks and activities in science; and Lastly, importance of science in the course they are taking which means the science content learnt is meaningful and useful to them. According to Banduras social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is defined as individuals beliefs about their own capabilities in learning and performing tasks at specific levels. Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave (Bandura, 1997). Baldwin, Ebert-May, and Burns (1999) observed that self-efficacy is especially important in learning difficult subjects (such as biology and other sciences) given that students enter courses with varying levels of fear and anxiety. They also stated that self-efficacy becomes more important over the duration of the science course as the content becomes more complex. As the students
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self-efficacy may affect the learning process, choice of science, the amount of effort put into accomplishing science task, and persistence in learning science are some factors that are important in this respect (Kennedy, 1996). Self-efficacy beliefs influence on the choices individuals make and the courses of action they pursue (Pajares, 2001). Students with high self-efficacy are often confident enough to accept challenging tasks. They put in more effort and persist through difficult stages in learning. Goals are set in order to accomplish the tasks given. On the other hand, students of low self-efficacy may avoid the learning task and opportunities to seek for help. It is not surprising that many struggling learners have low self-efficacy in their studies, because they believe that they lack the ability to succeed. Low self-efficacy students tend to avoid challenging courses and give up quickly when difficulties arise (Margolis & McCabe, 2006). Many studies have reported that there is a relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement (Andrew, 1998; Kan & Akbas, 2006; Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Zushou, Pintrich, & Coppola, 2003). Self-determination is the ability of students to choose and control over what and how they want to learn (Reeve, Hamm, & Nix, 2003). An advantage of this approach is that when students are given the freedom to determine their academic tasks, they are more likely to benefit from them (Glynn & Koballa, 2006). Garcia and Pintrich (1996) found that the intrinsic motivation of college biology students increased when the students could select the course readings and term paper topics as well as the due dates for class assignments. Reeve et al. (2003) also concluded that when students believe that they have some degree of control over their learning, such as selecting some of their lab topics, overall motivation is increased. In a study conducted by Black and Deci (2000), results obtained supported the idea that self-determination leads to improvements in student learning. They found that students with a high desire to enroll in the course were significantly correlated with perceived competence, interest/enjoyment of the course, low anxiety, and were more focused on learning whilst those who enrolled due to course requirements were significantly correlated with dropping out of the course. Lavigne, Vallerand, and Miquelon (2007) posited that teachers who support self-determination in students result in a positive impact on students learning toward science and pursuing a career in science. Assessment anxiety and test anxiety are common terms used in educational studies and both terms share the same meaning and are used interchangeably. According to Olatoye and Afuwape (2003) and Hurlock (1972), test anxiety is a psychological state of mind where a student expresses levels of worry, fear, uncertainty, concern, and helplessness before, during, or after a test. These behavioural responses are commonly related to possible negative consequences on a test or some other similar evaluative situations (Zeidner, 1998). Consequences of failing test, unable to finish test or being embarrassed due to low grades are some similar thoughts that run through highly test anxious students minds (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Many studies had found assessment anxiety to be an important predictor of academic achievement (Olatoye, 2009). For example, Thomas and Gadbois (2007) reported that assessment anxiety was a significant predictor of mid-term examination grades. Sgoutas-Emch, Nagel, and Flynn (2007) also reported in their study that the level of perceived preparedness, self-efficacy, previous exposure to course materials and test anxiety significantly predicted students achievement in science. In another aspect, assessment anxiety can also negatively affect achievement and performance (Cassady & Johnson, 2002). As Cowden (2009) observed, students with high anxiety often show low confidence on their ability to cope with academic situations because they do not have the skills to cope, thus, they do not have control or are losing control of what they are doing. On the other hand, a moderate level of anxiety is in fact good as it helps motivate learning as observed by Cassady and Johnson (2002). They further explained that when students are motivated to learn, it may increase their anxiety as they
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have high expectations and thoughts of the consequences of not meeting the expectations. Similarly, it has been reported in another study that the thoughts of failure disappointing the person who motivates them may also increase test anxiety (Olatoye, 2009). Students with high expectations and thoughts of perfection face assessment anxiety as well. They see the first position as so significant that coming in second place is considered as a failure (Oliver, 2006). Gender differences in the motivation to learn science has attracted much attention during the last decade (Eccles & Blumenfield, 1985; Greene & DeBacker, 2004; Greenfield, 1998; Morrell & Lederman, 1998). Evidence accumulated thus far on gender differences in motivation is inconclusive. While many studies (L. H. Anderman & E. M. Anderman, 1999; Ayub, 2010; Lai, Chan, & Wong, 2006; Meece & Holt, 1993) reported that there are gender differences in extrinsic and intrinsic motivation between male and female students, studies by Rusillo and Arias (2004) and Glynn et al. (2009) reported otherwise. In terms of self-efficacy, Britner and Pajeras (2006) found that middle school boys have higher self-efficacy than girls in learning science. This was found to be the case in studies by Cavallo, Potter, and Rozman (2004) and Taasoobshirazi (2007) in which they concluded that college male students had significantly higher self-efficacy compared to female students. In the case of self-determination, Meece and Jones (1996) found boys are more likely than girls to assume control for their own learning and to evaluate different problem solutions while girls tend to show greater avoidance of problem-solving situation, take fewer risks, and request more assistance than boys. While female students believed they had more control over their learning than male students, there were no gender differences in personal relevance in learning science between the two sexes (Glynn et al., 2009). Studies have also found that male students have more confidence and less anxiety than female students in learning science (Glynn et al., 2009). In chemistry, Jegede (2007) and McCarthy and Widanski (2009) observed that female students have more anxiety toward learning chemistry than male students. In physics, Taasoobshirazi (2007) conducted a survey on college students from an introductory level physics course and reported that women had higher assessment anxiety than their male counterparts. Moreover, studies have also shown that motivational orientations are discipline-based depending on the subjects that the students have opted for their studies. Steinkamp and Maehr (1984) found that girls motivational orientations toward biology and chemistry were more positive than boys, whereas boys have more positive orientations toward physical and general science. Girls higher motivational orientations toward biological sciences were also reported by DeBacker and Nelson (2000). Studies which specifically investigated students ability have yielded interesting findings in relation to their motivation. Talib, Wong, Azhar, and Abdullah (2009) conducted an in-depth study on motivation of students with outstanding performance in academics and revealed that good science learning outcomes do not rely on the way teaching is carried out but on many factors which include students ability. Feldhusen and Hoover (1986) identified self-concept and motivation as the most important factors for high ability students academic achievement. Other studies report that high ability students have higher scores than low ability students on academic goals, valuing science, and perceived ability (Debacker & Nelson, 2000) and they have more positive attitudes toward science in terms of interest and career in science than low ability students (Adams, 1996). According to Busato, Prins, Elshout, and Hamaker (2000), intellectual ability and achievement motivation were positively associated with academic success. Other reasons for the high academic success of high ability
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students are their high level of motivation to continue their education (Kozochkina, 2009), their high intellectual ability, verbal ability, attribution of failure to stable factors and mood, academic self-concepts, attainment value, rehearsal, time management, and effort management than low ability students (Lau & Chan, 2001). Also, their high proficiency in English language, more time spent on studying, better test skills, and better skills in selecting the main ideas from spoken and written discourse than low ability students (Stoynoff, 1997).
The Present Study

The main aim of the present study was to investigate students motivation to learn combined science using the science motivation questionnaire adapted from Glynn et al. (2009). This is to find out how motivated students in the art stream are to learn combined science in terms of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-efficacy, self-determination, and assessment anxiety. Another aim of the study is to compare students motivation between boys and girls, and between high ability and low ability students in order to gain additional insight into students motivation to learn combined science. The present study also attempts to establish if there is a causal link between students motivation and achievement. This study will answer the following specific research questions: (1) What are the motivational orientations of Year 11 art stream students towards learning-combined science? (2) Are there any significant differences in motivational orientations between boys and girl in learning-combined science? (3) Are there any significant differences in motivational orientations between high and low ability students in learning-combined science? (4) What are the relationships between Year 11 art stream students motivational orientations and achievement in combined science?
Method
Sample The target population in this study were Year 11 students who were about to sit for their GCE O level examinations in October 2011. Altogether, 324 students were selected from eight government secondary schools in the Brunei-Muara district. Of the sample, there were 141 boys and 183 girls and their average age was 16.44 years. Instrument The first section of the instrument was designed to obtain the demographic profiles of students, such as participants age and gender. The second section contained a questionnaire adapted from Glynn et al. (2009) and it consisted of 30 self-assessment items measured on a 5-point Likert type scale ranging from five for always, four for usually, three for sometimes, and two for rarely to one for never. The 30 items were not grouped into six separate variables but were randomly arranged. The items were categorized into six motivational scales, namely, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-efficacy, self-determination, and assessment anxiety. The description of each scale and an example of the test item are given in. The survey instrument was first pilot tested on 45 Year 11 students studying combined science in a government secondary school in April 2011. This was necessary to establish the suitability of the instrument before it was used for the main study. The Cronbachs coefficient alpha for the 30 items was 0.86. When each
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scale was analyzed, assessment anxiety was found to be low at 0.41. It was decided to remove the item I hate taking science tests to improve the alpha to 0.61. Other motivational scales have one item removed as well to make them consistent with four items each. An example of an item that was removed is I am confident, I will do well on the science labs and projects. As students are seldom given the opportunity to do science labs and project, such an item is considered inappropriate to be included in the study. The reliability (internal consistency) obtained for the 24 items was 0.89 (see Table 1). Table 1 Scales, Descriptions, and Sample Test Items
Scale Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Personal relevance Self-efficacy Self-determination Assessment anxiety Description Extent to which students learn science for its own sake. Extent to which students learn science to meet ends. Sample item I enjoy learning the science.
I like to do better than the other students on the science tests. Extent to which students learn science for its The science I learn relates to my personal relevance to their goals. goals. Extent to which students are confident that they can I am confident, I will do well on the science achieve well in science. tests. Extent to which students believe they have some If I am having trouble learning the science, I control over learning science. try to figure out why. Extent to which students feel tensed over their I am nervous about how I will do on the grading in science. science tests.
In the main study, the 24-item SMQ was administered to the participants in May 2011, before they sat for the mock examination in August-September of that year. The Cronbachs coefficient alpha was 0.92 which is similar to 0.93 obtained by Glynn et al. (2009). The alpha values obtained for the different scales ranged from 0.58 to 0.81 when the individual student was used as the unit of analysis. The 24-item SMQ was, therefore, found to be valid and reliable, and suitable for use in Year 11 combined science classes in Brunei. In this study, the level of students motivation in each scale was calculated by summing the scores of all the four items in each scale. Since there are four items in each scale, the minimum score is 4 and the maximum score is 20. In interpreting the data, students who score from 4 to 9.3 are classified as having a low level of motivation, those who score from 9.4 to 14.7 are classified as having a moderate level of motivation and those who score from 14.8 to 20 are classified as having a high level of motivation for that particular orientation. Students Achievement in Combined Science Students achievement in combined science was determined by the marks obtained in the mock examination in August/September 2011. The marks obtained range from 10% to 84% with a mean of 40%. As many as 72% of the students failed the examination and obtained less than 50%. In terms of gender, girls mean score was 40.89% (SD (standard deviations) = 16.35) and boys score was 38.36% (SD = 16.91). There was, however, no significant gender difference in achievement between the two groups (t-value = -1.33, p = 0.183). Analysis of Data The analyses of data were carried out using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for Windows version 11.0. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. The descriptive statistics used were means, whereas, the inferential statistics used were t-tests for independent samples and Person product moment correlation. All research questions were answered at 0.05 level of confidence using a two-tailed test.
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Results
Students Motivational Orientations Towards Learning-Combined Science Table 2 shows the mean scores for each of the six motivational orientations ranged from 13.35 to 15.60. The mean total motivation score was 14.31 (SD = 3.34), which indicates that students were moderately motivated to learn combined science. However, they displayed a high level of assessment anxiety and extrinsic motivation in rank order (see Table 3). This indicates that students, first and foremost, were very anxious about how they will perform in the science tests. They were evidently worried about not being able to get good grades in science and were nervous about sitting for the science tests. Results also show that this group of students displayed a high level of extrinsic motivation in learning-combined science (see Figure 1). Students considered earning a good grade in combined science is important in helping them to get a good job and in helping them in their career. Table 2 Scale Means and SD for Motivational Orientation Scales
Scales Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Personal relevance Self-determination Self-efficacy Assessment anxiety Average Note. N = 324. Scale mean 14.20 15.36 13.83 13.35 13.52 15.60 14.31 SD 3.29 3.49 3.32 3.19 3.89 2.86 3.34 Rank 3 2 4 6 5 1
20 18 16
High
Scalemeans
14 12 10 8 6 4
Moderate
Low
Scales Figure 1. A line graph showing scale means of the six motivational orientations.
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The mean scores for the other four motivational orientations range from 13.36 to 14.20 (see Table 2) which are at moderate level of motivation (see Figure 1). In terms of intrinsic motivation, the students responded that they did not fully enjoy learning-combined science and they did not find learning science very interesting or challenging for them. In terms of personal relevance, they considered learning-combined science not highly relevant to their personal goals and as having little significance or practical value to them. The moderate level of self-efficacy in learning-combined science suggests that they were not fully confident in mastering scientific skills, in accomplishing the science tasks and in performing well in the science tests. In the case of self-determination, students seem not to take combined science seriously enough and were not putting sufficient effort in it. Table 3 Motivational Orientations of Boys and Girls in Learning-Combined Science
Scales Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Personal relevance Self-determination Self-efficacy Assessment anxiety Boys (N = 141) Mean SD 14.16 3.54 15.13 3.47 13.77 3.44 13.16 3.22 13.87 4.05 14.76 2.87 Girls (N = 183) Mean SD 14.23 3.10 15.54 3.51 13.88 3.24 13.50 3.17 13.25 3.75 16.25 2.69 t-value -0.21 -1.04 -0.31 -0.95 1.44 -4.81 p 0.831 0.300 0.760 0.340 0.151 0.000 ES 0.54
20 18 16
High
Scalemeans
14 12 10 8 6 4
Moderate
Boys Girls
Low
Scales
Figure 2. A line graph showing scale means of the six motivational orientations for boys and girls.
Motivational Orientations of Boys and Girls Gender differences in motivational orientations were analyzed using independent t-tests and the results are presented in Table 3 and Figure 2. As the means indicate, both boys and girls have high levels of extrinsic
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motivation and assessment anxiety, and moderate levels of intrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-determination, and self-efficacy in learning-combined science. Of the six motivational orientations, significant gender differences were observed in assessment anxiety where girls were more anxious than boys (t = -4.81, p < 0.000; ES (effect size) = 0.54). As the ES is within the medium range, this difference is meaningful. In other words, teachers should take this difference into consideration in teaching and learning combined science. No statistically significant gender differences were found in the other five motivational orientations, hence, they were considered comparable between boys and girls. Motivational Orientations of Low and High Ability Students In this study, the top 30% and the bottom 30% of students in the mock examination results were taken and classified as high ability and low ability students respectively. Results in Table 4 and Figure 3 show high ability students have high levels of motivational orientations in all the six scales except for personal relevance which is at the moderate level. Low ability students, on the other hand, have moderate levels in all the six scales except assessment anxiety which is at the high level. Significant differences were found between these two groups of students in all the six motivational orientations. It seems that high ability students were more motivated intrinsically and extrinsically to learn combined science and were more willing to learn combined science for its own sake than low ability students. High ability students also seem to have more control and responsibility over their own learning and a strong belief of having the confidence to do well. Table 4 Motivational Orientations of Low and High Ability Students in Learning-Combined Science
Scales Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Personal relevance Self-determination Self-efficacy Assessment anxiety Low ability (N = 97) Mean SD 12.93 3.29 14.45 3.55 13.11 3.26 12.32 3.12 11.71 3.88 14.91 2.84 High ability (N = 97) Mean SD 15.74 2.88 16.54 2.72 14.92 2.88 14.52 3.04 15.20 3.31 15.73 2.69 t-value -6.12 -4.45 -3.97 -4.81 -6.52 -1.98 p 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.046 ES 0.91 0.67 0.59 0.71 0.97 0.30
In terms of assessment anxiety, the means indicate that both high ability and low ability students were very anxious about their performance in combined science. The ES for the scales ranged from 0.30 to 0.91 which indicate that these differences are of educational importance which teachers should take notice of when they teach combined science. Correlations Between Motivational Orientations and Science Achievement Partial correlation coefficients were calculated to find out the relationships between motivational orientations and achievement in combined science. Results in Table 5 show positive and significant correlations between all the six motivational orientations with achievement and the values obtained ranged from 0.14 (assessment anxiety) to 0.37 (self-efficacy). These are below 0.50 which are considered low (Oosterhof, 1999). The positive and significant relationships, to a certain extent, can be considered meaningful and taken as evidence for possible causal relationships between these variables. This information is useful to teachers in fostering their students motivation in order to impact better teaching and learning of combined science.
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20 18 16
High
Scalemeans
14 12 10 8 6 4
Moderate
Low ability Low Ability High ability High Ability
Low
Scales
Figure 3. A line graph showing scale means of the six motivational orientations for low and high ability students.
Table 5 Correlations Between Motivational Orientations and Achievement in Combined Science

Intrinsic motivation 0.35** 0.000 Extrinsic motivation 0.23** 0.000 Personal relevance 0.21** 0.000 Self- determination Self-efficacy 0.28** 0.00 0.37** 0.000 Assessment anxiety 0.14* 0.001
Achieve Pearson correlation ment Sig. (2-tailed)
Notes. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Discussion
The findings of the study reveal that art stream students were moderately motivated to learn combined science. The results are congruent with those reported by Glynn and Koballa (2006) and Glynn et al. (2009) with non-science majors. The present study also reveals that students have a high level of assessment anxiety and extrinsic motivation and a moderate level of intrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-determination, and self-efficacy. The reason for students high level of assessment anxiety is because they were anxious and nervous at the thought of not being able to get good grades in science tests. Anxiety of this magnitude has been reported to negatively affect students achievement (Cassady & Johnson, 2002), because it undermines their confidence to cope with their tasks (Cowden, 2009). One way teachers can help alleviate students assessment anxiety is by providing them with relevant materials for revision and teaching them the right techniques of tackling science examination questions. Another way is to review science topics that are more likely to cause problems. Such interventions will be more likely to bring improvement to students achievement if teachers can develop their
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confidence and reduce their fear of science assessment. The high level of extrinsic motivation displayed by the students indicates that earning a good grade is important in helping them to get a good job in their career. This observation suggests that it is not the relevance of combined science to their careers per se that is important to them but getting a good grade will increase their chance of meeting the entry requirements to advance to Year 12 or pre-university education, hence, the possibility of better job prospects in the future. Similarly, non-science majors were observed to have the same preoccupation (Glynn et al., 2009) who desired good grades for the purpose of getting a scholarship to enter a graduate school. There are several strategies to enhance achievement among students who are extrinsically oriented. Davis (1993) suggested teachers should give frequent, positive feedback and praises to support students beliefs that they can do well. Another strategy is to assign tasks that are slightly above the students current ability level. As Adams (1998) observed, when the tasks are too difficult and students see them as unattainable, they become anxious and lose interest. When students are able to perform tasks successfully and get good grades, they will be motivated and willing to put more effort into their work (Bainbridge, 2011). There is also the need to raise students intrinsic motivation, personal relevance, self-determination, and self-efficacy to enhance better learning outcomes in combined science. Perhaps, the most important of all, teachers should teach combined science in such a way that it is interesting and enjoyable for students. McKinney (2011) suggested teachers should create a conducive learning environment that is challenging, stimulating and relevant to boost students interest and motivation, for instance, promoting cohesiveness among students using small group cooperative learning strategies. This is a powerful pedagogical tool that enhances students self-efficacy (Raelin, Reisberg, Whitman, & Hamann, 2007), motivation (D. W. Johnson & R. T. Johnson, 1999), and achievement (Kose, Sahin, Ergun, & Gezer, 2010). Teachers should explore and use this strategy to make students more determined and efficacious to learn combined science instead of using the teacher-centered expository approach that is so prevalent among science teachers. Teachers should also attempt to link science concepts to students experiences, so that they can realize the relevance of what they learn to their everyday lives, thus making learning more meaningful and relevant. In terms of gender, a significant difference was found between boys and girls in assessment anxiety while other motivational orientations were comparable between the two groups. Girls were more anxious than boys on assessment and this finding concurred with those studies carried out elsewhere (Ergene, 2011; Glynn et al., 2009; Jegede, 2007; McCarthy & Widanski, 2009). In this study, both boys and girls performed equally poorly in the mock examination and it seems that this affects girls more than the boys. Another important finding discerned from this study is that students motivational orientations seem to vary with ability. High ability students unlike their low ability counterparts exhibited significantly higher level of motivation in all the six dimensions. The findings are significant as they provide insight into the importance of each dimension in impacting students motivation to learn combined science. Teachers should pay attention to these motivational orientations as they are found to have positive relationships with achievement. When teachers are able to foster and increase students motivation to learn combined science, it is likely that many more students will be able to successfully complete their secondary education and advance to higher education. They will form a significant proportion of the future workforce who will help propel the country forward to becoming a fully developed nation by 2035.
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Suggestions for Future Research

