US-China Education Review 2013 8A

US-China Education Review
A
Volume 3, Number 8, August 2013 (Serial Number 27)
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Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 9460 Telstar Ave Suite 5, EL Monte, CA 91731, USA. Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review A, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-practice researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Gner Tural Professor Alexandro Escudero Professor Diane Schwartz Professor Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Professor Kthe Schneider Professor Michael Eskay Professor Yea-Ling Tsao
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US-China Education Review

A
Volume 3, Number 8, August 2013 (Serial Number 27)
Contents
Curriculum and Teaching
Non-routine Mathematical Problem-Solving at High School Level and Its Relation With Success on University Entrance Exam Yeliz Yazgan The Role of the Organization of the Physical Environment of the Classroom in Education and Teaching Ibrahim Habaci, Fatmanur Aka, Mehmet Habaci, Fadime Adiguzelli, Sultan Kurt Ecological Competence Model for Nurses Ludis Pks, Ruta Renigere Refinement of Logico-Mathematical Intelligence in the Context of Physics Education Lina Vinitsky-Pinsky, Igal Galili An Ecological Approach to Using Ubiquitous Handheld Devices in the Classroom Dorota Domalewska 610 604 593 580 571
Teaching Technology
Vulnerabilities and Attacks on Information Systems in E-learning Environments in Higher Education Muhamad Hugerat, Saeed Odeh, Salem Saker, Adnan Agbaria New Media and Social Networks as a New Phenomenon of Global Access to Information and Education Bozena Supsakova 623 615
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X August 2013, Vol. 3, No. 8, 571-579
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Non-routine Mathematical Problem-Solving at High School Level and Its Relation With Success on University Entrance Exam
Yeliz Yazgan
Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
In the present study, non-routine mathematical problem-solving skills of high school students and its relation with the achievement on a standardized university entrance exam (LYS) were searched. To measure non-routine problem-solving skills of students, a PST (problem-solving test) that comprises nine non-routine open-ended problems was conducted to the 144 senior high school students. Besides, LYS scores of students were obtained from their schools. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of students scripts on PST revealed that high school students could solve successfully non-routine problems and employ different problem-solving strategies without any intervention. More importantly, Pearson correlation coefficient which was computed using PST and LYS scores showed that there exists a strong link between high school students success on university entrance exam and their abilities in non-routine problem-solving. Along with the qualitative evidences, this finding indicates that non-routine problem-solving requires higher thinking skills, and students who are successful at solving this kind of problems can adapt their critical and creative thinking to the other domains, such as science or language. Keywords: non-routine problem, non-routine problem-solving, high school students, university entrance exam
Introduction
In the history of mathematics as well as mathematics teaching, problem-solving always plays an important role, since all creative mathematical work demands actions of problem-solving (Burchartz & Stein, 2002). Moreover, a vast body of studies about mathematical problem-solving show that non-routine problems are the kind of problems which are most appropriate for developing mathematical problem-solving and reasoning skills, and the ability to apply these skills in real-life situations (Polya, 1957; Schoenfeld, 1992; Follmer, 2000; Herr Johnson, 2002; Cai, 2003). Because, routine problems can be solved using methods familiar to students by replicating previously learned methods in a step-by-step fashion, while non-routine problems are problems for which there is not a predictable, well-rehearsed approach or pathway explicitly suggested by the task, task instructions, or a worked-out example (Woodward, Beckmann, Driscoll, Franke, Herzig, Jitendra, Koedinger, & Ogbuehi, 2012). Strategies play a very important role in the mathematical process experienced by students while solving
* This study is a part of an ongoing project named Non-routine Problem-Solving Skills of Elementary and High School Students. The project is supported by the Academic Research Projects Department of Uludag University under grant No. E(U)-2009/49. Yeliz Yazgan, Ph.D., assistant professor, Elementary Education Department, Faculty of Education, Uludag University.