The present study is the first of its kind being conducted in Brunei, hence, more research studies need to be conducted in order to gain a better understanding of the relationships between the motivational orientations and students achievement in combined science. It is recommended that a larger sample of students from all the four districts in Brunei should be used to generate more credible results that will provide a clearer picture of the relationships between students motivation and achievement in combined science. The use of triangulation approach, for example, interviews, may yield further information on students motivation to learn combined science. Interviewees should be carefully selected using stratified random sampling to represent a wide range of students ability so that their motivation could be carefully scrutinized. It is also recommended that a longitudinal study should be conducted to measure students motivational orientations over time. The scope of the study should also be widened to include other subject areas, such as mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics, and English language. Another direction for future research is to compare art stream students with science stream students motivation to learn science. Future studies should also consider other assessments as a measure of students achievements. Besides, mock examinations marks, public examination grades, and school-based assessment should be included to present a more accurate record of students ability and achievement. Researchers should also consider employing structural equation modeling to determine the relationships between students motivational orientations and their performance in combined science. This would provide vital information on the variance of the different motivational orientations on students achievement which may be influenced by factors, such as grade level, gender, ethnicity, and subject area.
Conclusion
The present study provides teachers and educators valuable information on students motivation to learn combined science. Understanding of how each of the motivational dimensions influences learning will place teachers and educators in a better position to help and support this group of students who have long been struggling with combined science.
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DA VID
PUBLISHING
Impact of Deprivations in Childhood on the Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in Ghetto Areas in Lagos, Nigeria
Simeon Dosunmu, Rhoda Sowunmi
Lagos State University, Lagos, Nigeria
Pervading the Nigerian polity is the pauperization of the populace. The poverty problem manifests in highly unequal income distribution and differential access to basic necessities of life which have telling effects in ghetto neighborhoods where the signs of poverty are highly visible in all facets of life. This study sought to find the impact of deprivations in childhood on the academic performance of secondary school students in ghetto areas in Lagos, Nigeria. Four hypotheses were postulated for the study. Purposive sampling technique was used to sample 250 students from 42 ghetto secondary schools. The instrument for data collection was a 20-item questionnaire, DFYLCQ (Deprivations in Formative Years and Life Chances Questionnaire). The test and retest scores of the sample were correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the reliability of 0.85 was obtained. Findings show that there is a significant difference between the extent of deprivation experienced in the formative years between ghetto public secondary school students and private secondary school students and there is a significant difference between the extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years when examined among secondary school students whose fathers are of different educational status. Keywords: deprivations, life chances, ghetto areas
Background to the Study

Nigeria today is characterized by: infringement of citizens rights; restrictions on freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion, and movement; official corruption and impunity; and violence, regional and religious violence. Ige (2003) stated that Nigeria has been classified as one of the countries at the critical level of poverty, the living conditions are not different from all other poverty-stricken countries with unemployment, hunger, and deprivation, hence poverty has become constant companions of most Nigerians.
Between 1985 and 2004, inequality in Nigeria worsened from 0.43 to 0.49, placing the country among those with the highest inequality levels in the world. Many studies have shown that despite its vast resources, Nigeria ranks among the most unequal countries in the world. The poverty problem in the country is partly a feature of high inequality which manifests in highly unequal income distribution and differential access to basic infrastructure, education, training, and job opportunities. (UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) HDR (Human Development Report), 2008; 2009)
Simeon Dosunmu, Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University. Rhoda Sowunmi, M.ED., Department of Educational Foundations and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University.
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IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Schaefer (2005) is of the opinion that life chances are positively correlated with ones social situation. Life chances are related to individuals well-being and cover a range of opportunity that people can experience as they become adults in life. The opportunities mean the extent to which an individual have access to important societal resources, such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. Social class affects life chances of individual in a given society. In modern western society, people strive to achieve or obtain the things that are labeled desirable by their culture. The healthier ones economic situation, the higher the status, and the greater ones power, the better the life chances. Ajere (2009) and Azikwe (2008) stated that the family is the basis for transferring power, property, and privilege from one generation to the next. The social class of parents significantly influences childrens socialization experience and degree of protection they receive. Kornblum and Smith (1994; as cited Jargowsky, 1991) commented that, ghetto neighborhood consists of predominantly minority, they tend to have threatening appearances, marked by dilapidated housing, vacant units with broken or boarded-up windows, abandoned and burned out cars, and men hanging out on street corners. Haralambos and Holborn (2004) were of the opinion that deprived area or neighborhood experienced problems, such as high crime rate, poor services, and poor health, frustrated at being deprived of basic life chances, such as decent homes, environment, and schools, all which resulted in loss of hopes for them and especially their children
Poverty in Nigeria: Harbinger of Deprivations in the Formative Years

Poverty refers to the conditions of not having the means to afford basic human needs, such as clean water, nutrition, healthcare, clothing, and shelter. It also means the condition of having very few resources compared to others within a society or country. Atolagbe (2001) opined that poverty refers to the situation when the resources of an individual are not enough to cater for his/her basic necessities of life. The issue of poverty and deprivations in Nigeria cannot be over-flogged. Though poverty is a global phenomenon, Nigeria has been classified as one of the countries at the critical level of poverty. The HDR (2010) revealed that Nigeria is one of the poorest among poor countries of the world. The truth about Nigerian poverty situation is that more than 40% of Nigerians live in extreme poverty spending less than N320 per capital, the poor are not just the rich with less money, but are the poorest of the poor. Households are not only poor but suffer from vast inequality in incomes, assets (including education and health status). For many Nigerians, the quality of life has declined rather than improved since independence. The average-salaried worker cannot earn enough to support a family, because of inflation and rises in food prices and transportation costs. The national minimum wage adopted by the federal government but rejected by most states, falls far short of what is needed to cover housing, food, education, healthcare, and transportation, rural dwellers live in cement or mud houses with thin or thatched roofs and have no running water for the most part. Water and electricity services in the cities are erratic. There is, therefore, much despair throughout Nigeria (Akande, 2009). Although, there is no known measure to show the depth and magnitude of poverty in Nigeria, the signs of poverty are, however, highly visible in all facets of life whether materials or non-material. Many Nigerians cannot even meet the basic necessities of life, while many people continue to fall below poverty level.
Influence of Ghetto Environment on Students Life Chances

In the words of Gordon (2000), Slum-dwellers who make a third of the worlds urban population, live in poverty no better, if not worse than rural people who are the traditional focus of poverty in the developing
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world. For children with low resources and poor environment, the risk factors are similar excuses, such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher levels of teenage pregnancy. Research has found that there is a high risk of educational underachievement for children who are from low-income housing circumstances. These children are at a higher risk than other children for retention in their grade, and even not completing their high school. According to Gidden (2006), individuals are able to secure housing on the basis of their existing projected resources. He explained that neighborhoods vary greatly in terms of safety, environmental conditions and availability of services and public facilities. Disadvantaged individuals and people in low socio-economic class are the ones mostly found residing in ghetto environment. In this deprived communities, high unemployment and menial jobs opportunities abound and this places strong strains on family life. Crime and juvenile delinquencies are prevalent qualities of life in the ghetto.
Research Questions
Research questions are as follows: (1) Do students in ghetto secondary schools suffer more deprivations than their counterparts in private secondary schools in their formative years? (2) Could the extent of deprivations suffered by students in their formative years be strongly linked with the fathers educational status? (3) Is there significant relationship between the mothers educational status and the extent of deprivations experienced by senior secondary school students in the formative years? (4) Could the number of children in the family determine the extent of deprivations in the formative years?
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses shall be tested in this study: Ho1: There is no significant difference in the extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years between students in ghetto public secondary schools and students in ghetto private secondary schools; Ho2: There is no significant difference between the extent of deprivation experienced in the formative years based on the fathers educational status among the public and private ghetto secondary school students; Ho3: There is no significant difference between the extents of deprivations experienced in the formative years when examined among secondary school students whose mothers are of different educational status; Ho4: There is no significant relationship between the extent of deprivation experienced in the formative years and none of the children in the family of the ghetto secondary school students.
Research Methodology
The research is a survey research. The choice of this design is in conformity with the submission of Akuezuilo and Agu (2003), which a survey research is one in which a group of people or items are studied by collecting and analyzing data from only a people or items considered to be representative of the entire group. The survey research is aimed at establishing the correlation between deprivations in formative years on an individuals life chances with a particular reference to ghetto areas in Lagos State, Nigeria. The deprivation in formative years shall be taken as the independent variable while its impact on life chances shall be the dependent variables. According to the data collected from the local education district, the population consisted of 128,000 students in 42 ghetto schools in Lagos State. Purposive sampling technique was used to sample 250
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students from 42 ghetto secondary schools. This selection made adequate provision for fair and equal representation of male and female students. The instrument for data collection was a 20-item questionnaire, titled, DFYLCQ (Deprivations in Formative Years and Life Chances Questionnaire). The questionnaire was given face and content validity by an expert in tests and measurement. The test and retest scores of the sample were correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the reliability of 0.85 was obtained.
Results
Table 1 shows that 79.8% of students in ghetto secondary schools attested to the fact that they were not assisted by their parents in learning at home when they were young while 20.2% disagreed. For those in private secondary schools, 11.5% agreed that they were not assisted while 88.5% said they were assisted by their parents in learning at home when they were young. Table 1 Percentile Analysis of Subjects Responses
S/N Item 1 2 3 4 My parents did not assist me in lesson at home when I was young. My parents never bought many of the books I needed at school. My school uniform always got torn or got old before it was replaced. My parents never came to my school to see my teachers to know how I was doing in school. I was sent out of school often times because my parent could not pay my schools fees. I could not go to private nursery and primary school because my parents could not afford it. My parents could not give me all I needed while I was young, because we are many in the family. I always feel that my parents were not taking good care of me. I was not allowed to express my feelings as a child, I was always being shouted down. My parents rarely took me to the hospital for treatment whenever I feel sick in my early years. I grew up in a crowded neighborhood I used daily hawk goods to assist my parents. I always had my breakfast before I go to school. Fish, egg, meat, and milk were always generously included in my meal. I used to beg my schoolmates and friends to give me food to eat because I was not well fed by my parents. Ghetto secondary schools-public Positive Negative FREQ % FREQ % 75 76 79 3 79.8 79.2 79.8 77.7 19 20 20` 21 20.2 20.8 20.2 22.3 Ghetto secondary schools-private Positive Negative FREQ % FREQ % 11 9 12 11 11.5 9.5 12.4 11.5 85 86 85 85 88.5 90.5 87.6 88.5 Remark
82
82.0
18
18.0
10
10.5
85
89.5
81
81.8
18
18.2
11
11.0
89
89.0
7 8 9
79 76 76
80.6 79.2 80.0
19 20 19
19.4 20.8 20.0
11 11 11
11.0 11.5 11.5
89 85 85
89.0 88.5 88.5
10 11 12 13 14
75 90 89 11 11
79.8 92.8 89.0 11.5 11.5
19 7 11 85 85
20.2 7.2 11.0 88.5 88.5
11 11 11 73 79
11.5 11.5 11.5 79.3 80.6
85 85 85 19 19
88.5 88.5 88.5 20.7 19.4
15
10
10.5
85
89.5
14
14.4
83
85.6
233
This shows that most parents of students in ghetto public secondary schools never assisted their children in home lesson while the parents of students in private secondary schools were always assisting their children in home lesson/learning when they were young. Perhaps, parents of students in public secondary schools will have to work harder for longer hours that by the time they got home, they might have been too tired to render such assistances knowing fully that the next day would come too soon and the routine of hard labor would commence again. And this will definitely make an impact on the academic performance of their children which may in turn impact on the life chances of their children. In addition, majority (79.2%) in the ghetto public secondary schools agreed that their parents never bought many of the books they needed when they were young while 20.8% disagreed. The implication of this is that the largest part of the ghetto senior secondary school students were not provided with many of the books they needed, while the largest part of the private school students had many of the books they needed and this will enhance their academic achievement compared to their counterparts in the ghetto secondary schools. Seventy-nine point eight percent of the ghetto secondary school students ascertained that their uniform always got torn before it was replaced, 20.2% disagreed. While only 12.4% of the private school students gave positive answers while 87.6% disagreed. This revealed that the ghetto secondary schools students suffered material deprivation when they were young and this can inhibit good academic performance. From the findings, 77.7% confirmed that their parents never came to their school to see their teachers to ascertain how they were doing in school; The implications is that majority of the ghetto parents never went to their childrens schools to see how they were doing while larger percentage of the parents of the private secondary school students visited their childrens school to see how they were faring. Also, the socio-economic status or parents determines how punctual students will be at school. The majority, 81.8% of the students from the ghettos secondary school ascertained that they could not go to private nursery and primary school because their parents could not afford it. Few respondents 18.2% gave negative answer compared to the responses of the private secondary school students where 11.0% agreed and 89.0% disagreed. This is in line with the submission of Falodun (2003) who writes that the children from high socio-economic status are privileged to attend school earlier than their age group in less socio-economic status. They type of provisions and assistance, the former, who will give to their children are adequate to help their children to edge out their age groups or classmates who belong to the low socio-economic status and this is the beginning of class formation within the modern society. Bernstein argued that working-class family life fosters the development of restricted codes. In the working-class family, the positions of its members are clear-cut and distinct. Father can simply say shut up to his children because his position of authority is unambiguous. The larger percent of the respondents in the ghetto secondary schools, 79.8% admitted that they were rarely taken to the hospital by their parents whenever they fell sick in their early years while 20.2% disagreed with the assertions. Majority of the students in private secondary schools 88.5% objected to this claim. This corroborates the writings of Goode (1999), Mills (2002) and Best (2005) that the affluent avail themselves of improved health services while such advances by-pass poor people. They may have jobs that do not offer health insurance and may work part-time and not be eligible for employee health benefits or may simply be unable to afford the premiums. Ninety-two point eight percent of the ghettos students claimed that they grew up in crowded neighborhood while a very small percentage 7.2% gave negative answer whereas only 11.5% of the private secondary school students admitted that they grew up in crowded neighborhood and majority of them disagreed with the claim. This implies that most of the students in the ghettos public secondary schools grew up
234
in crowded environment while very few of the private secondary schools grew up in crowded environment while very few of the private secondary schools lived in such neighborhood. Very little number of students in the ghetto public secondary schools 11.5% agreed to the claim that they used to have their breakfast before going to the school while the majority 88.5% disagreed. Whereas the larger number of students in the private secondary schools 79.3% claimed that they used to have their breakfast before going to the school and 20.7% which is a very small percentage disagreed. This implies that most students in the ghetto public secondary schools had actually suffered material and physical deprivations in their formative years compared to their counterparts in the private secondary schools. This will remarkably bring about inequality in the ability and the academic achievement of the students. Eleven point five percent of the respondents in the ghetto public secondary schools ascertained that fish, egg, meat, and milk were always generously included in their meals while the majority 88.5% disagreed with the claim. Meanwhile, majority of the respondents 80.6% in the private secondary schools acknowledged the inclusion of these food items in their meals and 19.4% reacted negatively. This shows that majority of ghetto students are deprived of balanced and nourished meals compared to their counterparts in the private secondary schools. Kaiser and Delaney (1996) submitted that poor children are much more likely to suffer from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infections, and colds. These illnesses could potentially restrict a child or students focus and concentration. Ho1: There is no significant difference between the extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years between students in ghetto public secondary schools and students in private secondary schools. Table 2 Group Statistics Independent t-Test
Item Deprivation in formative years Type of school Public Private N 102 100 Mean 139.3500 57.1300 SD 13.0836 15.6803 T 40.261 df 198 P-value 0.001
Table 2 shows that there is a significant difference between the extent of deprivation, experienced in the formative years between ghetto public secondary school students and private secondary school students (P-value < 0.05). Null hypothesis may be rejected. The students in the ghetto public secondary schools (mean = 139.3500) suffered deprivations in the formative years more than their counterparts in the private secondary school with the (mean = 57.1300). This reveals that the social economic status of parents determines the level of deprivations, educational opportunities, and achievement all of which have great influence on ones life chances. Ho2: There is no significant difference between the extent of deprivation experienced in the formative years based on the fathers educational status among the ghettos secondary school students and private secondary schools (see Tables 3 and 4). Table 3 ANOVA Presentation of Deprivations in the Formative Years
Between groups Within group Total Sum of squares 85,236.060 289,712.3 374,948.4 df 4 194 198 Mean square 21,309.015 1,493.362 F 14.269 P-value 0.001
IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE Table 4 Dependent Variable: Deprivations in the Formative Years LSD
(i)Fathers education qualification No formal education (j)Fathers education qualification Adult education Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education Mean difference (i-j) 0.7917 3.8986 13.3716 47.4389 P-value 0.970 0.826 0.420 0.004
235
There is a significant difference between the extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years when examined among secondary school students whose fathers are of different educational status (P-value < 0.05). Null hypothesis may be rejected from the follow-up test (LSD (least significant difference)). It is revealed that the higher the educational status of the students father, the lower the deprivations suffered by the students in the formative years. The extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years by the students with respect of their fathers educational status is the descending order as follows: No formal education > Adult education > Primary education > Secondary education > Tertiary education (see Table 4). Ho3: There is no significant difference between the extents of deprivations experienced in the formative years when examined among secondary school students whose mothers are of different educational status (see Tables 5 and 6). Table 5 ANOVA Presentation of Deprivations in the Formative Years
Between Groups Within groups Total Sum of squares 14,6421.1 23,2873.4 37,9294.5 df 4 195 199 Mean square 36,605.279 1,194.222 F 30.652 P-value 0.005
Table 6 Multiple Comparisons of Dependent Variable: Deprivations in the Formative Years

(i)Fathers education qualification No formal education (j)Fathers education qualification Mean difference (i-j) Adult education Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education 0.3187 1.8826 10.0631 59.3739 P-value 0.880 0.978 0.342 0.000
There is significant difference between the extents of deprivations experience in the formative years when examined among secondary school students whose mothers are of different educational status (P-value < 0.05). Null hypothesis may be rejected for the follow-up test (LSD), it is revealed that the higher the educational status of the students mothers, the lower the deprivations suffered by the students in the formative years. The extent of deprivations experienced in the formative years by the students with respect of their mothers educational status is the descending order as follows: No formal education > Adult education > Primary education > Secondary education > Tertiary education (see Table 6). There is no significant relationship between the extent of deprivation experienced in the formative years and the number of children in the family of the secondary school students. Table 7 shows that there is a significant relationship between the extents of deprivation
236
experienced/suffered in the formative years and the number of children in the family of senior secondary school students (P-value < 0.05). Null hypothesis may be rejected. The relationship is positive (r = 0.357). This implies that students whose families have greater number of children experienced greater extents of deprivations in the formative years. Table 7 Correlations
Pearson correlation P-value N No. of children 0.357 0.000 0.200
Deprivations in the formative years
Conclusion
Nigeria has endemic poverty statistics. Among the committee of nations, Nigeria has been described as poor. Even on the continent of Africa, using selected world development indicators, Nigeria is poorly ranked. As the research findings suggest, the eradication of poverty and inequality has been a continuing concern in Nigerias governance process and thinking, leading to the implementation of several policies, projects, and programs. These interventions, notwithstanding, the poverty situation in Nigeria is still galloping. As observed, the impacts of these programs and actions have been impaired. Programs designed have obviously failed to halt the problem. These programs have been substantially impaired by corruption, weak administration, and poor inter-sectoral governance systems. As a corrective measure, therefore, the paper recommends that the Nigerian State be reformed to enhance its capacity in the area of poverty alleviation, conducive climate be created for the development of each sector, and inter-sectoral governance system be encouraged. Much is still needed to be done in childcare so that children will not continue to face acute neglect (Blau, 2001).
References
Ajere, O. (2009). Sociology of education: Nigerian perspective. Ilorin, Grace Excellent Publishers. Akande, K. (2009). Standing up against poverty in Nigeria, Oshogbo. Ammado. Retrieved from http://www.ammado./ com/member/109146/articles/1234.retrieved 9/20/2009 Atolagbe, S. A. (2001). Topics in political economy. Agbndg: Tobistic Ventures. Azikwe, U. (2008). Reforms in education and the future of Nigeria: Sociological perspective. Nigerian Journal of Sociology of Education, II(2). Best, S. (2005). Understanding social divisions. London: Sage. Blau, D. (2001). The child care problem. New York: Russell sage foundations Press. Falodun, S. A. (2006). Fundamentals of sociology of education. Lagos. Raytel Communication. Federal Office of Statistic. (1999). Poverty profile for Nigeria 1990-1996. Lagos. Goodwin, B. (2000). Raising achievement of low-performing students. Policy Brief. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www.mirel.org Gordon, E. (2000). Bridging the minority achievement gap. Principal, 79(5), 20-23. WilsonWeb. Haralambos, M., & Holborn, M. (2004). Sociology: Themes and perspective (6th ed.) London: Harper Collins Publishers. Harris, M. (1996). Children in jeopardy: Can we break the cycle of poverty? New Haven: Yale University. Jargowsky, P. A. (2003). The dramatic decline of concentrated living. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institute. Jongyeun, L. (1999). The positive effects of mentoring economically disadvantaged students. Professional School Counselling, 2(3). Kaiser, A., & Delaney, E. (1996). The effects of poverty on parenting young children. Peace Body Journal of Education, July, 2001. Lauver, J. C., & Lauver, H. R. (2000). Social problems and the quality of life. New York MC Graw Hill. Novak, T. (2002). Rich children, poor children. In B. Golden, M. Lavalette, & J. McKechnie (Eds.), Children welfare and the state. London: Sage. Wacquant, L. J. D. (1995). The ghetto, the state and the new capital economy in symbol of our times. Baingstoke, Macmillan.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
The Role of Language and Education in Eradicating HIV/AIDS in Africa: Evidence from Parents, Teachers, and Students
Foluso O. Okebukola, Hassan H. Adegbite, Tunde Owolabi
Lagos State University, Lagos, Nigeria
The study focuses on the eradication and reversal of the spread of HIV/AIDS (human immune virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome) as one of the main thrusts of Africas 21st Century Development Goals. It investigates the significant role which language and education can play in fast tracking the attainment of this goal using a three-pronged approach. First, it assesses parents, teachers, and students awareness of the reality and spread of the epidemic; Second, it evaluates sexuality education as an intervention; and Third, it assesses the use of indigenous languages in the awareness programmes and prevention campaigns. To this end, questionnaires and structured interview were used for data collection. Means, SD (standard deviation), t-test, and analysis of variance statistical tools were employed for data analysis. Implications of findings for curriculum development, prevention, and spread of HIV/AIDS were discussed and recommendations advanced. Keywords: Africas development goals, HIV/AIDS (human immune virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome), language and education
Introduction
The attainment of the MDGs (millennium development goals) has remained atop the global development agenda. In the race to 2015 when the goals are expected to be met, African countries are proceeding at a worryingly slow pace (UNAIDS (United Nation Agency for International Services), 2008). There is no doubt that the goals are meant for the betterment of the future of the respective developing African countries. One of these goals is the need to combat HIV/AIDS (human immune virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome), and reverse its spread. HIV/AIDS is one of the epidemics that continue to ravage the human race. No country in the world is absolutely spread by the scourge of this epidemic. The UNAIDS/WHO (2005) estimated that between 39 and 40 million people around the world were living with HIV/AIDS in December 2004, and every year, there are 25 million new HIV infections leading to about 20 million deaths (Idoko, 2009). Documentary evidence revealed that sub-Saharan African is more heavily affected by HIV/AIDS than any other regions of the world. The AIDS epidemic claims the lives of an estimated 1.5 million Africans yearly and more than 25 million children have been orphaned by AIDS. The prevalence rates vary between African
Foluso O. Okebukola, Ph.D., Department of Language, Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University. Hassan H. Adegbite, M.Ed., Department of language, Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University. Tunde Owolabi, Ph.D., Department of Science and Technology Education, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University.
238
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA
countries, for example in Somalia and Senegal, the HIV prevalence is about 1% of the adult population; in Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe around 15%20% of adults were infected with HIV. Its prevalence exceeds 5% in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Cameroun, and Gabon. The national adult HIV prevalence rate exceeds 20% in Botswana (23.9%), Lesotho (23.2%), and Swaziland (26.1%) (Idoko, 2009). As of January 2006, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS and the WHO (World Health Organization) estimated that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people, making it one of the most destructive pandemics recorded in history (Briggs, 2010). In Nigeria (the reference point in this study), cases of HIV are on the rise every day. Every year, there are 350,000370,000 new HIV infections. Already, around 2.4 million Nigerians are estimated to be living with HIV (Idoko, 2009). This has implications for the nation. Apart from the personal suffering of the victims, the AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa threatens to devastate whole communities, rolling back decades of development progress. At this juncture, it is instructive to delineate HIV/AIDS. AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. It is a medical condition, and people are diagnosed with AIDS when their immune system is too weak to fight off infections. HIV is a virus that gradually attacks immune system cells. As HIV progressively damages these cells, the body becomes very vulnerable to infections which it will have difficulty in fighting off. It is at this point of very advanced HIV infection that a person is said to have AIDS. Thus, AIDS is caused by HIV. Researchers especially medical scientists have made several efforts to find the solution to this dreaded disease, but so far there is no cure for AIDS (UNAIDS, 2006). As the pandemic defies solution, it is expected that people will be scared and take preventive measures. Worryingly, many people show deviance and take risks. The high level of new HIV infections reflects the difficulties that have been faced by prevention campaigns. It appears that efforts made by various governments through relevant agencies-foreign embassies, ministries, religious organizations, and NGOs (non-governmental organizations) have not in any way yielded the desired results. This observation necessities studies to probe into peoples perceptions and levels of awareness and the use of indigenous languages in awareness and prevention campaigns. Moreover, it is believed that schools can play a vital role in reducing the impact of the epidemic, hence, in recent years, a new curriculum has been introduced for comprehensive sexuality education for 1018 years old (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2006), in order to prevent and reduce the spread; since youths aged 1524 have been found to have much higher prevalence rate than adults (FMH (Federal Ministry of Health), 2000). There is the need to evaluate the sexuality education programme in relation to the perceptions of students as the direct recipients, teachers as facilitators and parents as important shareholders in education; towards effectiveness, and realization of objectives. It is on these premises that the present study was conducted to provide answers to the following questions: (1) What is the level of awareness of parents, teachers, and students on the reality and spread of HIV/AIDS? (2) What are the perceptions of parents, teachers, and students on the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum? (3) What are the perceptions of parents, teachers, and students on the use of indigenous languages in HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention campaigns? The following hypotheses were tested at alpha level of 0.05:
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA 239 (1) There is no significant difference in the awareness of parents, teachers, and students on the reality and spread of HIV/AIDS; (2) There is no significant difference in the perceptions of parents, teachers, and students on the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum; (3) There is no significant difference with perceptions of parents, teachers, and students on the use of indigenous languages in HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention campaigns.
Methodology
Research Design The study is a descriptive survey which examines the awareness of parents, teachers, and students of the reality of HIV/AIDS and their perceptions of the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum. Population/Sample All parents, teachers, and students resident in Lagos State constitute the population for the study. The sample used in the study consisted of 20 parents, 20 teachers, and 20 students (whose ages range between 1220), from 10 local education districts in Lagos State. The 20 parents were selected from the communities where the schools were located. The total sample used in the exercise was 60. All selection was made by random sampling. Instrumentation The following instruments were used for data collection: (1) ASQS (Adolescent sexuality questionnaire for students); (2) ASQP (Adult sexuality questionnaire for parents); (3) ASQT (Adult sexuality questionnaire for teachers); (4) Interview guide for students; (5) Interview guide for parents and teachers. ASQS, ASQP, and ASQT designed by the researchers have two sections. Section A contains information on demographic variables, such as age, sex, level of education, and occupation. Section B contains 20 items seeking information on the areas of interest. The items were structured in a modified 4-point Likert format graded as follows: Strongly agree4, Agree3, Disagree2, and Strongly disagree1. The questionnaires were subjected to reliability test using Crombachs alpha. ASQS has a reliability score of 0.71, ASQP 0.68, and ASQT 0.65. They all had a construct validity of 0.77. Interview Guide for Students In order to obtain a complete picture of the students background, life style, sexual behavior, knowledge of sexuality education, perceptions, and attitude towards sexuality education, awareness of the causes of HIV/AIDS, how HIV is transmitted, prevention methods and government intervention efforts, an extended interview was arranged with the 20-sampled students. It took the form of a structured discussion based on issues-listed above and others relating to the questions raised in the study. Reliability was obtained by interviewing sample (n = 10) of students with similar characteristics as the sample of the study. The interview was conducted twice within two weeks between interviews. The responses on the two interview sessions were subjected to test-retest reliability using Pearson procedure. This yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.73.
240
Interview Guide for Parents and Teachers This was designed to find out the teachers and parents views on general issues relating to the status of HIV/ADIS in Nigeria, the meaning of HIV/AIDS, level of awareness of the reality, their views on polygamy and extra marital affairs, use of condom, the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, how HIV is transmitted, prevention methods, frequency of routine and voluntary HIV testing, early marriages, government intervention efforts, sexual behavior, influence of cultural practices, stigma and discrimination cases and use of indigenous languages awareness of programmes. The interview was conducted twice within two weeks between interviews. The responses on the two interview sessions were subjected to retest reliability using Pearson moment correlation coefficient. This yielded 0.76. All the interview guides were validated by two social health workers and two teachers of health education. Procedure With the cooperation of the management of the sampled schools, the respondents were given the questionnaire to fill independently. Sampled parents were well-informed and guided to respond independently. The interview sessions were conducted on individual basis after each respondent had filled the questionnaire. Data Analysis Data collected were statistically analyzed using percentages, means, SD (standard deviation), t-test, and analysis of variance. Means and SD were calculated on the scores of the respondents to determine the level of their awareness of the reality of HIV/AIDS and the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum while t-test and F-ratio were computed for the purpose of testing the two hypotheses of study. Table 1 Shows the Means and SD Scores on the Awareness of Parents, Teachers, and Students Awareness of the Reality and Spread of HIV/AIDS
Subject Parents Teachers Students N 20 20 20 X 1.90 5.20 3.30 SD 0.308 1.508 0.657
Table 1 reveals that teachers are mostly aware of the reality of HIV/AIDS with a mean score of 5.20 from the obtainable score of 10. They are followed by students (3.30) and parents are least aware of the reality of HIV/AIDS (1.90). Table 2 Shows the Mean and SD Scores of the Perception of Parents, Teachers, and Students on the Inclusion of Sexuality Education in the School Curriculum
Subject Parents Teachers Students N 20 20 20 X 7.40 6.45 6.80 SD 1.821 1.099 1.881
From Table 2, it is revealed that parents are most favorably disposed towards the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS (mean7.40 out of obtainable score of 10). They are followed by students (6.80) and teachers (6.45).
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA 241 From Table 3, it is revealed that teachers perceptions of the use of indigenous languages in HIV/AIDS awareness and prevention campaigns are highest (1.23) followed by parents (1.15) and students (1.02) out of obtainable score of 10. Table 3 Shows the Mean Scores of the Perceptions of Parents, Teachers, and Students on the Use of Indigenous Languages in HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention Campaigns
Subject Parents Teachers Students N 2.0 2.0 2.0 X 1.15 1.23 1.02 SD 0.65 0.22 0.98
Table 4 Shows ANOVA Comparing Parents, Teachers, and Students Awareness of the Reality and Spread of HIV/AIDS
a Between groups Within groups Total SS 9.233 102.950 112.183 df 2 57 59 ms 4.617 1.806 0.657 F 2.556 p 0.086
The analysis of variance from Table 4 indicates that F-value is 2.556 and significant at 0.086. This means that there is a significant difference in the awareness of parents, teachers, and students on the reality of HIV/AIDS. Hypothesis 1 is, therefore, rejected. Table 5 shows comparison of the perception of parents, teachers, and students on the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum for the purpose of testing hypothesis 2. Table 5 ANOVA Comparing Respondents Perception on the Inclusion of Sexuality Education in the School Curriculum
a Between groups Within groups Total SS 9.235 102.950 112.183 df 2 57 59 ms 4.617 1.806 F 2.556 p 0.046
The analysis of variance from Table 5 indicates that F-value of 2.556 is significant at 0.046. Hypothesis 2 is, hereby, rejected. Table 6 ANOVA Comparing Parents, Teachers, and Students Perceptions on the Use of Indigenous Languages in HIV/AIDS Awareness and Prevention Campaigns
a Between groups Within groups Total SS 89.400 23.870 df 1 2 ms 4.470 4.470 F-ratio 0.079 p 0.780
The analysis of variance from Table 6 indicates that F-value of 0.079 is not significant at 0.780. Hypothesis 2 is, hereby, not rejected.
242
Discussion of Results
This study investigated the level of awareness of parents, teachers, and students on the reality and spread of HIV/AIDS their perceptions on the use of indigenous languages in campaigns, and their perceptions of the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum as an intervention. The findings of the study revealed that parents, teachers, and students are aware of the reality of HIV/AIDS in varying degrees with teachers topping the list (mean = 5.20) followed by students (mean = 3.30) while parents are least aware. The high awareness exhibited by teachers could be attributed to their level of education which permits access to HIV/AIDS public awareness programmes and exposure to sexual health and education through books; whereas majority of the parents are illiterates. All respondents rate the use of indigenous languages in awareness programmes and prevention campaigns very low, parents (mean = 1.11), teachers (mean = 1.23), and students (mean = 1.02). It is worthy of note that billboard poster on encouraging sexual abstinence (the best prevention for the spread of HIV/AIDS) are written in English or pidgin. For example, the billboard poster on which Femi Kuti (the son of Fela Kuti, the famous Afrobeat musician who died of AIDS in 1997) appears has the slogan AIDS: No dey show for face which means you cannot tell someone has AIDS by looking at them. Another poster reads Sex is worth waiting for, zip up! Moreover, media campaigns to raise awareness of HIV like the one created by the society for family health and future dreams, a radio serial broadcast aired on 42 radio channels was broadcast in only nine out of the over 400,000 Nigerian languages. In 2005, a campaign was launched in Nigeria in a bid to raise more public awareness of HIV/AIDS. This campaign sent text messages with information about HIV/AIDS to owners of mobile phones in English language. The implication of this is that over 33% of the populace is left behind in the campaigns against the spread of HIV/AIDS with Nigerias literacy rate put at 67% (FME (Federal Ministry of Education), 2008). The higher level of awareness of students in comparison to parents may be due to the recent inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum. There is no doubt that awareness will translate to prevention. Earlier studies (Fabiyi, 1999; Igbanugo, 1999; Fayombo, 2005) found that sexuality education is effective in preventing HIV/AIDS among teenagers. The findings of the study also revealed that parents are most favorably disposed towards the inclusion of sexuality education in the school curriculum to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS (mean = 7.40) followed by students (6.80) and closely followed by teachers (6.45). This is an indication that with adequate awareness and information, parents and students are likely to take prevention measures against the disease. The significant differences recorded in the awareness of parents, teachers, and students are pointers to the necessity of adopting different methods to cater for the peculiar needs of each group. For example, since the inclusion of sexuality education has been found to help schooling teenagers, it goes to show that school dropouts and illiterate parents will benefit from adult education inclusive of sexuality education. The results also imply that programmes aimed at improving knowledge and attitudes to sexual health and reducing sexual risk-taking behaviors will benefit parents and teachers. The result of the structured interview reveals that majority of the respondents lack voluntary and routine HIV testing parents (90%), teachers (80%), and students (95%). This is in consonance with a survey by UNAIDS/WHO (2005) in which just 6% of women and 14% of men had ever been tested for HIV and received results. It is worthy of note that in 2006 president Obasanjo publicly received HIV testing and counseling on
THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA 243 world AIDS day in order to promote the services and information available to people in Nigeria. He stated on the day, A great majority of Nigerians have now come to accept the reality of AIDS (FHM, 2006). However, this study has shown that the presidents example has not scaled up HIV testing rates. The interview also revealed that majority of the respondents were not aware that HIV/AIDS can be transmitted through blood transfusion, whereas it has been reported that blood transfusions account for up to 10% of new HIV infection in Nigeria (UNAIDS/WHO, 2005). Majority of the respondents interviewed, above 70% in each category viewed early marriage as a factor responsible for the spread of HIV/AIDS, because early marriage affects young girls who lack the power to insist upon the use of condom during sex. Coupled with the high probability that the husband will be significantly older than the girl, and therefore, is more likely to have had more sexual partners in the past. Seventy percent of the respondents have not benefited from governments supply of condoms. This is in agreement with the report that the total number of condoms provided by the international donors has been relatively low. One report by UNAIDS/WHO (2005) showed that between 2000 and 2005, the average number of condoms distributed in Nigeria by donors was 5.9 per man per year. A study in 2002 by UNAIDS/WHO revealed that 75% of health service facilities that had been visited did not have any condom or contraceptive supplies. A probe into the sexual behavior of teachers and parents and the use of condom reveal that 80% are aware of the benefit of the use of condom for prevention, none of the respondents is aware of the existence of female condoms.
Conclusions and Recommendations