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NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL
mathematics problems. In this sense, non-routine problem-solving strategies can be defined as procedures used to explore, analyze, and probe aspects of non-routine problems in an attempt to formulate pathways to a solution (Nancarrow, 2004, p. 7). They do not guarantee a solution to a problem but they provide a more highly probable method for discovering the solution to a problem. In the literature, it is stated that these strategies can be classified and named based on their common properties. The most outstanding strategies among them are as follows:
Act it out, look for a pattern, make a systematic list, work backward, guess and check, make a drawing or diagram, write an equation or open sentence, simplify the problem, make a table, eliminate the possibilities, use logical reasoning, matrix logic, and estimation. (Altun, Bintas, Yazgan, & Arslan, 2007, p. 42)
There are many studies on problem-solving at the high school level. Many of them are about students attitudes or beliefs about problem-solving (e.g., Mason, 2003; Salleh & Zakaria, 2009; Sezen & Pali, 2011). Besides, some studies seek more specific aspects of mathematical problem-solving, such as problem posing (Van Harpen & Sriraman, 2013) or connection between metacognition and problem-solving (Pugalee, 2001). As to studies which directly deal with non-routine problem-solving abilities of high school students, they can be sorted out in three groups: (1) experimental studies involving an intervention about non-routine problem-solving (Sriraman, 2004; Lee & Cheng, 2009); (2) studies that determine students overall abilities and attitudes in non-routine problem-solving (Salleh & Zakaria, 2009; Mabilangan, Limjap, & Belecina, 2011); and (3) studies that examine students thinking processes during non-routine problem-solving through their written answers (Pugalee, 2001). Of the above mentioned studies, studies carried out by Salleh and Zakaria (2009), and Mabilangan, Limjap, and Belecina (2011) are the most related ones to the present study. The purpose of Salleh and Zakarias (2009) study was to determine the problem-solving ability and attitudes toward problem-solving among high-achieving 16 years old students. The findings indicated that the students ability to solve problems was good and they had a positive attitude toward problem-solving. There was no significant difference between males and females in understanding problems, planning strategies, executing solution strategies, writing the correct answer, and attitude toward problem-solving based on gender. The purpose of Mabilangan, Limjap, and Belecinas (2011) study was to investigate how well certain students in a university high school solve non-routine problems. Results of analysis of five students solutions showed that each student employed at least four problem-solving strategies. Seven out of the eight possible problem-solving strategies were used at least once to solve the 12 non-routine problems. When given the opportunity to use any problem-solving strategy, the students solved non-routine problems even without prior instruction. The most frequently used strategy was making a model or diagram. After evaluating the students problem-solving skills, results showed that of the five students, three had proficient level of conceptual understanding and procedural knowledge, one was a transitional problem solver from apprentice to proficient level of performance, and one was an apprentice problem solver. Those who performed well were also proficient in the use of solution strategies, whereas, the transitional problem solvers were either novice to apprentice or apprentice to proficient in their use of solution strategies. Beside these studies, Pugalees (2001) study was the other cornerstone of the present study in terms of being interested in high school students scripts and non-routine problem-solving. This study investigated whether students writing about their non-routine mathematical problem-solving processes showed evidence of
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a metacognitive framework. Twenty ninth grade algebra students provided written descriptions of their problem-solving processes as they worked mathematics problems. A qualitative analysis of the data indicated the presence of a metacognitive framework. Students written descriptions demonstrated engagement of various metacognitive behaviors during orientation, organization, execution, and verification phases of mathematical problem-solving. Before explaining significance and reason of carrying out the present study, there is a need to give some information about university entrance exam in Turkey, since it is directly connected to one of the aims of this research. University Entrance Exam in Turkey To be enrolled in a university in Turkey, students first take the Transition to Higher Education Examination (YGS) in April, 2012. Those who pass the YGS in which students have to answer 160 multiple choice questions (Turkish language (40), mathematics (40), social sciences (40), and science (40)) are then entitled to take the Undergraduate Placement Examination (LYS), the second-round exam taking place in June, 2012. Two days are allocated for LYS including five sessions and 420 multiple choice questions in total (Turkish literature and geography (80), mathematics (80), social sciences (90), science (90), and foreign language (80)). However, students do not have to take every session. For example, a student who wants to enroll an undergraduate program about foreign language can take only this part in LYS. Therefore, there are four kinds of scores in LYS: Science-Mathematics, Turkish-Mathematics, Turkish-Social Sciences, and Foreign Languages. In addition, raw LYS scores are further adjusted according to students high school performance and YGS scores. Once the LYS scores are available, students who scored above a certain threshold (180) are asked to submit their choice lists. Each candidate can include up to 24 choices (program-university pairs) in the list, ranked from the most preferred to the least preferred. The students are ranked by their LYS scores. The students with the highest scores are admitted to the top listed programs in their choice lists. As the quotas of the programs preferred by the candidates with the highest scores are filled, candidates with lower LYS scores were assigned to their less preferred programs, or to no programs at all (Caner & Okten, 2012).