This study like many others before it (Fabiyi, 1991; Igbanugo, 1999; Fayombo, 2005) has confirmed the reality of the prevalence of HIV/ADIS in Nigeria. Although the Nigerian government in collaboration with international donors have being responding to the increasing rates of HIV transmission through media campaigns and public awareness, antiretroviral treatment programme and supply of condoms, and the inclusion of sexuality education in the secondary school curriculum, the actual difference they have made in reducing the number of new HIV infections is very difficult to measure. This study suggests that the prevailing high rates of HIV in Nigeria can be attributed to the fact that the message of the campaigns is not getting through to many people and that the few receiving information are not acting on it. Overall a massive expansion in prevention efforts is needed. The major components of successful HIV prevention programmes should be intensified. Since 80% of HIV infections in Nigeria are transmitted through heterosexual sex, public campaigns should be transmitted in as many Nigerian languages as possible. Since condoms play a key role in preventing HIV infection, government should increase the supply of condom to health service centers especially female condoms. The female condom can potentially help in reducing the spread of HIV, as it does not rely upon the willingness of the man to use condom himself. The Nigerian government should scale up HIV testing rates in order to bring the epidemic under control. Consulting and testing centers should be made available and affordable through improved healthcare system. Since sexuality education has proved effective in curbing indiscriminate sex among school children, it should be incorporated into adult education programmes which should be improved upon and popularized through the media in many Nigerian languages With the large amounts of money being donated from international funds and governments commitment
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to increasing prevention measures and treatment access, there is room for optimism that the target of providing universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care, and support by 2010 can be achieved barring political instability, corruption, and a mismanaged economy.
References
Briggs, M. D. (2010) Poor health as an index of human insecurity in Africa. In O. Obasanjo, A. Mabogunje, & P. Okebujkola (Eds.), Human security in Africa: Perspectives on education, health and agriculture (pp. 263-277). Centre for Human Security Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Fabiyi, A. K. (1999). Combating the AIDS scourge in Nigeria: The new millennium approach. Nigerian School Health Journal, 1&2, 10-17. Family and Health International. (2006). Nigerias president leads by example, goes for HIV consulting and testing. Fayombo, A. C. (2005). Preventing HIV/AIDS among the Nigerian adolescents through sexuality education. Educational Perspective, 8(1), 114-131. Federal Ministry of Education. (2008). Statistic of education in Nigeria 1999-2005. Abuja, FME. Federal Ministry of Health. (2000). Population and the quality of life in Nigeria resources for awareness of population in development. Abuja, FMH. Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2006). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDA Press. Idoko, J. (2009). 850,000 Nigerians need anti-retroviral drugs. The Punch Newspaper, August 26. Igbanugo, V. C. (1999). Human sexuality education for Nigeria: An overview Nigerian school health. Journal of Health Education, 1&2, 4-9. UNAIDS. (2008). Report on the global AIDS epidemic. UNAIDS/WHO. (2005). AIDS epidemic update. UNAIDS/WHO. (2006). Report on the global AIDS epidemic Chapter 3: Progress in countries.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Public Sensitization as a Tool for Preventing Domestic Violence Against Women in Nsukka Education Zone, Enugu State, Nigeria
Oyeoku E. K., Meziobi D., Ezegbe N. B., Obikwelu C. L.
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
The main purpose of the study was to evolve modalities for preventing domestic violence against women in Nsukka education zone. Three research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. The sample comprised 150 urban women and 450 rural women in Nsukka education zone. A 20-item questionnaire was developed, validated, and administered to these respondents. The result indicated that the measures for preventing violence against women in Nsukka education zone included among other things, the use of police, dialogue, the use of mass media, advocacy through traditional leaders, seminars, and workshops. The researchers recommended that seminars and workshops should be organized to educate members of the public on the dangers of violence against women, government should employ stringent measures against people who perpetrate violence against women, and girl-child education should be made compulsory to equip her socially and economically to enable her to become aware and exercise her rights as a good citizen of the society. Keyword: violence against women, domestic violence, women, girl-child
Introduction
Violence is an intensive or furious destructive action against a person. According to Merrian-Webster (2008), violence is exertion of physical force so as to injure or abuse a person. The WHO (World Health Organization) (2009) defined violence against women as any act of gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. In the same vein, Nwagbara (2010) stated that violence against women is any act that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women including threats of such acts as coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether in public or private life. Therefore, violence against women is a term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Violence against women cuts across race, religion, income, class, and culture in both urban and rural areas. It is deeply embedded in all cultures so much, so that millions of women consider it as a way of life (WHO, 2009). The 1993 Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women noted that this violence could be
Oyeoku E. K., Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Meziobi D., Ph.D., Department of Social Sciences Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Ezegbe N. B., Ph.D., Department of Social Sciences Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Obikwelu C. L., M.Ed., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
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A TOOL FOR PREVENTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
perpetrated by assailants of either family members and even the community itself. Violence affects the lives of millions of women worldwide. UNICEF (United Nations Childrens Fund) Nigeria (1998) noted that any violence meted out to women has a direct effect on their health. For instance, roughly 60 million women who should have been alive die as a result of a spectrum of violence that includes sex selection before and after birth. Violence against women takes many forms. Some of the horrific examples of violence against women in the world today in both urban and rural areas are: sex selective abortion, sexual assault, child marriage, incest, wife battery, forced prostitution, verbal abuse, marital rape, rape, sexual harassment, female genital mutilation, child abuse, dowry-related violence, trafficking of women and girl-child for prostitution and child labor, sexual violence during wars, femicide honor killing, forced sterilization, pornography, acid throwing, physical and emotional abuse, intimidation, finance abuse, domestic violence among others (WHO, 2009). The church and mosque also preach against these as noted by Elechi and Ogbondah (2005). The focus of this study is on domestic violence. Domestic violence which is also referred to as violence in intimacy or family violence, can be simply defined as the use and/or abuse of power and authority by force or show of force, with the intent of inflicting not only physical or psychological pain, but also humiliation and degradation in the family (Gender Action, 1997). The general attitude and common belief of people in Igboland is that the family, regardless of type (nuclear or extended) is the haven of love, security, safety, and tranquillity. In Nigeria (urban and rural centres), it is the primary institution through which every individual is socialized. Everyone is first considered as a member of a family before being recognized as a member of any group or society in general. In this respect, the family can be considered to be societys contractors, whose contract is to prepare the younger and newer members of society for future assumption of adult roles and responsibilitiesboys to grow up to be men like their fathers and girls to be women like their mothers (Hansson, 1991). The author further noted that although the family is a place where there is love and care, but a lot of oppression, violence, and exploitation still occur. The victims are often women. One only needs to work with or talk to battered women, to shatter the image of the family as a haven in a heartless world for in reality it is one of the least safe places for women and children. Some forms of domestic violence include the following: intimate murders, acid bath, incest, widow abuse, child abuse, dowry death, emotional and verbal abuses, marital rape, battering among others which some police powers are trying to stop (Amadi, 2000). Domestic violence is a widespread phenomenon. Studies from around the world show that 10% to over 69% of women reported being hit or otherwise physical harmed by an intimate male at some point in their lives (United Nations Fund for Population Activities, 2005). This paper, therefore, hopes to find out womens perception of public sensitization as a tool for preventing domestic violence in urban and rural areas in Nsukka education zone. Violence against women is embedded in most cultures. Data from South America and China give further evidence that wife battery is wide spread and is associated with depression and suicide (Bergman & Brismar, 1991). According to Amadi (2000), 60% of women in Bagladesh and Sri Lanka, 37% in India, 80% in Pakistan, and 50% in Afghanistan live with daily abuse by their intimate partners within their own homes. When a woman receives a serious physical harm, she is unable to cope with her daily activities, and in the case of death, she leaves the children motherless and thereby exposing them to the trauma of being looked after by step-mothers. In addition, physical and sexual abuse by a partner is closely associated with injuries. Violence
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by an intimate partner is the leading cause of non-fatal injuries to women in the USA (WHO, 2009). Death from violence includes honor killings (by families for cultural reasons); suicide, female infanticide (murder of infant girls); and maternal death form unsafe abortion (WHO, 2009). Violence against women is associated with sexually transmitted infection, such as HIV/AIDs, unintended pregnancies, gynecological problems, induced abortions and adverse pregnancy low birth weight and fatal death. Violence and abuse increase the risk of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep difficulties, eating disorders, and emotional distress. Abuse can result in many health problems, including headache, back-pain, abdominal pain, gastro-intestinal disorder, limited mobility, and poor overall health. According to Abama and Kwaja (2009), the social and economic costs of violence against women are enormous and have ripple effects throughout Nigeria. Women may suffer isolation, inability to work, loss of wages, lack of participation in regular activities, and limited ability to care for themselves and their children. Violence against women has been shown to have serious effects on their health and social life, however, many women do not report such cases of abuse. The reasons for this vary. Finally, there is this general lack of awareness by women that domestic violence should not be accepted as a norm; rather it is a crime that should not be condoned. In order to buttress the above view, D. E. Antai and J. B. Antai (2008) asserted that in Africa, rural women have been reported to be conservative and are described as the bedrock of socio-cultural values of traditional societies.
The Statement of the Problem

Violence against women has serious effects on their health and social life. However, many urban and rural women do not report such cases of abuse. The reasons for this vary. For instance, Abama and Kwaja (2009) reported in his recent findings that in most Nigerian customs, it is believed that a submissive wife should not be seen or heard reporting her husband and most acts of violence directed against her by her partner is blamed on her. Women are not aware that domestic violence should not be accepted as a norm, rather it is a crime that should not be condoned. African women in rural and urban areas have been seen as conservative and described as the bedrock of socio-cultural values of traditional societies. In Nigeria, in both urban and rural areas, the perception of women about domestic violence has not been fully studied. There is then the need to bring to the front burner institutional mechanisms that sensitize women on the dangers of not reporting domestic violence and ways to prevent them. This is what the study set out to do.
The Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of the study is to find out if women in urban and rural areas are aware of institutional mechanisms that can be used in sensitizing women about the danger of not reporting domestic violence and to evolve modalities for preventing domestic violence against women in Nsukka education zone. The study also hopes to make suggestions on what could be done to prevent women from undergoing domestic violence.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to guide this study: (1) What are the perceptions of urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone about domestic violence?
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(2) What are the institutional mechanisms that sensitize women on the dangers for not reporting domestic violence? (3) In what ways can domestic violence be prevented?
Hypotheses
The null hypotheses are as follows: Ho 1 (Hypothesis one): There is no significant difference between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women on the available institutional mechanisms that provide support to women who suffer violence; Ho 2 (Hypothesis two): There is no significant difference between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women on ways domestic violence can be prevented in Nsukka education zone.
Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The population consisted of all the urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone. The population of women in Nsukka education zone according to 2006 Population Census is 160,392. Purposive sampling was used to select a typical urban town and a typical rural town. Stratified random sampling technique was adopted in selecting the women that were involved in the study. The stratification of the sample was based on the variables of urban and rural women. Thus, 150 urban and 450 rural women were selected for the study. A questionnaire titled SPVAW (Strategies for Preventing Violence Against Women) was designed by the researchers. It consisted of two sections A and B. Section A sought information on the respondents personal data (like age, last birthday, level of education, and location) while Section B contained 20 items in three clusters A, B, and C. A 4-rating scale of Strongly agree (four points), Agree (three points), Disagree (two points), and Strongly disagree (one point) was provided to assist the respondents in making their responses to the questionnaire. The questionnaire was face validated by three experts in the sociology of education and two experts in measurement and evaluation in the Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. The observations of the experts formed the basis for the modification of items of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered to 20 women in Enugu town. The Cronbachs alpha was used to test the internal consistency of the items of the questionnaire. The alpha yielded values of 0.670.71 and 0.68 for the three clusters. The entire cluster put together was 0.69. The index of reliability confirmed that the instrument was reliable for the study. The researcher and eight research assistants administered copies of the questionnaire to the respondents. Data were analyzed using means score for research questions. The t-test statistic was used in testing the two hypotheses for the study.
Results
The results of the study were presented in tables based on research questions. Table 1 presents the means ratings of urban and rural women on their perception of domestic violence against women in Nsukka education zone. Looking at Table 1, we can see that items 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are rated 3.55, 3.33, 2.95, 3.00, and 3.48 by urban women while rural women rated these same items 3.47, 3.20, 2.88, 3.10, and 3.39, respectively. These mean scores are above the criterion mean of 2.50. SD (Standard deviation)
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which ranges from 0.63 to 0.91, indicates that the responses of the respondents are close to the mean. It is, therefore, the opinion of the urban and rural women that there is maltreatment and humiliation against women, pure discrimination and stigmatization against the female folk and that violence is perpetrated against women because people feel they are the weaker sex. Table 1 Mean Ratings of Urban and Rural Women on Their Perception of Domestic Violence
S/N 1 2 3 4 5 Perception of urban and rural women
X
Domestic violence is maltreatment against the female folk Humiliation against women Pure discrimination against the female folk Stigmatization against women Violence is perpetrated against women because people feel they are the weaker sex
3.55 3.33 2.95 3.00 3.48
Urban women SD DEC 0.63 A 0.80 A 0.91 A 0.57 A 0.69 A
3.47 3.20 2.88 3.10 3.39
Rural women SD DEC 0.71 A 0.86 A 0.79 A 0.85 A 0.81 A
Table 2 Mean Ratings of Urban and Rural Women in Nsukka Education Zone on Available Institutional Mechanisms That Provide Support for Women Who Suffer Violence
S/N 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Responses of institutional mechanisms of domestic violence
X
Their brothers Their parents The church/mosque Their spouse relatives Their traditional rulers Their councilors Go to lawyer
3.11 3.33 3.66 3.11 3.10 3.48 3.30
Urban women SD DEC 0.69 A 0.80 A 0.56 A 0.69 A 0.69 A 0.69 A 0.77 A
3.22 3.25 3.57 3.22 3.06 3.39 3.25
Rural women SD DEC 0.73 A 0.80 A 0.60 A 0.73 A 0.83 A 0.81 A 0.80 A
Table 2 presents the mean ratings of the urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone on available institutional mechanisms that provide support for women who suffer violence. Looking at the Table 2, we can observe that items 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 are rated 3.11, 3.33, 3.66, 3.11, 3.10, 3.48, and 3.30 by urban women while the rural women rated the same items 3.22, 3.25, 3.57, 3.22, 3.06, 3.39, and 3.25, respectively. These mean scores are above the criterion of 2.50. SD which ranges from 0.56 to 0.80 indicates that the responses of the respondents are close to the mean. It is, thus, the opinions of both the urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone that the available institutional mechanisms that provide support for women who suffer violence include: their brothers, parents, relations, the church/mosque, spouse relatives, traditional rulers, councilors, and lawyers. Table 3 presents the mean ratings of urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone on ways domestic violence can be prevented. Looking at Table 3, we can see that items 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 are rated 2.33, 2.77, 3.66, 3.77, 3.05, 3.66, and 3.10 by urban women while rural women rated these same items 2.41, 2.66, 3.57, 3.66, 3.11, 3.57, and 3.06, respectively. These mean scores are above the criterion mean of 2.50. SD which ranges from 0.50 to 1.03, indicates that the responses of the respondents are close to the mean. It is, therefore, the opinions of the urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone that the measures that should be taken to prevent domestic violence against women include: police, dialogue, use of media, seminars
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and workshops, advocacy through traditional leaders and forcing women to go to school. Table 3 Mean Ratings of Urban and Rural Women in Nsukka Education Zone on Ways Domestic Violence Can Be Prevented
S/N 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Prevention of domestic violence
X
Use of womens brothers Use of thugs Use of police Dialogue Use of the media (newspapers, radio, and TV jingles) Seminars and workshops Advocacy through traditional leaders Forcing women to go to school
2.41 2.33 2.77 3.66 3.77 3.05 3.66 3.10 24.68
Urban women SD DEC 0.97 D 1.01 D 0.87 A 0.69 A 0.50 A 0.76 A 0.55 A 0.69 A
2.37 2.41 2.66 3.57 3.66 3.11 3.57 3.06 25.41
Rural women SD DEC 1.03 D 0.79 D 0.78 A 0.72 A 0.61 A 0.85 A 0.60 A 0.83 A
Hypothesis One There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women on the available institutional mechanisms that provide support to women who suffer violence. To test the above null hypothesis, a t-test analysis of the difference between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women was computed and the result is shown on Table 4. Table 4 Summary of t-Test Table for the Analysis of the Difference Between Mean Opinion Scores of Urban and Rural Women
Group Urban women Rural women N 150 450
X
SD 0.61 0.57
df 598
Prob. level 0.05
t-Cal -1.75
3.53 3.63
Table of crit. Decision Ho1 is 1.96 accepted
Looking at Table 4, we can see that the calculated t-value is -1.75 at 598 degrees of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Since this calculated value of -1.75 is less than the table value of 1.96, the first null hypothesis of the study is accepted. That is, there is no significant difference between the opinions of urban and rural women on the available institutional mechanisms that provide support to women who suffer violence. Hypothesis Two There is no significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women on ways domestic violence can be prevented in Nsukka education zone. To test the above null hypothesis, a test analysis of the difference between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women was computed and the result is shown in Table 5. Looking at Table 5, we can see that the calculated t-value is 1.11 at 598 degrees of freedom < 0.05 level of significance. Since this calculated value of 1.11 is less than the critical (see Table 5) value of 1.96, the second null hypothesis of the study is accepted. That is, there is, therefore, no significant difference between the mean opinion scores of urban and rural women on the strategies for preventing violence among women in Nsukka education zone.
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Table 5 Summary of t-Test Table for the Analysis of the Difference Between Mean Opinion Scores of Urban and Rural Women
Group N Urban 150 women Rural women 450
X
SD 0.59 0.63
df 598
Prob. level 0.05
3.31 3.29
Cal t value Table of crit. Decision Ho2 1.11 1.96 accepted
is
Discussion
Urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone agreed that there is maltreatment, discrimination, and humiliation against them and that violence is perpetrated against them, because people feel they are the weaker sex. This finding is in line with the statement of Goldthorpe (1985) who pointed out that there is maltreatment, discrimination, and humiliation against women in African societies. Since the majority of women agreed that maltreatment, discrimination, and humiliation exist, then, policy makers should focus more sensitization programmes on the men who perpetrate these acts. Both groups of respondents also agreed that the available institutional mechanisms that provide support for women who suffer violence include brothers, parents, spouse relations, the church, traditional rulers, councilors, and lawyers. This finding is understandable given the fact that brothers, sister, parents, and spouse relations are the immediate members of every family who provides support and protection to women. The church/mosque inculcates good morals in the adherences and discipline erring members. According to Elechi and Ogbondah (2006, p. 107), the church/mosque preach against evil vices, such as stealing, dishonesty, disobedience, robbery, drug, abuse, and violence against human beings. Although the women agreed that these supports are available, there may be need for further studies to find out to what extent women make use of these available supports. Urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone reported that the available institutional mechanisms that provide support for women who suffer violence in Nsukka zone include traditional rulers, councilors, lawyers, and the use of police. Amadi (2000) stated that part of police powers in Nigeria is the support they give to women who are maltreated and humiliated by their spouses, relations, and the public. However, one wonders how effective these mechanisms are because stories abound of women who were denied hearing by traditional rulers, councilors, and police because of the belief that domestic violence is a family matter. It was the opinions of urban and rural women in Nsukka education zone that the measures that should be taken to prevent domestic violence against women include the use of police, dialogue, the use of the media, schooling, and advocacy through traditional rulers, seminars, and workshops. This finding is in line with the recommendations of Amadi (2000) in his work on police powers in Nigeria. Amadi stated that the use of the Nigerian police, advocacy through traditional rulers and the mass media are measures that could be taken to prevent domestic violence against women. In most societies, traditional rulers command a lot of respect and are bound to be heard if they speak up against some of the ill-treatment being meted out on women. Educational Implications of the Findings The findings of this study have a lot of implications for educationalists. This is because findings have shown that the respondents are of the view public sensitization is very important in preventing domestic violence. Therefore, it may be in the interest of women if the Ministry of Education includes the bad effects of domestic violence in our school curriculum, so that awareness will be created among the general populace.
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Also, the Ministry of Information can through public sensitization create awareness among the general populace on the dangers of domestic violence not just on the women but on the family as a whole.
Conclusions and Recommendations

Since violence against women is a social problem that cuts across race, religion, education, class, and culture any approach designed to combat violence must be twofold, addressing the root causes of the problem and treating its manifestation. Society at large, including judges, police officers must be educated to change the attitudes and beliefs that encourage violence against women: (1) Seminars and workshops should be organized to educate members of the public on the dangers of violence against women; (2) Government should employ stringent measures against people who perpetrate violence against women; (3) Girl-child education should be made compulsory to equip her socially and economically to enable her to become aware and exercise her rights as a good citizen of the society.
References
Abama, E., & Kwaja, M. A. (2009). Violence against women in Nigeria. How the millennium development goals addresses the challenge. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 3(3), 23-24. Amadi, G. O. S. (2000). Police in Nigeria. Nsukka: Afro-Orbis Publications. Antai, D. E., & Antai, J. B. (2008). Attitude of women towards intimate partner. Rural and Remote Health, 8, 996. Retrieved March 14, 2010, from http://www.rrh.org.au Bergman, B., & Brismar, B. (1991). Suicide attempt to battered wife. Acts psychiatric Sandinavia, 8, 380-384 Elechi, G. E., & Ogbondah, F. (2005). Sociological foundations of education. Port Harcourt: Harey Publications. Gender Action. (1997). Violence against women: Boundary. Issue of Human Right, 4, 111-120. Goldhorpe, J. E. (1985). An introduction to sociology. London: Cambridge University Press. Hansson, D. (1991). Working against violence against women: Recommendations from rape crisis Cape Town. In S. Bazilli (Ed.), Put women on the agenda (p. 182). Johanessburg: Raven Press. Heasman, K. (1976). The study of society. London: George Allen and Unwin. Merrian-Webster. (2008). Websters all-in-one dictionary and thesaurus. Springfield, M. A.: Federal Street Press. UNICEF Nigeria. (1988). Gender and development awareness and sensitization in Nigeria. Enugu: Afro-Orbis Publications Limited. United Nations Fund for Population Activities. (2005). Violence against women fact sheet. State of World Population. United Nations General Assembly. (1993). Declaration on the elimination of violence against women. 85th Plenary meeting, Vienna, Austria. WHO (World Health Organization). (2009). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
FPDR (Family Presence During Resuscitation) as It Is Portrayed on Prime-Time Media

Zohar Lederman
Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
FPDR (Family presence during resuscitation) remains a highly contentious issue among professional caregivers in the acute setting. The American Heart Association and European guidelines notwithstanding, only a few American and European hospitals have a protocol to allow family presence, and only a few healthcare providers actually follow these guidelines and allow families to be present during their loved ones CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation). In this article, the following thesis is tested: Even though there is no scientific evidence to refute the benefit of family presence, healthcare providers still instinctively oppose it. While the origin of this opposition is yet to be revealed, the media, which is a powerful vector for the transmission of knowledge and cultural attitudes, may be an important factor that influences or perpetuates medical staffs attitudes. More specifically, medical dramas, which can be viewed on TV (television) or by Internet, play a major role in the transmission of medical information, and may modify the social perceptions and cultural influential power of the medical institution. Thus, by analyzing the way family presence during CPR is portrayed on TV, we can further understand the factors that influence the attitudes of healthcare staff towards the issue, and perhaps use TV to modify them in accordance with scientific evidence and formal guidelines. Keywords: CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), family presence, TV (television)
Introduction
The first episode of the third season of Heroes begins when Peter Petrelli is excluded from the hospital room where his brother, Nathan Petrelli, is undergoing CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation). The doctor who prevents him from staying does not even reply to the question Is he going to make it? and closes the doors to the room without a word. The background music expresses urgency. In the next scene, Peter watches helplessly as the disappointed doctor comes out of the room and utters I am sorry. For the purpose of this article, the following definitions will be used: CPR in the mediaAny situation in which chest compressions or emergency intubations were performed on a patient, a patient was said to be having an arrest or be crashing, an unconscious patient was treated for a life-threatening arrhythmia, or a physician declares a patient dead. FPDR (Family presence during resuscitation)Presence of any family member (blood related or not), friend, spouse, or anyone who shares some form of intimate relationship with the patient. Guidelines recommending the allowance of families to be present during CPR were published in the United States as early as 1994 (Richard & Cummins, 2000; American heart association guidelines for
Zohar Lederman, M.D., visiting scholar, Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics, Yale University.
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FPDR AS IT IS PORTRAYED ON PRIME-TIME MEDIA
cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care: Ethical aspects of CPR and ECC, 2000; Emergency Nurses Association Position Statement, 1994). Currently, both European and American guidelines recommend allowing FPDR (Fulbrook, Albarran, de Graaf, Lynch, Decivtor, & Norekval, 2007; Morrison et al., 2010; Resuscitation Council, 1996). However, it appears that those guidelines are not being widely supported and/or implemented by healthcare professionals around the world, particularly physicians. The literature also suggests that less experienced physicians are less likely to be in favor of FPDR (McClenathan, Torrington, & Uyehara, 2002; Halm, 2005; Critchell, & Marik, 2007; Duran, Oman, Abel, Koziel, & Szymanski, 2007; Zakaria & Siddique, 2008; Badir, 2010; Sheng, Lim, & Rashidi, 2010; Wacht, Dopelt, Snir, & Davidovitch, 2010). The objection to FPDR may stem from: concern for the family experiencing a traumatic event, concern for the privacy and care of patients, increased lawsuits against healthcare staff, lack of physical space at the bedside, or concern for professional staff that might experience performance anxiety or be subjected to acts of violence by the family (Halm, 2005; Boehm, 2008; Wacht, 2008). In fact, in 2003, only 5% of 984 nurses who participated in a survey worked in critical care/emergency units that had protocols allowing FPDR (MacLean, Guzzetta, White, Fontaine, Eichhorn, Meyers, & Dsy, 2003). A few questions remain: Why do healthcare professionals oppose FPDR even though the scientific literature (Belanger & Reed, 1997; Robinson, Mackenzie-Ross, Campbell Hewson, Egleston, & Prevost, 1998; Mason, 2003; Nibert, 2005; Dana et al., 2007) and guidelines invalidate their opposition? How do healthcare professionals form these misconceptions? This article does not presume to answer these questions to the fullest, but rather seeks to discuss one factor which seems to play a major role in the perpetuation of some of these misconceptions; TV (television) may influence the attitudes of laypeople as well as medical professionals towards FPDR. Medical dramas have long been considered as a major vector of medical information which shapes and contributes to the social appearance and cultural influence of the medical institution (Turow, 2010). As early as 1996, Diem, Lantos, and Tulsky (1996a) suggested that the false portrayal of CPR on TV may cause the public to have an unrealistic notion of success rates of CPR, and hence, give a false sense of hope. Other observational studies that examined different TV shows, both American and foreign, have demonstrated that the success rates of CPR were in fact realistic but suggested other concerns, such as the psychological qualitative (rather than quantitative) effects of dramatic CPR scenes (Van den Bulck & Damiaans, 2004), unrealistic reasons for CPR and type of population undergoing resuscitation (Market & Saklayen 1996; Gordon, Williamson, & Lawler, 1998) and failure to depict long-term effects rather than short-term ones (Harris & Willoughby, 2009). Moreover, many have discussed the specific effects that medical dramas have on medical students, causing more students to pick a specific residency (Eliot & Wallack, 1996) or shaping their medical conduct in general (Oconnor, 1998). One study calls to change the way in which the healthcare system is depicted in medical dramas, for fear that viewers might have false expectations of their healthcare providers (Turow, 1996). Another study congratulates the script writers of House for their realistic depiction of chronic-pain management (Theivendran, 2007). Even Baer, a physician and co-producer of ER, who, in reply to Diem et al. (1996a) warned against blaming TV rather than the physicians themselves, still affirms that TV affects viewers knowledge, at least to some extent (Baer, 1996).
Method
The entire first season of House: M.D. (22 episodes) and Greys Anatomy (9 episodes) were viewed and
255
analyzed. Also, 16 episodes of Medic were viewed and analyzed. Medic is the first hit prime-time medical drama aired in the US between 19541956 while House (2004present) and Greys Anatomy (2005present) are among the most popular prime-time medical dramas to date (Turow, 2010). One reviewer identified CPR cases according to the definition-stated above and for each case recorded seven criteria: name, age and sex of patient, cause of CPR, underlying illness, location of CPR, and details of family presence. A second observer who is an academic reviewed five episodes of House in order to increase content validity. All cases were reviewed as a second time by the main reviewer to increase content validity as well. CPRs in the OR (operating room) were excluded, assuming that family could not be present.
Results
House MD-14 CPRs were recorded, of which one was performed in a pre-hospital setting. In four out of the total CPRs, there is no family at the bedside. In one of these cases, the family member (Business Agent) appears right after intubation and complains that it was done despite a DNR (do not resuscitate) order. In four cases, family members are excluded, either by escorting them out of the room or by shutting the blinds. In six cases, family members are present, one of which occurred in a pre-hospital setting. In one case out of these six cases, family (other nuns) is not present in the room but allowed to watch from outside with open blinds. Family is never invited to be present during CPR. In none of the six cases where family is present, it is accompanied by a member of the staff (see Table 1). Table 1 Summary of Findings
CPR Episode Name Rebecca ADLER Age Sex Cause Seizure Underlying illness at the Location time of CPR Unknown Hospital Details of family presence None Parents are watching from outside and seem confused/frightened after the physician shuts the blinds Parents are present and are not excluded Family members wait outside. Blinds get shut Other nuns are present and House does not exclude them Other nuns watch from outside Mom is in the room, asked to move aside by the physician but is not excluded Parents are escorted out
House 1 Pilot
Young adult F
House 2
Occams razor
Brandon
16
Ventricular tachycardia during Unknown heart catheterization Seizure Infection Unknown Unknown
Hospital-clean room
House 3 Maternity House 4 Maternity
Hartig ChenLupino
Neonate Neonate
F F
Hospital Hospital-clean room
House 5
Damned if you do Damned if you do
Sister Adult Augustine Sister Adult Augustine Matt Adolescent
Tachycardia Anaphylactic reaction Bradycardia
Unknown
Hospital Hospital-clean room Hospital
House 6
Unknown
House 7 Poison
Unknown
House 8 Poison
Chi
Adolescent
Unknown
Unknown
Hospital
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(Table 1 continued) House 9 DNR John Henry Old M Iatrogenic ALS? Hospital Agent comes in after intubation and resent CPR despite of DNR order Parents are in the room, father doubts the physicians while the mother calms him down (let them do their job) None Other students are present Husband is escorted out None Rabbi and daughter are present None None None
House 10
Cursed
Gabe Reilich
12
Laryngospasm
Anthrax?
Hospital
House 11 House 12 House 13 House 14 Medic 1 Greys 1 Greys 2 Greys 3 Greys 4 Greys 5
Control Carly Heavy Babies and Bath water Three stories General practitione r A hard days night The first cut is the deepest The first cut is the deepest The first cut is the deepest The first cut is the deepest Winning a battle, losing the war No mans land Jessica Naomi Unknown
Young 10 Young adult Middle age
F F F M M F F M
Respiratory arrest during Unknown angiography Myocardial Unknown infarction Pulmonary embolism Allergic reaction to antivenom Unknown Seizure Rape Asystole Small cell carcinoma Snake bite Strokes Epilepsy Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown
Hospital School Hospital Hospital Home Hospital Hospital Hospital Hospital Hospital
Unknown Old Katie Bryce Allison Young adult Young adult
Unknown 57
Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Kevin Middle Davidson age Liz 55
None None Wife comes in while patient is in a coma after CPR None Husband is asked to leave by the physician (get him out of here) but does not Wife is present during the collapse but is escorted out during CPR None None None
Greys 6 Greys 7
M F
Trauma Pancreatic cancer
Bike race Pancreatic cancer
Hospital Hospital
Shake your Greys 8 groove on If tomorrow Greys 9 never comes The Greys self-destru 10 ct button Greys Save me 11 Whos Greys zoomin 12 who
Mrs. Old Patterson
Post-coronary Unknown artery bypass graft Post-chest Thromboembolism tube placement Septic shock Unknown Complication of paracentesis A tattoo Unknown Hepatic failure
Hospital
Jimmie Harper Digby Owens
Late M middle age Young adult M F M
Hospital
Hospital Hospital Hospital
Unknown Young Mr. Franklin Old
FPDR AS IT IS PORTRAYED ON PRIME-TIME MEDIA Greys Anatomy
257
Twelve CPRs were recorded (two CPRs which took place in the OR were not considered). In 10 cases, there are no family members at the bedside during CPR. In one case, the family member (wife) is present but escorted out of the room. In one case, the family member is asked by the physician to leave the room, but does not comply. Family is never invited to be present during CPR. In the one case in which one family member is present (husband), there is no staff member to accompany him. Medic 1 CPR was recorded, in which the physician comes to the patients home and declares him dead, with no intervention. The patients daughter is sitting at the bedside, a Rabbi is present as well.
Discussion
Two conclusions can be drawn from the results: First, current prime-time medical dramas do not portray the option of FPDR as recommended by current guidelines. However, these medical dramas are realistic insofar as they present a negative stance towards FPDR, which is the prevailing medical practice worldwide (McClenathan et. al., 2002; MacLean et al., 2003; Halm, 2005; Duran et al., 2007; Badir, 2010; Sheng et al., 2010; Wacht et al., 2010). In both dramas, no family members were ever invited to be present during CPR. On Greys Anatomy, in one case, family members were asked to leave the room during CPR. In all other 10 cases of CPR, no family members were present. FPDR is only allowed in one out of 12 CPRs, and only due to the family members insistence. In House, family members were present in six out of 14 CPRs, and were not present in four other cases. In four cases, the family was excluded. In those five in-hospital CPRs where family was present in the room or allowed to watch from outside, there was no staff member to support them, as recommended by current guidelines (Fulbrook et al., 2007; Morrison et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier, in one case, the family member (Business Agent) enters the room after an emergency intubation is performed on a patient who signed a DNR order. The agent is clearly upset; Second, albeit anecdotal at most due to low statistical power (N = 1), is that CPR in Medic is portrayed in a very different manner than those in House and Greys Anatomy: The patient lies in his bed, in his home, with his daughter and a Rabbi who pray while the patient is dying. Once he dies, the physician does not attempt any heroic measures, but simply covers the patients face with a blanket, and turns immediately to console the daughter, affirming that they have discussed the issue before, and that it was bound to happen. The grieving process of the family begins in the same room where death was announced, and at the same time, together with the body of the loved one, the physician and a supporting figure (in this case, a Rabbi). The background music is quiet and soothing, unlike the hectic music that appears in most of the CPRs that occur in the more modern shows (this, however, could not have been quantified objectively). Drawing from these two conclusions, we could assume that the effects these modern medical dramas could have on patients, their families, and medical professionals, especially those with less real-life experience, like medical students and residents. Family members are rarely present, and if they are, they are escorted out of the room in a dramatic manner: Music is hectic, blinds are shut, and the stressed physician uses a strong language, e.g., get him out of here. The DNR case in House further emphasizes this pointThe family member realizes that the physician did not do what he was supposed to do during the loved ones CPR, and as a consequence, the latter is liable to be sued. The viewer might conclude that family members are either not present at all at the bedside or that they are (and ought to be) excluded from their loved ones CPR by escorting them out of the
258
room and/or by shutting the blinds. Moreover, the viewer might wrongly deduce that FPDR would increase the risk of a legal liability and that family members might lose their calm and interfere with patients care (see Gabe Reilich case in House, where the father publicly and vocally doubts and threatens the physicians). Again, it is imperative to note that none of these fears of FPDR has been substantiated in the literature. Two more general points should be noted: First, 16 episodes of Medic depict only one case of CPR, while the current medical dramas depict many more; and Second, in Medic, the dying takes place at home and no intervention is made by the physician, while in the current medical dramas, the dying who usually happens inside the hospital and rigorous CPR is performed. It seems reasonable to assume that this modern over medicalization of death and dying originates both from advancements in technology, and to a larger extent, a change in the modern cultural notion of death and medicines role in coping with it (Nuland, 1993; Shapiro, Curnen, & Wandel Howard, 1996; Timmermans, 1998, 1999; Ross 2003; Gupta, 2009).
Study Limitations
The study limitations are as follows: (1) While appreciating the advantages of CPR as portrayed in Medic, it is imperative to note that chest compressions were only developed around 1960 and mouth-to-mouth ventilation was still not standard of care. However, other methods were used (Timmermans, 1999; 2000; Nibert 2005); (2) As mentioned, any study of N = 1 has clearly no statistical power, and therefore, could only have anecdotal value. In this particular case, the patient who died had three strokes in eight months, and it is possible that if the situation were to appear in the more modern shows, no heroic measures would be taken as well; (3) Similar to the argument presented by Baer (1996), there is no evidence that the way FPDR is depicted in prime-time TV actually affects either the publics or healthcare professionals attitudes towards the issue, so no real causal correlation could be established at the moment.
Conclusions
Patients and less experienced healthcare professionals have a few sources from which to learn about FPDR. Even though a causal correlation between FPDR on TV and its effects on FPDR in real life could probably never be established, it is likely to be an influencing agent. Script writers should be aware of this, and perhaps consider modifying the manner in which they portray FPDR. Laypersons perceptions of FPDR and CPR in general might also be affected by TV, as might be inferred from Grice, Picton, and Deakin (2003). However, above all, the author join to Baer (1996) and Diem et al. (1996b) by arguing that physicians and other healthcare professionals bear a great responsibility in countering the inaccurate images portrayed on TV and to educate patients, their families and themselves about the risks (or lack thereof) and benefits of FPDR. This responsibility is three-folded: First, those healthcare professionals who provide consult to script writers should push toward a more accurate depiction of FPDR; Second, healthcare professionals ought to offer the option of FPDR and make sure that family members are well-informed and know what to expect, regardless of their decision; and Third, healthcare professionals should educate their colleagues, particularly the less experienced ones, about the benefits of FPDR and refer them to current guidelines. After discussing an ER scene in which Dr. Kerry Weaver dramatically excludes a patients mother from the resuscitation of her son, Ellen Tsai (2002) argued that,
Art imitates life. Our traditional practice during resuscitation procedures is to exclude family members, keeping them
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out of the room until we have ceased our efforts. Why do physicians and nurses continue to deny family member the option of staying with patients while they are dying, even though the results of numerous studies favor the familys presence? It is time for us to stop hiding behind unfounded fears.
The author concurs, and would add that occasionally, it is life that imitates art.
References
American heart association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care: Ethical aspects of CPR and ECC (2000). Circulation, 102, 12-21. Badir, A. D. S. (2010). Family presence during CPR: A study of the experiences and opinions of Turkish critical care nurses. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 44, 83-92. Baer, N. A. (1996). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation on television: Exaggerations and accusations (Ed.). The New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 1604-1605. Belanger, M. A., & Reed, S. (1997). A rural community hospitals experience with family-witnessed resuscitation. Journal of Emergency Nursing, 23, 238-239. Boehm, J. (2008). Family presence during resuscitation. CODECOMMUNICATIONS, 3. Retrieved March 2012, from http://www. zoll.com/CodeCommunicationsNewsletter/ccnl05_08/CCNL05_08.htm Critchell, C. D., & Marik, P. E. (2007). Should family members be present during cardiopulmonary resuscitation? A review of the literature. American Journal of Hospice and Palliative Medicine, 24(4), 311-317. Cummins, R. O., & Hazinski, M. F. (2000). The most important changes in the international ECC and CPR guidelines. Circulation, 102, 371-376. Diem, S. J., Lantos, J. D., & Tulsky, J. A. (1996a). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation on television: Miracles and misinformation. The New England Journal of Medicine, 335(21), 1578-1582. Diem, S. J., Lantos, J. D., & Tulsky, J. A. (1996b). CorrespondenceCardiopulmonary resuscitation on television. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(21), 1607. Duran, C. R., Oman, K. S., Abel, J. J., Koziel, V. M., & Szymanski, D. (2007). Attitudes toward and beliefs about family presence: A survey of healthcare providers, patients families, and patients. American Journal of Critical Care, 16, 270-279. Eliot, M., & Wallack, G. J. B. (1996). CorrespondenceCardiopulmonary resuscitation on television. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(21). Emergency Nurses Association Position Statement. (1994). Family presence at the bedside during invasive procedures and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Fulbrook, P. J. L., Albarran, J., de Graaf, W., Lynch, F., Decivtor, D., & Norekval, T. (2007). The presence of family members during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: European federation of Critical Care Nursing Association, European Society of Pediatrics and Neonatal Intensive Care and European Society of Cardiology Council on Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions Joint Statement. The World of Critical Care Nursing, 5(4), 86-88. Gordon, P. N., Williamson, S., & Lawler, P. G. (1998). As seen on TV: Observational study of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in British television medical drama. BMJ, 317, 780-783. Grice, A. S., Picton P., & Deakin, C. D. S. (2003). Study examining attitude of staff, patients and relatives to witnessed resuscitation in adult intensive care units. British Journal of Anesthesia, 820(4), 820-824. Gupta, S. (2009). Cheating deathThe doctors and medical miracles that are saving lives against all odds. New York: Grand Central Life & Style. Halm, M. H. (2005). Family presence during resuscitation: A critical review of the literature. American Journal of Critical Care, 14, 494-511. Harris, D., & Willoughby, H. (2009). Resuscitation on television: Realistic or ridiculous? A quantitative observational analysis of the portrayal of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in television medical drama. Resuscitation, 80, 1275-1279. MacLean, S. L., Guzzetta, C. E., White, C., Fontaine, D., Eichhorn, D. J., Meyers, T. A., & Dsy, P. (2003). Family presence during cardiopulmonary resuscitation and invasive procedures: Practices of critical care and emergency nurses. American Journal of Critical Care, 12, 246-257. Market, R. J., & Saklayen, M. G. (1996). CorrespondenceCardiopulmonary resuscitation on television. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(21). Mason, D. (2003). Family presence: Evidence versus tradition. American Journal of Critical Care, 12(3), 190-193.
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McClenathan, B. M., Torrington, K. G., & Uyehara, C. F. (2002). Family member presence during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A survey of US and international critical care professionals. Chest, 122, 2204-2211. Morrison, L. J., Kierzek, G., Diekema, D. S., Sayre, M. R., Silvers, S. M., Idris, A. H., & Mancini, M. E. (2010). Ethics: American Heart Association Guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation, 122, 665-675. Nibert, A. T. (2005). Teaching clinical ethics using a case study: Family presence during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Critical Care Nurse, 25, 38-44. Nuland, S. (1993). How we die (2nd ed., Vintage Books). New York: A division of Random House, Inc.. Oconnor, M. M. (1998). The role of the television drama ER in medical student life: Entertainment or socialization. JAMA, 280(9). Resuscitation Council. (1996). Should relatives witness resuscitation? A report from a Project Team of the Resuscitation Council (UK). UK: London. Robinson, S. M., Mackenzie-Ross, S., Campbell Hewson, G. L., Egleston, C. V., & Prevost, A. T. (1998). Prevost, psychological effect of witnessed resuscitation on bereaved relatives. Lancet, 352, 614-617. Ross, E. K. (2003). On death and dying (1st ed.). New York, N. Y.: Scribner. Shapiro, H., Curnen, M. L., & Wandel Howard, M. (Eds.). (1996). Facing death. New Haven: Yale University Press. Sheng, C. K., Lim, C. K., & Rashidi, A. (2010). A multi-center study on the attitudes of Malasian emergency health care staff towards allowing family presence during resuscitation of adult patients. International Journal of Emergency Medicine, 3, 287-291. Turow, J. (1996). Television entertainment and the US health-care debate. Lancet, 347, 1240-1243. Turow, J. (2010). Playing doctor: Television, storytelling, and medical power (2nd ed.). Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. Theivendran, J. (2007). House MD: An analysis of chronic pain managed with opiate therapy in entertainment television. London: Imperial College Medical School. Timmermans, S. (1998). Resuscitation technology on the emergency department: Towards a dignified death. Sociology of Health and Illness, 20(2), 144-167. Timmermans, S. (1999). Sudden death and the myth of CPR (1st ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press Timmermans, S. (2000). Introduction to the international guidelines 2000 for CPR and ECC: A consensus of science (2000). Circulation, 102, 1-11. Tsai, E. (2002). Should family members be present during cardiopulmonary resuscitation? New England Journal of Medicine, 346(13), 1019-1021. Van den Bulck, J., & Damiaans, K. (2004). Cardiopulmonary resuscitation on Flemish television: Challenges to the television effects hypothesis. Emergency Medicine Journal, 21, 565-567. Wacht, O. (2008). The attitudes of the emergency department staff toward family presence during resuscitation. Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva. Wacht, O., Dopelt, K., Snir, Y., & Davidovitch, N. (2010). Attitudes of emergency department staff toward family presence during resuscitation. IMAJ, 12, 366-370. Zakaria, M., & Siddique, M. (2008). Presence of Family Members during cardio-pulmonary resuscitation after necessary amendments. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 58, 632-635.
D
Pengfei Song
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Absence Excuses in Freshman College Classes and Solutions*
St. Johns University, New York, USA
Class attendance is directly tied to student learning and student-faculty satisfaction. Although learning style and attitudes have evolved in college students of the internet generation, the reasons why students skip classes and assignments, and measures to improve the situation have not been comprehensively studied. Increased numbers of students who commute and work part-time, and rogue internet companies that promote dishonesty have added another layer of complexity to classroom attendance. This manuscript analyzes the causes of unsatisfactory attendance and various categories of excuses that students self-revealed as most efficacious based on a survey of 100 college freshmen. Sickness, technology, family, transportation, advisor meeting, part-time job, school activity, and others are on the made-up excuse list in the order of popularity. Solutions to counteract each of these fake excuses are proposed. These measures to improve attendance can potentially increase retention rate of college freshmen, enhance learning, and prepare students to a successful college experience. Keywords: Internet generation, freshman, attendance, excuses, commuting
Introduction
I got into an incident. Glass and hot water were thrown in my face on Friday night. I suffered cuts and burns on my face. I have to stay here on Monday to set up all the legal things that have to do with the situation, which means I have to leave on Tuesday morning and I would be back on time. I will bring back a note from the police department and hospital documents to the next class.
Above is from an email of a former student who showed up in the authors next class on Wednesday with perfectly suntanned smooth face and no documentation supporting her excuse. When asked, she shrugged her shoulder, said the accident was no big deal, she was feeling good and she had misplaced the notes. The past year was the authors first time teaching non-major freshmen science classes. Although already warned by senior colleagues, the author was still unprepared to see the large number of students missing classes and mediocre excuses like the one above. At the end of the spring semester, the author conducted an anonymous opinion survey from 100 students and collected the following data for analysis. Students were asked to vote for the most effective absence excuses that either they themselves have used or know someone who used it in their classes. They were also asked to explain the reason why those excuses were effective. The collected information prompted the author to think about what faculty members could do to improve the attendance situation, which is known directly linked to student performance and student/professor satisfaction (Marburger, 2006; Cred, Roch, & Kieszczynka, 2010). This article discusses the type of excuses that students in our classrooms commonly use, why they perceive them effective, and what faculty members can do to improve
* Acknowledgements: The author is grateful to Dr. Alison Hyslop and Dr. Maura Flannery of St. Johns University for critically review the manuscript. Pengfei Song, Ph.D., assistant professor, Institute for Core Studies, St. Johns University.
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ABSENCE EXCUSES IN FRESHMAN COLLEGE CLASSES AND SOLUTIONS
attendance and enhance learning.
Why Do Students Skip Classes