The Purpose and Importance of the Study

Despite the large number of studies on non-routine problem-solving, and despite a large quantity of studies about non-routine problem-solving strategies, there are not so many studies which try to describe or analyze high school students non-routine problem-solving abilities in full. Moreover, there is not any study which investigates whether there is a link between non-routine mathematical problem-solving skills of high school students and their achievement on university entrance exam. Therefore, research questions were determined as follows: (1) What is the general situation about the high school students ability and strategy use in non-routine problem-solving? (2) Is there any relationship between high school students scores on university entrance exam and their non-routine problem-solving skills? To obtain more in-depth information about the second research question, it is sought in view of two aspects: Is there any statistical (quantitative) evidence for this linkage? Is there any qualitative evidence for this linkage?
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Method
Instruments To measure non-routine problem-solving skills of students, a paper-pencil test that comprises nine non-routine open-ended problems was constructed by the author. Each problem in the test was intended for using a strategy, and these strategies were make a systematic list, guess and check, make a drawing or diagram, use an equation or open sentence, look for a pattern, work backward, use logical reasoning, simplify the problem, and make a table, respectively (see Appendix A). As a pilot study, this PST was conducted to 50 high school students. Data obtained from the pilot study were evaluated based on coding system explained in the following part, and Croanbach Alfa coefficient for the reliability of the PST was computed as 0.73. Besides, Kappa coefficient for interrater reliability was found as 0.86. Procedure One hundred and forty four students participated the study. Students were from six different high schools in Bursa/Turkey and they all were the 12th grade students. Firstly, all participants took the PST in April, 2012. All students were given 45 minutes to complete PST. But, if a student needed, he/she could have extra time. Students were encouraged about writing all their thoughts while they were solving the problems. By means of document analysis which is the systematic examination of written documents and records of the concept or event that is studied (Yldrm & imek, 2005), all student scripts for each problem were coded as 0 (blank/wrong), 1 (incomplete), and 2 (correct). Even though each problem was chosen for use of one strategy, some students preferred to use some other strategy for the same problem. In these cases, the focus was on whether reasoning of students was correct or not. Coding process was carried out by two students who are enrolled master program on mathematics education. Before starting to code, they had been trained about analyzing answers of student and non-routine problem-solving in the scope of course named Mathematical Thinking in Children. Nevertheless, when uncertainty arose, the author and students discussed the solution and decided upon its code to ensure consistency. This process was similar to which used in Wongs (2008) study. Correct solutions or completely wrong ones were relatively easy to code. There were some difficulties in coding partially correct solutions. Samples of student answers that were coded as 0, 1, and 2 were represented in Figure 1. Since coding system of the test, each student had a total point between 0 and 18 on PST.
(a) wrong (b) incomplete (c) correct Figure 1. Samples of wrong, incomplete, and correct answers to the ninth problem in PST.
Three months later, students took LYS. Since it is a centralized and nationwide exam, any computation about its reliability and validity was not carried out. All kind of scores of each student were obtained from their high schools. Based on preferences of students, either Science-Mathematics or Turkish-Mathematics scores
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were used in the study since only these scores include mathematics part of the LYS. Maximum and minimum scores which students could get on LYS were 180 and 600, respectively. Analysis of Data To reach an answer to the first research question, frequencies of blank/wrong, incomplete and correct answers in PST were computed for each question and then for the total. In addition, the mean of total points on PST was found. As to the second research question, by using students scores on PST and LYS, Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to assess the strength of the association between high school students scores on university entrance exam and their non-routine problem-solving skills. For qualitative aspect of the second research question, students scores on PST and LYS were classified as low, medium, and high. Score ranges for these groups were 0-5, 6-11, and 12-18 on PST. And on LYS, these ranges were determined as 180-320, 321-460, and 461-600.