According to an unofficial small-sized survey, an average student at the authors institution misses 20-25% of all their classes, but still feels confident to pass the course. Three out of 10 students would skip class regularly for non-legitimate reasons. While it is easy to understand that such students would make up excuses and lie to their professor so as to avoid penalty on their GPA (grade point average), what drives them to skip lectures at the first place seems to have evolved from earlier student generations (Devadoss & Foltz, 1996). Based on the reasons that students self-revealed in the survey, the situations that cause them to miss classes and/or deadlines for assignments can be grouped to the following categories. Part-Time Jobs At the authors institution, a large number of students hold part-time jobs, mostly in the service industry, such as cashier, waiter/waitress, stocking associate, and food delivery driver. These students use the income to pay for their tuitions and are well aware of their disadvantage compared to those others whose parents would pay for the tuition. In general, these students consider their part-time jobs more important than class attendance. Many have fears that their employers would fire them for failing to show up on a job shift. When situations arise, student workers would choose to skip classes for job reasons (e.g., covering the shift of a sick coworker). This is particularly encouraging when attendance is not rewarded in any tangible means. Commuting It is estimated that 82% of students from the authors institution commute to school and many travel for longer than one hour in each direction. These students tend to choose to stay at home unless attendance is absolutely required. Bad weather, unreliable public transportation schedule and automobile problems are often found to blame by students who failed to show up in the classroom. Concurring Assignments Many students at the authors institution enroll in 15 to 18 credits per semester, equaling to five to six courses. It is not surprising that professors from different classes may have tests or assignments due on the same day. For these students, especially when they are freshmen and are still acclimating to college teaching, there is simply not enough time to stay on top of every subject. Many students confessed that when they are falling behind a class, they may choose to skip a class to work on the missed assignment. When they return to classroom again, however, they would find themselves more left behind. Attitude For those of us who teach core curricula, improvement on students motivation has always been a challenge. When students do not find a direct connection of the course material to other required classes or their future professions, they would less likely engage. This attitude, often contagious, can lead to apathy of the course content and test grades. Students would easily skip these classes that they consider less important when there is a schedule conflict. Quality of Teaching Although this was not mentioned by students who responded to the survey, the quality of teaching is traditionally recognized as a key factor for classroom attendance and student performance (Uhari, Renko, &
ABSENCE EXCUSES IN FRESHMAN COLLEGE CLASSES AND SOLUTIONS Soini, 2003), therefore, also listed here.
263
Popular Excuses From the Students

More than a decade ago, Segal (2000) summarized that college students might present five broad categories of reasons when they were absent from a class or late to turn in an assignment. These include the family, the best friend, the evils of dorm life, the evils of technology, and the totally bizarre. This survey showed that majority of these excuses remains popular, while a few new categories rise to the top of the list. Sickness (30%) There is no doubt that most excuses we hear from students are sickness related, be it stomach flu, menstrual cramps, mononucleosis, car accident, dental appointment, or dislocated joints. Students believe this is the most effective excuse for the following reasons: (1) Professors can relate to being sick, and may be sympathetic. Students recognize that specific reasons would be more convincing and the really clever ones would follow up after first notice to the professor. For example, I was sun-burnt in the weekend, and sitting in the classroom chair is painful; Sorry to be so graphic but I am having diarrhea and at the same time I vomit, and then, in a follow-up email on the day of the next class, I am still sick unfortunately. I cannot eat food because it runs right through me; I recently re-fractured my ankle. I have to keep an air cast on it at all times the pain med(ication)s knock me out and I cannot have direct contact with the flashing lights on the computer Not to mention all the physical therapy appointments; and in a follow-up email, I awoke this morning and my whole right ankle is swollen. I am off to the ER (emergency room) but will have the all work-emailed tonight. It is difficult to tell whether students were really sick or not, but one could tell when the student shows up cheerfully and frolicking in the class the next day totally forgetting about the broken knee cap; (2) Students like to use sickness as excuses, since they know some illnesses which are hard to disprove and many self-resolve after plenty of rest (e.g., menstrual cramps and stomach flu). In such cases, students do not have to see a doctor, however, the illness could still possibly make them incapable of doing certain academic activities. Unfortunately, most viral diseases are contagious and can self-resolve after rest. Smart students would say I missed the class because I did not want to give my germ to others, or My sickness (or medication) makes me dizzy. I would not be able to pay any attention even if I was in your lecture; and (3) Finally, students also revealed that professors hardly question them when they lied to have a doctors appointment or ask for a note when sickness was said to be the absence reason. Technology (18%) Our students have different levels of computer literacy, therefore, it is difficult to tell when a student faked a technology excuse. Some of the common excuses that faculty members hear often include: Blackboard would not allow me to log in last night; My printer broke; My printer was out of ink; I am a new Mac user and I am experiencing strange problems; My Mac cannot open the assignments; My computer magically deleted my homework from the hard drive. I do not understand it myself; My computer crashed last night and I lost my homework; My computer was stolen/robed in the weekend; My charger stopped working and my computer run out of battery; I lost internet last night; I did not see it in the assignment folder; or It was not posted on the site. Students found most professors forgiving on their lack of knowledge in technology and do not believe that they should be punished for technical issues.
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Family (15%) The third most popular excuse is related to family. Students believe that Family commitment is completely outside of the professors control and It is just not right to challenge a students personal issue truth or lie. In this category, over 1/3 of votes were for funeral, somewhat unsurprising as grandmas never die (Abernethy & Padgett, 2010). Funeral excuse is ranked most effective as It hits the emotional soft spot, professors feel uncomfortable to ask for a formal note, and Funeral notes are the easiest to forge. Several students, however, voted against this, worrying that the lie could come back against them, however, these students still confessed that many others they knew have faked funeral excuses to cut classes in high school or in college. Other family excuses include moving houses, pre-planned family vacation, babysitting sick relatives, caring for a terminally ill-parent or grandparent. One student created a situation that his best friend was dying and he was asked by his friends parents to be at the bedside for a number of weeks. The author is listing this here as well as since friend issues can be applied mostly to this category. Transportation (10%) As stated earlier, long distance students may occasionally have traffic issues that prevent them from coming to school. Some students would take advantage of this and make up excuses. On a bad weather day, it could be My parents took the only car that we have at home, and on a perfectly calm day, it could be The bus left one minute early before its schedule and the next bus did not come, There was traffic jam or I had a flat tire. On a positive note, more commuter students mean less numbers of roommates fault excuses. The author only had one student ranking My roommate locked me out when I was in pajamas as the top excuse. Meeting With the Advisor (7%) Our students often have meetings with some administrator or counselor to schedule a class or discuss other matters. Many students confess that even though there was in fact no meeting, they use it as an excuse to skip classes that they do not want to attend. A meeting with the academic advisor is considered legitimate by students as many such meetings are scheduled inconveniently during students class time and they could be regarding crucial issues such as financial aid. Employment-Related (5%) Students who work to pay for the tuition consider job the priority that overweighs school. Even though not many students voted this as a top excuse, it has been frequently used in classes, especially for those late comers. I have to work, otherwise I will be fired, My work schedule will be changed next week so that I can come to your class, and I had to skip class because of a job interview are among these excuses. School Activity (4%) Pledging events for a fraternity or sorority, obligations to the student government, required extra-curricular activity scheduled by another class, and sport events are amount some of the excuses in this category. Such excuses are largely based on students conception of priority in college life. Others (11%) Top rated excuses that do not belong to the above categories are summarized here. Some of these can be facts, yet students still hope to gain sympathy, because it is not done intentionally and would presumably not happen a second time. For example, I set my alarm clock using my phone every day and it actually works, however, my phone battery died while I was sleeping, I did the wrong assignment, I overslept because I
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was up all night doing homework, I had other assignments that were due at the same time, and I need extra time to finish your assignment, and I was going to drop this class then I realized that I cannot, which is why I missed half of the semesters classes. There are also students who tell the professor that they had no excuse when they were asked for one, and most of the times the professor would be baffled by the honesty and excuse them. Other excuses are entirely fictional, e.g., When I got out my car on a rainy windy day where I live, my papers fell out and the homework flew away and got wet terribly, and Someone broke into my car, stole everything including my backpack with a final paper saved on that laptop inside the bag. The sudden occurrence makes such excuses skeptical. The odds that the car breaks down or the tires blow out on the day of a test or a paper due is hard to believe, and it often comes from a student that has less than an A average in the class. There are still a third category that are between truth and fiction, e.g., a student told the professor that he could not come to class because of the ticket he got, and without realizing that it was really a concert ticket the professor let him go.
Preventing Excuses and Enhancing Learning

Made-up excuses degrade students moral and those who do it often also tend to plagiarize. Professors with their busy schedule sometimes overlook attendance issues or grant student excuses without much scrutiny, which eventually cause more students to miss classes. Granted, enforced mandatory attendance with harsh penalties is one way to solve the problem and has been applied by many (Marburger, 2006). Such paternalistic tactics, however, can incur student resentment and discourage learning. As follow, the author proposes a few alternative measures that prevent students from absence based on the excuses mentioned above. Discuss the Issues Early Issues that might affect attendance should be discussed as early as possible. For freshmen, the topic should be brought up during student orientation. To achieve the three Rs (respect, responsibility, and relationship) that we expect from the students, we need to inform our students a few tips. Students should be reminded to check emails every day and actively communicate with professors. When issues occur that prevents them from attending a class or finishing an assignment on time, they should be encouraged to inform the professor before hand or even afterwards rather than staying silent. Commuter students need to know the delays that most commuters experience, and how to plan ahead for various weather and traffic conditions. For students who work part-time, the importance of classroom attendance should be stressed. Examples and statistics should be used in orientation whenever possible to impress upon the audience. In a short run, missing a class or a homework assignment, leaving class early, and come to the class late are destructive behaviors for the learning of the entire class, as it disrupts lecture progression and leaves the student unprepared for the next lecture. For the long run, absence would result in poor GPA, poor preparedness for other classes, unsatisfying college experience, and likely a less desirable career. Although students may show some dislike, to hammer these ideas into their minds, faculty members also need to reemphasize the importance of attendance in the first class meeting. Customize Teaching to Students Need Our students have different levels of preparedness for college level classes. Many started with poor GPA and are scared of certain subjects. It is important that professors communicate with all students individually to recognize their fears and dispel them as early as possible. Persist negative feelings would lead to unsatisfactory
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attendance, incomplete assignments, and a silent unproductive classroom environment. A sense of humor in the classroom can put many students at ease, and discussion forums in the virtual classroom give students an outlet to voice their frustrations and fears. Conversational lectures with frequent pauses and questions promote student participation. Aside from the fear, students motivation to learn a certain topic can be inspired when the subject relates to ones major or everyday life. Therefore, for those who teach non-major students, teaching materials should be tailored for the current audience. Faculty members should also recognize that our students of the Internet generation have different learning styles, and various instructional techniques should be offered to ensure that each student is reached. It should be mentioned that in-classroom activities and group discussions can be especially effective as students of this generation are more kinesthetic as compared to learners of earlier generations (Baker, Matulich, & Papp, 2007). Be Empathetic For most college freshmen, it is the first time that they leave their hometown and parents. Learning to deal with homesickness and self-independence may take a while. Therefore, academic advisors and our faculty should be more empathetic and work together to offer extra help. The early-alert system has shown some great effectiveness. Constant encouragement and increased accessibility (both physically and virtually) of the faculty are also great ways to gain students trust and enhance student learning. Identifying a student as the point of contact can be found useful by some faculty to learn about possible student issues (such as overlapping tests). Additionally, grading policy should be clearly explained in the syllabus and reiterated in the first class meeting. A resource guide relevant to the class should also be handed to students as early as possible. This guide may include contact information of the tutoring center, computer workshop, freshman counseling center, writing center, your office hour, course Website address, class calendar, and videos that guide students through the use of various tools in your class. Such practices can significantly reduce the number of excuses that demonstrate student disengagement, such as I am not aware of the due date and I was not sure whether we have a class or not. The author also recommended professors to share a list of popular excuses with students in the first class meeting. When the author did this last semester, he observed that the same excuses were used significantly less, although attendance could still be improved. Due to the many unexpected events mentioned earlier (not including the ones that documentations could be available), faculty members should probably also privately allow a limited number of excuses per student. Once the bottom line is set, the policy, however, should be implemented strictly and consistently. Be Proactive For students who are absent due to a said sickness, faculty member should consistently ask for doctors notes. Even when an illness does not require the student to visit a doctor, this practice will make it inconvenient/uncomfortable enough to stop the fakers from attempting such excuses. The author, however, want to caution our faculty that internet companies that forge doctors notes have become popular in recent years. These companies provide fake medical/dental appointment notes, ER forms, funeral, jury duty and medical evaluation forms, etc.. Many even offer it free during the first trial and guarantee a get one out of almost any situation excuse for as little as $20. A list of these companies can be found at the end of the reference list. Social networks also allow some students to blatantly share their favorite and successful excuses, some of which are rather complicated and embarrassing for the professor who inquired the absence. To
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counteract faked documentation, the author urges our faculty to make active efforts to call the phone number on the notes, at least screen them randomly, and work with school administrators to make faked notes a violation of the honor code. Faculty should make this policy transparent to students to deter them from attempting. For those students who claim that they did not see a doctor or they have lost the documentation, extra homework should be assigned so that students could keep up with the lecture. In this way, students with true sickness will not be punished for missed classes, while those who had mild sickness and those who faked sickness do not miss the opportunity to learn a certain subject. Offer Technology Workshops Technology excuses are most commonly used in late homework submissions. As our students do not have the same technology proficiency, our university should provide and require workshops (and/or video tutorials) for all college freshmen. Contents that may be included are Microsoft offices (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook), Paintshop or Photoshop, PDF reader (and writer), e-Portfolio, Blackboard navigation, online literature search, and proper citations to avoid plagiarism. Pair up with upper classman is another way for students to quickly learn about the technical tips. These measures should prevent most of software-related excuses. For hardware-related excuses, such as printing issues, it is easily avoidable when professors accept electronic submissions. Most professors do not perceive electronic submission as an attendance threat, however, prefers print-out essays they are much easier to grade. Electronic grading, however, also has many advantages, such as providing a record of students homework that can be used later for education or assessment purposes, and blocking opportunistic fakers who accuse the faculty to have lost a submitted homework. For those who worry that online submissions may quickly breach email quota, there are many free cyber spaces that allow secure online data storage. Good organization is the key to successful online archiving. It is also a good practice to always post the assignments at least one week before the due date and announce it immediately in the class. This will allow plenty of time for students to work on the homework. It is also important that professors make it very clear in the syllabus that late submission will be penalized, and that this policy is verbally repeated before each assignment and enforced consistently. Work With Administration To reach the goal of student and faculty satisfaction, university administrators and faculty need to work together with the students. Academic advisors should better assist students to select courses that do not conflict with their work schedule, sport activity, or other school events. Faculty members need to post detailed class calendar ideally before class registration. Counselors and deans should avoid class time whenever possible when they book up a student for appointment, or else a written note should be provided. For students who have severe family issues, such as death of a family member, the university may set up Grief Absence Policies similar to the one from Purdue University (see link in the reference). This practice not only avoids professors the unnecessary suspicion of an excuse, but makes it convenient for the students, as they only need to contact one university office (the counseling center) and that they can be assured that they would not lose points due to the absence.
References
Abernethy, A. M., & Padgett, D. (2010). Grandma never dies during finals: A study of makeup exams. Marketing Education Review, 20(2), 103-113. Retrieved from http://www.marketingeducationreview.com/
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Baker, R., Matulich, E., & Papp, R. (2007). Teach me in the way I learn: Education and the internet generation. Journal of Teaching and Learning, 4(4), 27-32. Retrieved from http://ojs.uwindsor.ca/ojs/leddy/index.php/JTL Cred, M., Roch, S. G., & Kieszczynka, U. M. (2010). Class attendance in college: A meta-analytic review of the relationship of class attendance with grades and student characteristics. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 272-295. Retrieved from http://rer.sagepub.com/ Devadoss, S., & Foltz, J. (1996). Evaluation of factors influencing student class attendance and performance. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 78(3), 499-507. Retrieved from http://ajae.oxfordjournals.org/ Marburger, D. R. (2006). Does mandatory attendance improve student performance? Journal of Economic Education, 37(2), 148-155. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/vece20/current Segal, C. F. (2000). The dog ate my disk, and other tales of woe. The Chronicle Review, 46(49), 49a06401. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/section/The-Chronicle-Review/41/ Uhari, M., Renko, M., & Soini, H. (2003). Experiences of using an interactive audience response system in lectures. BMC Medical Education. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-3-12. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcmededuc/ Grief Absence Policy. Retrieved from http://www.purdue.edu/odos/services/griefabsencepolicyforstudents.php Websites that offer absence excuses, including fake doctors notes as follows: http://madtbone.tripod.com http://myexcusedabsence.com http://www.bestfakedoctornotes.com http://www.freedoctorsexcuses.com
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Construction of Chinese Listed Companies Governance Risk and Its Oversight Mechanisms
Shi Hong, Qi Linkai
Hohai University, Nanjing, China
This paper first analysis of the status and trends of the illegal acts of the listed companies in the transition economies of both developed and emerging markets of the 21st century has become a worldwide importance, arduousness, and urgency, which leads to the risk of corporate governance issues difficult problems in the issues, and then draw on domestic and foreign academic research on the risk of corporate governance to prevent their illegal activities, combined with the essential characteristics and the actual situation of the governance of listed companies in China, from the elements of governance risk causes analyzes based company perspective of the governance body, build a Chinese listed company governance oversight of risk prevention mechanism, and in respect of corporate governance within the oversight mechanisms, how external governance play a role to start the detailed analysis and explanation. Keywords: listed companies, corporate governance risk, governance oversight mechanisms
Introduction
Moodys Investors Service and Fitch Ratings Ltd.which two of the three major credit rating companies in July 2011 in the West, after another 61-rated Chinese companies issued a red flag warning, as well as expressed concerns about pressure on its corporate governance of the 35 Chinese-funded enterprises in the assessment report, once again caused a hot discussion of the relationship between corporate governance and financial risk. Red flag that the need for investors to be wary of the presence of signs to be rated high-yield non-financial companies, such as rapid expansion plan, fast-growing, short time-to-market, customer ownership is highly concentrated, and reduce the quality of earnings and cash flow. It is not explained to a larger number of lower-rated red flag flashed red flag between the two is inevitable, but it is intended to emphasize the worth careful review of the issues, such as poor corporate governance, business model risk increases or more opaque, reducing the quality of the rapid expansion of corporate, income or cash flow as well as concern about the quality of the audit institutions and the financial statements in order to identify emerging markets, non-financial corporate bond issuer may exist in corporate governance or financial risk . In fact, from the outbreak of the Asian financial crisis in 1997, to the 2003 U.S. (United State) financial scandals of Enron, WorldCom, and then by the U.S. subprime mortgage crisis triggered by the global financial crisis in 2008, without exception, which all related to micro-economic the level of corporate governance issues.
Shi Hong, Ph.D., associate professor, Business School, Hohai University. Qi Linkai, Ph.D., Business School, Hohai University.
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CHINESE LISTED COMPANIES GOVERNANCE RISK AND ITS OVERSIGHT MECHANISMS
It can be said that the problem of the financial risk and its governance of listed companies has become a difficult problem in the world. People become more aware that modern corporate governance issues deal with success or failure will be directly related to the fate of the economic development of a country (region). In a narrow sense, corporate governance is an internal system of governance, the equilibrium was set by the shareholders meeting, board of directors, board of supervisors, managers, and to clarify the responsibilities between the various agencies, and the purpose of regulating the relationship between the agencies. Broadly speaking, corporate governance relates to the relationship with stakeholders and corporate governance, which including the companys external environment, such as the legal system and the market environment, also including the constraints of the companys internal incentive and monitoring mechanisms. It is impossible to have a good internal control system without a complete corporate governance mechanism, improve corporate governance to guard against the risk of a listed company governance has become the consensus of the scholars. As the representative of developed countries and the Anglo-American securities market compared to the environment and its corporate governance of Chinese listed companies facing different: First, Chinas internal corporate governance building basically followed the Anglo-American model, but there is a great difference, one of the most obvious one is unique in that due to the dominance of state-owned shares of most listed companies in China; Second, competitive market economy environment in China is far from completely built up, especially the labor market, corporate executives employ non-market mechanisms different from those of Britain and other developed countries also affect its behavior; and Third, Chinas legal system is not perfect, in particular, the efficiency of the implementation is still relatively low, leading to inadequate legal protection of the interests of investors in a certain extent. In view of this, how to consider the special situation in China, from the perspective of corporate governance body to analyze the level of corporate governance oversight mechanisms to build, is the focus of this study to identify the governance of the financial risk prevention strategy.
The Research Review of the Relationship of Financial Risk and Corporate Governance
The continued occurrence of financial fraud worldwide, making the financial risk and financial fraud governance of listed companies which facing serious challenges in the 21st century. In 2001, Enron (Enron) admitted to the U.S. SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) misrepresent total profit of nearly 30 billion U.S. dollars to conceal liabilities of up to 11$ billion from 1997 to 2001. Since then, the star of companies such as Xerox , the worlds communications companies have involved in financial scandals, and prompted the U.S. Congress to pass the most severe since 1934 Listed Company Supervision Act-Sarbanes-Oxley Act U.S. financial crisis triggered by the subprime mortgage crisis to some extent, it can be said that the results of the companys financial fraud. In developing countries, the listed companies financial fraud behavior is more prevalent. Since the establishment of a securities market in China, listed companies, financial fraud behavior is endless, from Joan source, Guangxia succession to Kelon Electrical series of listed companies financial fraud, securities regulatory agencies investigated and a cause sustained attention from all walks of life. Chinese listed companies in 2005, the financial implications SEC ordering rectification 38 and 50 of the commission to initiate an investigation, of which two have been issued by the investigation report public punishment; SEC publicly penalties and 58 bourses publicly condemned. Listed company fraud caused a great loss to the community, and the strong reaction of the public listed
CHINESE LISTED COMPANIES GOVERNANCE RISK AND ITS OVERSIGHT MECHANISMS 271 company fraud also reveals the importance of governance and arduous nature of the fraud, such as China, the countries with economies in transition and particular urgency. Foreign literature about the companys financial fraud can be described as voluminous, but empirical research on the relationship between corporate governance and financial fraud because the Anglo-American-led researchers is difficult to have enough financial fraud company samples for research purposes. First, the content of most of the literature focuses on the external auditor should be concerned about what red flags and signs, development of analytical techniques to identify fraud, as well as how to follow the auditing standards to guard against the risk of company fraud to the auditors audit; Second, it is very concerned about the equity incentive to impact on financial fraud, some of the literature that excessive incentive stock options is one of the incentives of the listed companies financial fraud; and Third, most of the financial fraud studies to Western developed countries, especially the legal framework of the U.S. as the background, fewer consider the impact of laws and regulations and guidelines for financial fraud. Chinas financial fraud, some accounting firms involved in the process of financial fraud, only prevention of financial fraud is not enough to discuss the level of diagnostic techniques, must have a clear understanding of the causes of the financial fraud. In addition, the Chinese manager market with the control of the market is underdeveloped equity incentive, especially in China, countries with economies in transition, while the provisions of the laws and regulations in Western countries is basically the same, but the legal system environments, such as judicial efficiency of financial fraud impact has not yet formed a relatively systematic and practical research. The characteristics of governance which listed companies on financial fraud are still in its infancy.
To Build the Chinese-Style of the Corporate Governance Oversight Mechanism

Financial fraud studies of Chinas listed companies, generally based on the terms of the provisions of the Securities Supervision and Administration Departments to determine whether the listed companies in financial fraud behavior. Financial corrupt conduct is illegal by the public punishment of the securities regulatory authorities, generally can be divided into: illegal to buy stocks, fictitious profits, false statement of assets, unauthorized changes in the use of funds to postpone disclosure, false statements, funded violations, and major omission, occupied by the largest shareholder of the listed companys assets, and so on. Prevention of financial fraud in the operation of practice is mainly based on the recognition of the independent auditors of financial reports, as well as by summarizing the common feature of past fraud or the use of analytical tools to prompt the auditors may corrupt conduct. Therefore, the prevention of a very limited role is a punish acts for the supervision of an afterthought. Financial fraud causes that factor analysis of the impact on the corporate governance of financial fraud, can be turned into financial fraud after the supervision and management behavior for the advance prevention of financial risks management behavior. Analysis of influencing factors for the corporate governance of financial fraud, the study abroad mainly in three aspects of the board of directors characteristics, board size, board composition, and leadership structure, but results of view, does not form a consistent conclusion (Beasley, 1996). Abroad, another focus of attention in recent years is the equity incentive to impact on financial fraud, because the prevalence of incentive stock options in recent years, and a large number of company fraud that forge a profit motive are managers who get huge amounts of stock-based compensation, stimulate the stock prices. Foreign independent audit and financial fraud relationship is more widely involved in the independence of
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the independent audit, the independent audit quality, audit fees, non-audit services, and financial fraud. Governance of some of the conclusions of the foreign financial fraud in China has a certain referential significance, but is still in the preliminary stage of exploration governance mechanism in China on financial fraud, if any, studies have shown that the proportion of independent directors, the size of the board, chairman of the board, and the total manager of two-in-one to explain the ability of financial fraud is limited (Zhang, 2004); otherwise, scholars have found that board size is positively correlated with the financial reporting fraud but not significantly, while the proportion of executive directors, inside directors Vietnam high, the company is more likely to occur financial reporting fraud (Dealing, 2003); study reveals the shareholding structure and board characteristics of financial fraud (Chen, Firth, Gao, & Rui, 2006); while another study found that the stake of the largest shareholder and financial fraud significant negative correlation (Chan, Lin, & Wang, 2005). Quite different experience of these few findings with foreign small number of inconsistent results, is insufficient as empirical evidence of corrupt governance of listed companies in Chinas financial support. The Financial Fraud Governance another disadvantage is that only referring to foreign ideas, considers the object as a governance mechanism in a study, not depth discussion and verification of a certain kind of relationship governance mechanisms and financial fraud, so that the credibility of the conclusions have been challenged. Combination of these corporate governance of Chinese and foreign financial fraud conclusions affecting factors, one of the major causes of Chinas listed companies financial fraud can be attributed to the level of corporate governance oversight mechanism failure, and combined with the actual situation of Chinese corporate governance from the perspective of the corporate governance body building supervision of corporate governance, risk prevention mechanism-based governance body, as shown in the following Figure 1.
Governance of listed companies oversight mechanisms-based governance body
Internal supervision Shareholder supervision Efficiency of the supervision of the board Board of supervisors
External supervision Independent audit and supervision Regulatory oversight Incentives, reputation Market competition National legal systems environment Governance culture
Listed companies of illegal behavior and governance risks Figure 1. Governance of listed companies oversight mechanisms.
Corporate governance oversight mechanisms constitute a part of the role, each specific analysis is as follows: Shareholder Oversight The shareholders active protection of their own interests by the shareholders meeting, the use of voting rights to influence board decisions, therefore, to increase their voting rights, the shareholders will hold a large
CHINESE LISTED COMPANIES GOVERNANCE RISK AND ITS OVERSIGHT MECHANISMS 273 number of shares and options are more focused, and this will cause the two sides, and both can be used to protect the interests of the major shareholder, and will also be used to infringe on the interests of small shareholders, the higher degree of concentration of ownership of listed companies is more prone to financial fraud. The Efficiency of the Supervision of the Board The board of directors is the shareholders to guarantee the efficiency of cooperation of the managers, set in place within the enterprise exercise residual control and supervise organ, the supervision and managers of it on behalf of all shareholders. The main factors influencing the efficiency of the supervision of the board: (1) board size: The scale of the general assembly of the boards decision made efficiency, and lead to rising costs of monitoring; (2) independence of the board: The introduction of outside directors (independent directors and their proportion) of agency problems ease between the shareholders and managers, but inferior information on access to information, however, the higher the proportion of independent directors, the lower frequency of financial fraud; and (3) leadership structure: Whether the post of chairman and general manager of two-one-one post of chairman and CEO (chief executive officer) will reduce the independence of the board and supervision efficiency, but it will improve the work efficiency of the board and management, so as to implement more powerful internal control. Board of Supervisors The board of supervisors is a specially elected by the shareholders meeting, the specialized agencies of the oversight responsibilities. Generally, they set up in the country mainly to the internal governance of the board of supervisors; countries mainly in the external governance, corporate governance structure often does not set up a separate board of supervisors, to fulfill its function by the Professional Committee of the Audit Committee of the Board has jurisdiction over. Independent Audit External audit from a third party who stands for the companys financial reports provide forensic quality audit oversight can inhibit the corrupt practices of the companys financial. Increase penalties for dereliction of duty by the independent auditors can better prevent financial fraud. Securities Regulatory Agencies Securities Regulatory agencies mandatory for listed companies to establish, implement, evaluate, and the disclosure of internal control; strengthen the regulation of accounting firms and other intermediary institutions, give full play to its independent visas role, focusing on monitoring company which changes accounting firm, to further improve the information disclosure and rapid response mechanisms; and closely with the regulatory and market regulators to increase the penalties for illegal behavior on the market, listed company of stakeholders illegal cost, severely punishes the stress of external audit irregularities. Management Incentives Establish reasonable remuneration to motivate managers and financial fraud through to strengthen remuneration incentive to governance. Executive incentive points cash reward incentive and option compensation incentives. But in China, the cash incentive and equity incentive for managers of listed companies are serious lower than in the United States.
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Managers Reputation Reputation effect will lead managers to improve their reputation in the market managers, outstanding performance and thus increase the value of their human capital to achieve the purpose of long-term governance and moral risk. Competition in the Market Managers will redouble our efforts to work in order to earn a higher income in the future for themselves, so as to show their viability manager market. National Legal Systems Environment Against the interests of outside shareholders in most of the listed companies in the world, important issues of corporate governance are not managers, but to control the largest shareholder predatory interests of minority shareholders, corporate control will shift from the corporate assets and profits to their own system infringed small the interests of the shareholders, when the legal protection of the interests of minority shareholders becomes vacant, the interests of the more serious violations. When the external investor financing to the company, will face the risk of deprivation due to the controlling shareholders or managers cannot get the return on their investments. Therefore, to a large extent, the company governance to outside investors in order to prevent the deprivation of rights by the internal mechanism of a law is one of them. Due to lack of enough restrictions on the violations of the largest shareholder legal and corporate ownership is highly concentrated, against small shareholders the extent of the major shareholders of the listed companies in China is much higher than that of the Anglo-American countries, therefore, concern the legal protection of investors interests in China. Corporate Governance Culture The corporate governance structure born in western countries is a cultural projection system of the countrys political structure, social structure within the company, that is, the western democracies, checks and balances, and the institutionalization of the culture of equality in the corporate structure. Chinese companies, especially listed companies, due to the profound impact of the special historical and cultural traditions and the planned economy era, the difficulties of the corporate governance is to establish the physical structure, but lies in the construction of the physical structure of the real effective functioning cultural foundation, which not only depends on the system of internal civilization, the company is more dependent on external geographical environment, national culture, business environment and legal environment and the impact of broader socio-cultural and spiritual civilization construction.
Some Points
Corporate governance substance of the institutional arrangements of corporate power, the internal oversight mechanisms (shareholder oversight, the efficiency of the supervision of the board, the board of supervisors) is the performance of the power of business arrangements, and the independent audit and government supervision are the supervision of the internal distribution of power, it will affect the result of the distribution of power. The board size is the efficiency of the supervision of the board, the enterprise stakeholders, and the results of the game, shareholding structure as well as the overall performance of government provisions on the composition of the board. The role of internal governance mechanisms to achieve by the board of directors, board of supervisors and
CHINESE LISTED COMPANIES GOVERNANCE RISK AND ITS OVERSIGHT MECHANISMS 275 shareholders. The shareholders usually reserved the right to review and veto power, such as directors, supervisors, auditors option and merger, capital increase and issue of new shares and other matters. Management control functions authorized by the shareholders to the board of directors oversight functions granted to the board of supervisors, the board of directors and then most of the decision-making management capabilities and many decision-making control function to give the manager of the company hierarchy. However, the board retains the power to control managers, including the companys decision-making and brewing, policy approval and hiring, dismissal of senior managers, and the power to determine their wage levels. Internal corporate governance through the design of scientific institutions of corporate governance, the formation of co-ordination, co-ordination mechanism of checks and balances to ensure that the command and coordination of the operation and management of the business can be carried out smoothly. External corporate governance and enterprise management behavior by the manager market, control over the market, as well as national laws and regulations, geographical environment, national culture, operating environment and other external forces conduct supervision and external governance complements internal governance, and its role is to the conduct of operations by external evaluation, and forcing company management self-discipline and self-control. Good corporate governance mechanism should include both an effective internal incentive constraint checks and balances, including a company external governance market, must also have a perfect legal system of corporate governance, as well as a governance system complement of governance culture.
References
Beasley, M. (1996). An empirical analysis of the relation between the board of director composition and financial statement fraud. The Accounting Review, 71(4), 443-465. Chan J., Lin H., & Wang L. (2005). Corporate governance, reputation mechanism and illegal behavior of listed companies. Nankai Business Review, 6, 35-40. Chen, G. M., Firth. M., Gao, D. N., & Rui, M. O. (2006). Ownership structure, corporate governance, and fraud: Evidence from China. Journal of Corporate Finance, 12, 424-448. Dealing, D. Y. (2003). Empirical studies of corporate governance and quality of accounting information. Accounting Research, 2, 28, 36, 65. Zhang J. S. (2004). Acts of dishonesty had of Yamin. Listed company: Corporate governance angle analysis. Economic Science, 6, 57-62.
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Shapers of Their Destiny: A History of the Education of Cuban Children in the United States Since 1959
Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr.
University of Houston, Houston, USA
Despite the significant presence of Cuban children in the U.S. public schools since the late 1950s, no historical interpretation of their educational experiences exists. This essay is the first to develop such an interpretation. It sketches, in broad strokes, the role that Cuban exiles and Cuban Americans played in shaping their childrens education in the U.S. from the late 1950s to the 1990s. Keywords: Cuban exiles in U.S. schools, agency in education, Latinos and schools in the U.S.
Introduction
Since the late 1980s, important work has been done on the history of Latino education (MacDonald, 2001). Although much new information has been published on the history of Latinos in education over the past several decades, the vast majority of this scholarship has focused on the plight and struggle of two specific Latino groups in the schools-Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans (San Miguel Jr., 1986; Nieto, 1995). No significant historical studies focusing on the education of other Latino groups, including Cuban Americans or Central Americans, have yet to appear in the early 21st century, but there is a wealth of information that can be used to develop such histories. This essay is a contribution to that effort. In this essay, the author provides an historical interpretation, albeit, a tentative one at best for now, of the educational experiences of Cubans and Cuban Americans in Miami, Florida from the 1960s to the present. Most scholars of the 20th century Cuban experience in the U.S. focus on several themes, including immigration, U.S. relations with Cuba, exile politics, literary works of Cuban exiles and Cuban Americans. Few of these works deal with education (Garcia, 1993; Grenier & Perez, 2003). The limited studies on education generally focus on refugee children and on the ways in which local school officials in Miami and in other southern Florida communities responded to their growing numbers in the schools in the 1960s and 1970s (Mackey & Beebee, 1977; Pedraza-Bailey & Sullivan, 1979; Silva, 1985). Studies on the educational experiences of Cubans in the contemporary period argue that local school officials responded rapidly and in a sensitive manner to the rapid influx of Cuban refugees over the years. These studies, while important, fail to show agency on the part of the Cuban community. They generally view them in passive terms and ignore the various ways in which Cubans themselves responded to their new situation in the United States. Cuban exiles were not simply receiving the benefits of American generosity. They actively participated in shaping the education their children received. Cuban exiles responded in creative ways to their new situation in the United States. They contributed to the planning and implementing of educational programs, assumed
Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr., professor, History Department, University of Houston.
SHAPERS OF THEIR DESTINY: A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF CUBAN CHILDREN 277 administrative and instructional positions in the public schools and developed or purchased appropriate Spanish language instructional materials for these programs. By the 1970s, Cuban Americans also began to get elected to local school board positions and influenced the making of educational policy affecting their children. The following essay then sketches, in broad strokes, the role that Cubans-both exiles and Cuban Americans played in shaping their childrens educational opportunities.
Agency in the Design and Implementation of Educational Programs