Results
In relation to the first research question, frequencies of blank/wrong, incomplete and correct answers in PST were shown in Figure 2.
130 120 110 100 90 Frequencies 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 Problems 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
Figure 2. Frequencies of blank/wrong, incomplete and correct answers to each question in PST.
As seen from Figure 2, the first question of the PST about make a systematic list strategy is the question that has the highest number of incomplete answer. However, the number of correct answers for the second, third, and fourth questions are really high. Actually, these questions were aimed at determining usage levels of guess and check, make a drawing or diagram, and use an equation or open sentence strategies, respectively. But, most of the students benefited from use an equation or open sentence strategy for these three questions. Success rate of sixth question about work backward strategy is the lowest when compared to the success rates of other problems. Lastly, it can be said that students were not very successful in employing use logical reasoning, simplify the problem, and make a table strategies as understood from the considerable numbers of blank/wrong answers given to the last three questions. Generally speaking, based on qualitative observations, it can be said that many student could choose and apply appropriate strategy for the
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questions. Besides, some students employed multiple strategies for one question. When all answers on PST are taken into consideration (144 9 = 1296 answers), frequencies of blank/wrong, incomplete and correct answers are 553 (43%), 152 (12%), and 591 (45%), respectively. There are two conclusions that can be derived from these frequencies: (1) The numbers of blank/wrong and correct answers are close to each other; and (2) The numbers of incomplete answers is quite low. Furthermore, the mean of total points on PST was 9.26, which means that general success level on PST is approximate to the average. With regard to the second research question, Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a strong relationship between high school students scores on university entrance exam and their success on non-routine problem-solving (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). To obtain in-depth information, not only quantitative but also qualitative evidences about this relationship were sought in this study. Students thinking processes which they demonstrated through their scripts on PST were quite determinative in this respect. As an example, the answers of two students to the first question about make a systematic list strategy in PST were shown in Figure 3. First student (see Figure 3(a)) got a high score on LYS (481) and PST (16). And his/her advanced thinking skill could be understood from his/her answer including all choices in an ordered way. Second student (see Figure 3(b)), getting low score on LYS (241) and PST (5), reflected his/her insufficient reasoning by writing choices randomly and incompletely.
(a) (b) Figure 3. The answers of two students to the first question about make a systematic list strategy in PST.
In addition, there is another remarkable evidence: Strategy use of students getting high scores on LYS is more varied and sophisticated. In Figure 4, the answers of two high achieving students on LYS and PST to the third question in PST are shown. The first student (see Figure 4(a)) who has got 501 points on LYS and 13 points on PST uses make a drawing or diagram strategy while the second one (see Figure 4(b)) who has got 537 points on LYS and 16 points on PST uses use an equation or open sentence strategy for the same question.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Two high achievers (on LSY and PST) answers to the third question in PST.
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Discussion
Problem-solving involves reasoning and analysis, argument construction, and the development of innovative strategies. These abilities are used not only in advanced mathematics topicssuch as algebra, geometry, and calculusbut also throughout the entire mathematics curriculum beginning in kindergarten. Moreover, according to Woodward et al. (2012), these skills have a direct impact on students achievement scores, as many state and national standardized assessments and college entrance exams include problem-solving. In this context, non-routine mathematical problem-solving skills of high school students and its effect on the achievement on a standardized university entrance exam were searched in the present study. As Pugalee (2001) did in his study, students written responses to open-ended non-routine problems were used in the current study to capture their thinking and reasoning through examination of their use of solution strategies, display of mathematical domain knowledge, and representation of solution processes. When all answers to each problem in PST were analyzed and interpreted separately, more detailed information about use of each strategy was obtained with regard to the first research question. In this sense, results about strategy use can be interpreted as follows: For the first question of PST about make a systematic list strategy, high number of incomplete answer is as expected, because there are 12 choices that students can write for this question, and most of the students could not write all of them. For example, if a student wrote 10 choices systematically, his/her answer was thought as incomplete. However, high success rates of the second, third, and fourth questions of PST can be explained by the fact that writing down an equation to represent numeric relationships in a problem is an algebraic skill that is practiced in the seventh and eighth grades. Low success rate of the sixth question about work backward strategy is another point that needs to be highlighted here. Normally, as seen in Figure 4(a), students could use this strategy in company with make a drawing or diagram strategy while they were solving the third question. This situation may have stemmed from the long and more complicated context of the sixth problem. Students failure on the questions about use logical reasoning, simplify the problem, and make a table strategies indicates that difficulty levels of these strategies are higher and students experiences about using more complicated strategies are limited. In short, nine problem-solving strategies included in this study were used by the students at least once. But the most frequently (and successfully) used strategy was use an equation or open sentence strategy while the least frequently (and unsuccessfully) used one work backward strategy. If all answers on PST are evaluated to have a general overview, low number of incomplete answers on PST is another finding which needs to be pondered. According to Wong (2008), partially correct (or incomplete) solutions are particularly useful because these solutions implicate that pupils can learn from the mistakes and find ways to improve the solution when enough time are given to them. There may be one important reason of this finding: emphasis on correct answers instead of solution processes of students in regular mathematics lessons. Moreover, if numbers of incomplete and correct answers on PST are taken together, it can be said that almost 57% of students could tackle with (or at least attempted to solve) non-routine problems. Mean of total points on PST also supports this finding. Students had not had any instruction on non-routine problem-solving in their school life, so, this success rate may be thought as quite promising for the future experimental studies about teaching of this kind of problems at high school level. This result is compatible with the Salleh and Zakarias (2009) and Mabilangan, Limjap, and Belecinas (2011) findings which indicated that high school students could solve non-routine problems and employ different problem-solving strategies without prior instruction if given the chance to solve this kind of problems. But, the fact that their participants were high
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achievers must be taken into consideration here. The most important finding of this study is the existence of strong link between high school students success on university entrance exam and their abilities in non-routine problem-solving. Along with the qualitative evidences, this finding indicates that non-routine problem-solving requires higher thinking skills, and students who are successful at solving this kind of problems can adapt their critical and creative thinking to the other domains, such as science or language. However, more supporting evidence is needed to describe this link clearly. For example, if students points on university entrance exam for each domain of Turkish literature, foreign language, mathematics, science, and social sciences had been reached separately, more advanced statistics, such as multiple linear regressions would have been conducted to examine the relationship between success on non-routine problem-solving (dependent variable) and success on the other domains (independent variables).
Conclusions
In sum, to meet new challenges in work, school, and life, students will have to adapt and extend whatever mathematics they know. Doing so effectively lies at the heart of problem-solving (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000). So, if primary goal of instruction is to develop students ability to think strategically so that they have a problem-solving disposition including the confidence and willingness to take on new and difficult tasks, teachers should choose non-routine problems that force students to apply what they have learned in a new way. Furthermore, teachers should increase the variety of non-routine problems which they present to the students. In this way, students can be aware of three important points: (1) There is not only one strategy for solving all problems; (2) Some strategies are used more frequently than the others; and (3) Various strategies can be used together in one problem at different stages of problem-solving process.
References