The focus on local school district responses to Cuban refugee children, while important, suggests that the Cuban community was not actively involved in the education of their children. But this is inaccurate. Cuban refugees actively sought jobs as public school teachers, counselors, and other professional staff in the schools, participated in teacher certification/re-certification programs, enrolled in university-based teacher training institutions to assume their role as educators of these children, helped design bilingual programs, and developed or purchased appropriate Spanish language instructional materials for these programs. As early as 1963, a few Cubans were hired as teacher aids in several of the public schools throughout the Miami Dade County area. One of these included the Coral Way elementary school that eventually established the first bilingual education program in the country in this era. A number of these aides were also participating at the time in the Cuban Teacher Retraining Program at the University of Miami in nearby Coral Gables. In this year, six of these aides were hired as Spanish teachers for the new bilingual program in this school (Mackey & Beebee, 1977, pp. 65-66). The number of Cuban and Latino educators increased in the next several years as the bilingual program expanded into the higher grades and into other schools. The number of Cuban teachers in the Coral Way Elementary School, for instance, increased from four aides in 1963 to 25 teachers almost a decade later. Central Beach elementary, the second school in Miami to establish a bilingual program starting in 1966, also hired Cuban aides and teachers. By 1973, four special Spanish teachers and two Cuban aides were providing instruction in the Spanish language at Central Beach. By 1973, Cubans comprised approximately 7% (722) of public school teachers in the district. Although their percentage was small relative to the student composition, which was almost 25%, it suggested active agency on the part of the Cuban community (Mackey & Beebee, 1977, p. 51, 70, 90). Cubans also became administrators and helped design bilingual programs and implement bilingual education program. As administrators, they purchased or encouraged the development of appropriate Spanish language instructional materials for these programs. The percentage and numbers of administrators increased over time so that by 1973, approximately 3% (25) of the administrative staff were Cubans (Mackey & Beebee, 1977, p. 51). Although small in numbers, Cubans were then not merely passive recipients of a generous education, they actively helped shape that education. The experiences of three Cuban administrators hired to implement the first bilingual education program in the country at Coral Way Elementary school in Miami Dade County illustrate the active roles they played in the education of Spanish-speaking children in that district. The three experienced Cuban educators hired to implement and to train teachers for the new bilingual education program at Coral Way Elementary School in the early 1960s were Rosa G. Inclan, Herminia Cantero, and Illuminada Valle. Inclan, born in Havana, Cuba in 1921, studied in both the U.S. and Cuba. She was the director of the training program for teachers of English as a second language at the University of Havana before her departure
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SHAPERS OF THEIR DESTINY: A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF CUBAN CHILDREN
to the U.S. in 1960. In Miami, she helped draft the proposal that eventually led to the establishment of the first bilingual education program in the country. She also became a teacher trainer in the district, and then, in 1969, was appointed to the position of coordinator of bilingual education for the school system. Cantero was born in Las Villas province in Cuba in 1915. She was the supervisor of English as a second language instruction in the public schools in Cuba before departing to the U.S. in 1961. She helped shape the proposal for bilingual education and participated in the training of teachers for this program. Valle likewise was born in Cuba in 1922. She settled in the Miami area and worked as a Cuban aide and then as a second-language teacher in the first bilingual schools. In 1974, Valle was appointed assistant principal of the Coral Way Elementary School (Mackey & Beebee, 1977, pp. 66-83).
Power and Politics in Public Education

Another important aspect of the education of Cubans in the U.S. is the struggle for power. This struggle was reflected in their efforts to assume important positions of influence within the schools. The initial emphasis of this effort was on getting access to positions in city and county government. This began in the 1970s. Prior to this decade, Cubans were establishing themselves in Miami and gaining a foothold in the economy. Once they became a dominant force in the economy, they began to discard earlier reservations about participation in American politics and to focus on increasing their presence in electoral politics. Their citizenship rates increased, they became an important component of the voting population, and they began to get elected to local and county positions (Garcia, 1996, pp. 137-146). The following decade, Cubans became a significant force in Miami politics. Based on the redrawing of district boundaries and their own desires, Cubans ran for office and got elected to several important state and local position. In 1982, they won a total of 11 seats in the Florida state legislature (three in the Senate and eight in the house) and in 1985 Xavier Suarez, a Cuban exile, was elected mayor of the city of Miami. The following year, Cubans won majority control of the city commission and held almost all of the citys major administrative positions. Cubans also got elected to the U.S. Congress and in 1989, state senator Ileana Ros-Lehtinen became the first Latina and the first Cuban American to win a congressional seat from South Florida and to serve in Congress (Geron, 2005, pp. 140-141). The emergence of Cuban Americans as a political force was noted by several scholars when they reported how within a 12 year period from the late 1970s to the late 1980s Cuban office holding in the Miami area increased from four to 40. By 1989, Cubans held six mayoralties, city council majorities in several cities, including Miami, Hialeah, West Miami, and Sweetwater, 10 of the 28 positions in the Dade County delegation of the Florida legislature, and a seat on the Metro Commission and Dade County School Board. With respect to appointive politics, Cubans by the late 1980s, held positions in county manager, city manager in the city of Miami, and superintendent of the Dade County schools. They were also an increasing percentage of county and municipal employment (Warren, Corbett, & Stack Jr., 1990, p. 170). In this period, in other words, we see the ascendancy of Cubans in electoral and appointive politics in the city of Miami and in Dade County. The struggle for power in education was a part of this Cubano ascendancy in electoral and appointive politics in that county but it developed slowly. This effort began in 1984 when Paul Cejas was elected to the school board in Miami and became the school board chairman. His election significantly broke the pattern of Cuban exclusion from school board politics and initiated a new trend towards structural inclusion. Although included, Cuban participation was limited to one of tokenism for the next decade. By 1991, for instance,
SHAPERS OF THEIR DESTINY: A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF CUBAN CHILDREN 279 Cubans still had only one member on the nine members Miami-Dade County School Board (National Roster of Hispanic Elected Officials, 1991, p. 47). Sometime, during the late 1990s or early 21st century, they gained majority controlled of the Miami-Dade County School Board and they have maintained that control. In 2007, for instance, five out of the nine members on the Miami-Dade County School board were Cubans (Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://www2from.dadeschools.net/schoolboard/bdmembers.asp). When did they begin to get elected to local and county boards of education and when did they become a majority of the board? What explains this increased involvement in school politics and how does it relate to the general quest for power in American society? How did they influence public education policies? These are questions for which we do not yet have answers. With respect to appointive office, one of the most significant actions took place in 1988 with the appointment of Joseph A. Fernandez as superintendent of Miami-Dade County public schools. Fernandez, born in East Harlem of Puerto Rican parents, was a former high school dropout, a University of Miami graduate and a teacher and administrator in the district for over 20 years. As superintendent, he sought to transform public education in that city and improve its instruction. He initiated and led the restructuring of public education in the country. Restructuring, or more specifically, school-based management, a new approach to school reform, was in use in 130 of Miamis 260 schools when he left to become Chancellor of the New York City public schools. Although he was convinced of the effectiveness of this approach, not enough information on its effectiveness in improving school achievement was available by the time he left the position in 1990 (Tifft, 1990). More research, however, is needed to find out how he did this in Miami-Dade County, the impact it had on instruction, and its ultimate consequences.
Community Mobilizing Against Discrimination

Despite the relative ease in which Cubans gained control of the public schools and their children obtained equal access to quality instruction, the Cuban American community occasionally mobilized to struggle against racism in the larger society and discrimination in school treatment. Several specific incidents in the period from the 1970s to the present illustrate this type of struggle more reminiscent of what Chicanos and Puerto Ricans had been and were engaged in during the entire 20th century. The earliest indication of community mobilization against perceived wrongs occurred in 1968 after a report by public school officials estimated that the dropout rate among Cubans and Puerto Rican students in the Dade County public schools was higher than the dropout rate for the county students as a whole. The low percentage of Cuban teachers and administrators encouraged community members to demand the hiring of Spanish-speaking teachers, counselors, and other staff members proportionate to the Spanish-speaking student enrollment. The board was also asked to expand its bilingual program to prevent Cuban students from dropping out of school. The board responded affirmatively to these demands (Mackey & Beebee, 1977, pp. 49-50). Another incident occurred in the summer of 1980 during the Mariel boatlift. Although not specifically an educational issue, it had implications for school language policy in general and bilingual education in particular. This incident related to the opposition by Anglos and to a large extent blacks to a bilingual resolution in the books since 1973 (Mohl, 1989). An Anglo group named Citizens of Dade United mounted an assault against the bilingual resolution and used the petition process to force a county referendum on a proposed anti-bilingualism ordinance. The ordinance proposed that the expenditure of county funds of the purpose of
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SHAPERS OF THEIR DESTINY: A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF CUBAN CHILDREN
utilizing any language other than English, or promoting any culture other than that of the United States is prohibited (Mohl, 1989, p. 152). This proposed ordinance was opposed by a variety of Latino groups, including a new organization called the SALAD (Spanish-American League Against Discrimination). Despite this action, the ordinance passed and was approved by a substantial majority of Dade County voters in November 1980. Cuban Americans, for the first time in this country, had lost a major battle over language rights. In some respects, they were now being treated similarly to Chicanos and Puerto Ricans. They were slowly becoming a racialized minority group in this country (Mohl, 1989).
Establishment of Private Schools

A final aspect of Cuban involvement in education dealt with private schooling. Cuban children not only attended public schools. They also enrolled in Catholic parochial institutions. Superintendent of Dade County public schools Joe Hall noted that in 1961 over 2,650 refugee children were enrolled in the Catholic schools. The Catholic parochial schools, noted Sylvia Crothers, director of Florida Childrens Commission, were stretched to the breaking point (Carothers, 1961, p. 5). Cuban exiles did not limit themselves only to religious institutions. They established their own private schools or else enrolled their children in private sectarian institutions (MacDonald, 2004). Between 1959 and 1973, Cuban exiles established a variety of after-school programs aimed at maintaining the communitys identity. San Juan Bosco Church in Little Havana, for instance, opened a small religious after-school program in 1967. The Escuela Cvico-Religiosa offered grade school and high school students religious instruction as well as courses on Cuban history, geography, and culture after school each day (McNally, 1982, p. 153). Additionally, Cubans established dozens of small private schools nicknamed las escuelitas cubanas (the little Cuban schools). Over 15 private schools were established during the 1960s and early 1970s. Initially, the teaching in these schools was mostly in Spanish but they soon became bilingual as more English was added to the instruction (Mackey & Beebee, 1977). By 1990, at least 30 private schools existed. Among these were the Conchita Espinoza Academy, Miami Aerospace, La Luz, Lincoln-Mart, La Progresiva, and Jos Mart School (Garcia, 1996, p. 91). Cuban exiles likewise transplanted some of Havanas best private schools and re-opened them in Dade County. As Maria Cristina Garca noted, these schools, in order to obtain state accreditation, met state curricular guidelines but retained much of their original staff and faculty from Cuba. The utilization of personnel from Cuba allowed them to offer some cultural continuity between the old and the new country. Those who sent their children to these schools were assured of a quality education to participate successfully in either the United States or Cuba. One of the better known private schools was Beln Jesuit, originally founded in Cuba in 1854 by Isabel II of Spain. Its alumni included distinguished scholars, scientists, clergy, and political leaders. The Beln Jesuit School was opened in Miami after the Cuban government confiscated its classrooms and libraries and expelled the Jesuits. It originally opened at the Centrol Hispano Catlico, then on Flagler Street in the heart of Little Havana, and finally in the southwest part of the Miami suburbs (Garcia, 1996, p. 91).
Conclusions
Although little information exists on the Cuban role in education, the author has suggested that this history
SHAPERS OF THEIR DESTINY: A HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF CUBAN CHILDREN 281 is quite complex and both different from and similar in some ways to the history of ethnic Mexicans and Puerto Ricans. Unlike the history of the two other large Latino groups in the country, local school officials, as most scholars who have written on this topic note, responded rapidly and in a sensitive manner to the rapid influx of Cuban refugees over the years. Similar to these other racialized Latino groups, Cuban educators and community activists played active roles in the education of their children. They sought to shape and influence the education their children received in this country by helping to plan and implement the various programs serving Spanish-speaking children in the public schools. They also challenged policies viewed as detrimental to their linguistic and cultural interests and actively sought positions of influence in local, state, and national policymaking structures. Their political status as refugees and their white racial and middle class background as well as the Cold War context facilitated their involvement and ensured that they would become influential agents able to shape their own educational destinies. This brief history of Cuban activism in education suggests that they were not merely passive recipients of Anglo generosity but active agents in the schooling of their children. They were, in several important ways, actively shaping their own destiny in the public schools of America.
References
Garcia, M. C. (1996). Havana USA: Cuban exiles and Cuban Americans in south Florida, 1959-1994. Berkeley: University of California Press. Carothers, S. (1961). Director, Florida Childrens Commission. Report to the governor of Florida on the Cuban refugee problem in Miami. February 21, 1961, Florida State Archives, R. A. Gray Building, Department of State, Tallahassee, Florida. Geron, K. (2005). Latino political power. Boulder, C. O.: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Grenier, G., & Perez, L. (2003). The legacy of exile: Cubans in the United States. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. MacDonald, V. M. (Ed.). (2004). Latino education in U.S. history, 1513-2000. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. MacDonald, V. M. (2001). Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or other?: Deconstructing the relationship between historians and Hispano-American educational history. History of Education Quarterly, 41, 365-413. Mackey, W. F. & Beebee, V. N. (1977). Bilingual schools for a bicultural community: Miamis adaptation to the Cuban refugees. Rowley, Newbury House. McNally, M. J. (1982). Catholicism in South Florida, 1868-1968. Gainsesville: University of North Florida Press. Mohl, R. A. (1989). Ethnic politics in Miami, 1960-1986. In R. M. Miller, & G. E. Pozzetta. (Eds.), Shades of the sunbelt: Essays on ethnicity, race, and the urban south (pp. 143-160). Boca Raton, F. L.: Florida Atlantic University Press. National Roster of Hispanic Elected Officials. (1991). Washington, D.C.: NALEO. Nieto, S. (1995). A history of the education of Puerto Rican students in U.S. mainland schools: Losers, outsiders, or leaders? In J. A. Banks, & C. A. McGee Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 388-411). New York: Macmillian Publishing. Pedraza-Bailey, S. & Sullivan, T. A. (1979). Bilingual education in the reception of political immigrants: The case of Cubans in Miami, Florida. In R. V. Padilla (Ed.), Ethno perspectives in bilingual education research: Bilingual education and public policy in the United States (pp. 376-394). Ypsilanti: Bilingual Bicultural Education Program, Eastern Michigan University. San Miguel Jr., G. (1986). Status of historiography of Chicano education: A preliminary analysis. History of Education Quarterly, 26, 523-536. Silva, H. (1985). The children of Mariel: From shock to integration: Cuban refugee children in south Florida schools. Miami, F. L.: The Cuban American National Foundation, Inc.. Tifft, S. (1990). Bracing for Perestroika. Retrieved September 7, 2007, from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0, 9171,969110, 00.html Warren, C. L., Corbett, J. G., & Stack Jr., J. F. (1990). Hispanic ascendancy and tripartite politics in Miami. In R. P. Browning, D. R. Marshall, & D. H. Tabb (Eds.), Racial politics in American cities (pp. 155-178). New York: Longman. http://www2.dadeschools.net/ schoolboard/bdmembers.asp-DELETE
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Secondary School Students Motivation and Achievement in Combined Science

Bob Chui Seng YONG

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

The Present Study

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

Low ability Low Ability High ability High Ability

Table 5 Correlations Between Motivational Orientations and Achievement in Combined Science

Achieve Pearson correlation ment Sig. (2-tailed)

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

Suggestions for Future Research

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

STUDENTS MOTIVATION AND ACHIEVEMENT IN COMBINED SCIENCE

Background to the Study

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Poverty in Nigeria: Harbinger of Deprivations in the Formative Years

Influence of Ghetto Environment on Students Life Chances

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

80.6 79.2 80.0

19.4 20.8 20.0

11.0 11.5 11.5

89.0 88.5 88.5

79.8 92.8 89.0 11.5 11.5

20.2 7.2 11.0 88.5 88.5

11.5 11.5 11.5 79.3 80.6

88.5 88.5 88.5 20.7 19.4

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Table 6 Multiple Comparisons of Dependent Variable: Deprivations in the Formative Years

IMPACT OF DEPRIVATIONS IN CHILDHOOD ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Deprivations in the formative years

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA

Conclusions and Recommendations

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE AND EDUCATION IN ERADICATING HIV/AIDS IN AFRICA

A TOOL FOR PREVENTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

A TOOL FOR PREVENTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

The Statement of the Problem

The Purpose of the Study

A TOOL FOR PREVENTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

A TOOL FOR PREVENTING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

3.55 3.33 2.95 3.00 3.48

Urban women SD DEC 0.63 A 0.80 A 0.91 A 0.57 A 0.69 A

3.47 3.20 2.88 3.10 3.39