Altun, M., Bintas, J., Yazgan, Y., & Arslan, C. (2007). Examination of problem-solving development of elementary school students (Project No. AFP 2001/37). Bursa, Turkey: Uludag University, Academic Research Projects Department. Burchartz, B., Stein, M. (2002). Reasoning and problem-solving processes of primary and secondary students working on tasks with a goal that cannot be reached. In H. G. U. A. Weigand (Hrsg.), Developments in mathematics education in German-speaking countries (pp. 100-112). Selected papers, Hildesheim. Cai, J. (2003). Singaporean students mathematical thinking in problem-solving and problem posing: An exploratory study. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 34(5), 719-737. Caner, A., & Okten, C. (2012). Higher education in Turkey: Subsidizing the rich or the poor? IZA Discussion Papers 7011, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). Herr, T., & Johnson, K. (2002). Problem-solving strategies: Crossing the river with dogs. USA: Key Curriculum Press. Follmer, R. (2000). Reading, mathematics and problem-solving: The effects of direct instruction in the development of fourth grade students strategic reading and problem-solving approaches to text-based, non-routine mathematics problems (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Widener University). Lee, C., & Cheng, M. (2009). A computer game as a context for non-routine mathematical problem-solving: The effects of type of question prompt and level of prior knowledge. Computers and Education, 52, 530-554. Mabilangan, R. A., Limjap, A. A., & Belecina, R. R. (2011). Problem-solving strategies of high school students on non-routine problems: A case study. Alipato: A Journal of Basic Education, 5, 23-46. Mason, L. (2003). High school students beliefs about Maths, mathematical problem-solving and their achievement in Maths: A cross sectional study. Educational Psychology, 23(1), 73-85. Nancarrow, M. (2004). Exploration of metacognition and non-routine problem based mathematics instruction on undergraduate student problem-solving success (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, the Florida State University). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston/VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
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Polya, G. (1957). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method (2nd ed.). New York: Double Day and Co.. Pugalee, D. K. (2001). Writing, mathematics and metacognition: Looking for connections through students work in mathematical problem-solving. School Science and Mathematics, 101, 236. Salleh, F., & Zakaria, E. (2009). Non-routine problem-solving and attitudes toward problem-solving among high achievers. International Journal of Learning, 16(5), 549-559. Sezen, G., & Pali, G. (2011). Determination of high school students problem solving perceptions. The 2nd International Conference on New Trends in Education and Their Implications, April 27-29, Antalya, Turkey. Sriraman, B. (2004). Differentiating mathematics via use of novel combinatorial problem-solving situations: A model for heterogeneous mathematics classrooms. Paper presented at Topics Study Group 4: Activities and Programmes for Gifted Students: The 10th International Congress on Mathematics Education, Copenhagen, Denmark. Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem-solving, metacognition and sense-making in mathematics. In D. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook for research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 334-370). New York: Mac Millian. Van Harpen, X. Y., Sriraman, B. (2013). Creativity and mathematical problem posing: An analysis of high school students mathematical problem posing in China and the USA. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 82, 201-221. Wong, K. Y. (2008). Success and consistency in the use of heuristics to solve mathematics problems. In M. Goos, R. Brown, & K. Makar (Eds.), Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia (Vol. 2, pp. 589-595). Brisbane: MERGA. Woodward, J., Beckmann, S., Driscoll, M., Franke, M., Herzig, P., Jitendra, A., Koedinger, K. R., & Ogbuehi, P. (2012). Improving mathematical problem-solving in Grades 4 through 8: A practice guide. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Yldrm, A., & imek, H. (2005). Qualitative research methods in social sciences. Ankara: Sekin Publishing. Appendix A: Non-routine Problems Used in the Study (1) How many ways are there to pay a bill of 25 Turkish liras using values of one liras, five liras, and 10 liras? (You can use every kind of values as much as you want). (2) There is a jar full of marbles. Ali and Veli play a marble game. If Ali wins, he takes five marbles from the jar. If Veli wins, he takes seven marbles from the jar. If numbers of their marbles are the same after 24 games, how many games did each of them win? (3) A patch of lily pads doubles it size each day after it starts growing in a pond. If a pond was completely covered just today, what part of it was covered in lily pads five days ago? (4) When Irfan was born, his father was 32 years old. After how many years will the ratio of their ages be 3/11? (5) Find the last term in the sequence 77, 49, 36, 18, . (Explain how you found). (6) Four treasure hunters found a basket full of golden coins. They slept before sharing coins, but the first of them awoke, divided the all coins into two equal groups sharing one by one. One coins left in this way. He took one of the groups, and put the leftover coin another place and went back to sleep. Second, third, and fourth treasure hunters did the same thing on after another. They saw that there were only five coins in the basket when they awoke in the morning. They shared them and they kept the leftover coin in reserve. How many coins were there at the beginning? (7) Using two egg timers, one of which runs for exactly seven min and the others for exactly 11 min, show how to time the cooking of an egg for exactly 15 min? (8) How many squares are there in an 8 8 checkerboard? (9) Provided that there is only one shaded square in each of rows and columns (as shown in figure below), find number of all possible shadings on a 4 4 square.
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The Role of the Organization of the Physical Environment of the Classroom in Education and Teaching
Ibrahim Habaci, Fatmanur Aka
Canakkale 18 Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey
Mehmet Habaci, Fadime Adiguzelli, Sultan Kurt

Kiev National Pedagogical University, Ukrania, Turkey
The importance of education is increasing every day. Education can only achieve its objectives if provided in accordance with the rules. The education must serve people and be more precise. Man becomes a man only when he is educated. As ancient man said, man can only become a man by education. The classroom is a place where we spend most of our educational lives. In order to sustain an effective and productive education, such places should be designed accordingly. The design and variables of the classroom environment, regardless of whether they arise from the psychological factors or structural variables, have a serious impact on the individuals willingness, mood, and motivation to learn. In this study, we have discussed the effects of classrooms physical variables on education. This study is a qualitative study. The findings and suggestions are presented at the end of the study. Classroom management constitutes the basis of the educational administration. The individuals are social beings; the outside world and all those acting on it also affect the psychology of the individual within the classroom environment. The education achieves its objectives only if there is a successful classroom management. This study is based on a qualitative survey. Considering the variables of the classroom, overall findings and suggestions about the necessary conditions are given below. Keywords: classroom, classroom organization, learning, productivity in teaching and education
Introduction
As it is stated in the decision dated Nov. 4, 1997 and numbered 97.39.2761 of the Executive Committee of the Higher Education, school teaching is beyond knowing; it is more like a complicated profession that requires understanding of the relationship between teaching and student, and motivating students to learn (Jenkins, 1998, as cited in Yalnkaya Tombul, 2002).
The history of the humanity is the educational history of mankind. Such an important process has gained importance upon combination with the places. The civilizations have marked the history with the educational places they built, and made such places their source of pride. (Uluda Odac, 2002) The humanity has constituted institutions to meet its needs, regardless of whether in traditional or modern periods. The school is one of the most developed, dynamic, and active institutions which have been developed to meet the social and human needs. With its reliable position, the school endeavors meet what is expected from it. (Reboul, 1991, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002) When you think of a school, the first thing that comes to your mind is mostly the classrooms. The classroom is a
Ibrahim Habaci, Ph.D., assistant professor, Educational Administration, Canakkale 18 Mart University. Fatmanur Aka, research assistant, Educational Administration, Canakkale 18 Mart University. Mehmet Habaci, Ph.D., Educational Sciences, Kiev National Pedagogical University. Fadime Adiguzelli, Ph.D., Educational Sciences, Kiev National Pedagogical University. Sultan Kurt, Ph.D., Educational Sciences, Kiev National Pedagogical University.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM
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special teaching environment where the educational objectives are transformed into behavior; it is the production center of the educational system. In other words, the classroom is a functional part of the educational system in which qualified workforce is raised. (Terzi, 2002) Since the classroom is a place where most of the educational/teaching activities take place, it is an important and functional element of the school system. (Tutkun, 2003)
The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to ensure that the classrooms which are the most important educational environments where the educational and teaching services are rendered and are transformed into places which are able to meet the requirements of the students, educators, and teachers. Hereby, it is aimed at increasing the quality of the education and teaching. The education and teaching today focus on the experiential and hands-on learning, and active participation to the activities. This can only be achieved with the well organized classrooms.
The constructivist approach does not intend to raise students who talk and write only when their teachers tell them so, embrace rote-learning, are quiet, and are incapable of critical thinking. Instead, it intends to raise students who have certain objectives, question the events, opinions and information they observe, interpret and reconstitute the information they obtain, are capable of researching, have desire to research, share their opinions and feelings with others, and are able to develop new opinions, information and feelings by means of these sharings. (Akar Yldrm, 2004)
With this study, we tried to show that the physical organization of the classroom has a great influence on education.
The Importance of the Study

The classrooms are environments where the students at the same level are gathered to ensure that they acquire desirable learning behaviors, and where the teaching activities are carried out. These environments should be equipped with sufficient devices and furniture to serve an effective and efficient purpose. These equipments will increase the motivation in the classroom, and ensure that the students will feel relax and safe, and drive them to take the responsibility of learning. The only way to assure it is closely associated with the organization of the physical environment. The responsibility regarding running and system of the classroom belongs to the teacher. The teacher should be aware of and open to change and development. The physical designs of the classrooms have a significant influence on the quality of the education. Since the physical environment greatly affects the psychological atmosphere in the classroom, it is necessary to constitute an effective educational/teaching environment, in other words, to form the physical environment of the classroom properly. Just by looking at the physical design of the classroom, it can be seen clearly about whether a teacher-centered or student-centered approach is adopted. The situation must be approached with great sensitivity and concern.
Research Model
The relevant literature has been reviewed within the scope of this study. The model of literature reviewing is a data collection technique used in all researches conducted. It is the examination of the present studies, documents, and sources regarding this subject, and data acquisition from such researches. It has been required that the effect of the classrooms physical design on the education/teaching is researched and thoroughly analyzed. This model has been preferred for this reason, and it has been aimed to constitute a source for researches to be conducted about this issue in the future.
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Effective Classroom Management

The success and effectiveness of the school are closely associated with the classroom management. For this reason, the teachers have to be sufficiently qualified to manage the classrooms. The performance of the teachers really matters for students to be successful. Therefore, an effective classroom management has a direct influence on the quality of teaching. The classroom management covers a wide range from the plans for achieving the educational objectives to the implementation of these plans together with relevant principles, concepts, theories, models, techniques and all other activities systemically. (Aaolu, 2003)
One of the effective classroom management requirements is the pre-organizations related to the physical and intellectual structures of the learning environment. There are three main reasons why the learning environments should have a proper physical organization (Blbl, 2008): (1) To ensure that the students learn more easily; (2) To make sure that the students feel physically more comfortable; (3) To increase their motivation to learn. For an effective classroom management, not only the teaching competence, but also the physical organization of the classroom is of a great importance. The presence of desks, steel cabinet, bookcase, and board in a classroom is not enough alone. The organization of all these furniture and materials will affect the students attention, interaction, and communication within the classroom. The teacher who is responsible for the educational/teaching activities has to remove all the psychological obstacles which may arise in the classroom environment, since it is a known fact that the physical environment affects the behavioral pattern of the people. Considering the classroom environment as a reflection of the real life, it should be remembered that every single behavior learnt there will reflect the daily life at some points.
Classroom Organization in the Classroom Management

The students attendance to the classes is ensured both with a positive classroom environment and a successful interaction to be established with them. An interaction which is based on trust and respect between the teacher and the students promotes the students attendance. (Akyol, 2000) The classroom organization means the proper furnishment of a classroom with the equipments required for the achievement of the educational objectives, and placement of such equipments to the parts and sections where they will be most productive or be run economically. It should be taken into consideration that such equipments to be used in the classroom and those who will use these equipments (teacher-student) should be complementary and in harmony. (Korkmaz Kkahmet, 2003)
For teachers, there are two fields of competence related to teaching profession. The first one is the competence related to their teaching methods, and the second is the competence related to their classroom management (Ar Saban, 1999).
The Importance of the Physical Environment

The characteristics of a place hosting a system and the equipments, processes and objectives of that system must be in harmony. The place, as a part of the system, must conform to its other parts (Baar, 2005). According to Piaget, the information is established as a result of the active interaction between the individual and her/his environment.
The role of teaching in this process has shifted from teaching the students directly to designing a classroom environment in which the students may get in interaction with their physical and social environments. The concept of the

teaching environment has changed within this context. (Gven Karata, 2004)
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The most important determinant of the teachers behaviors is the opinions and beliefs they have adopted. The relationship between the people and the physical environment surrounding them is the subject of the Environmental Psychology; this field has a history that dates back to the 1950s (Stokhols Altman, 1987, as cited in Karakk, 2010).
Environment-behavior studies define human as a being that designs places. This effort covers every stage of life: home, school, workplace, playgrounds, or learning/teaching fields. The place (or space) can be described as a gap that separates people from nature to a certain extent, and that is convenient for maintaining their activities. (As cited in Karakk, 2010; Hasol, 2008)
The Physical Variables Affecting the Classroom Management

The physical environment specifies the characteristics of a place allocated for the educational activities. The desks, steel cabinets, equipments, and free spaces within, and some other factors such as temperature, light, and colors of the place constitute the physical variables of the environment. The relationships between the teacher and students are greatly affected by such physical variables. (Aydn, 1988)
For this reason, the organization of the environment (place) is of a great significance in the educational and teaching activities. The objects within the classroom gain importance when they are used by the people. As long as they make a contribution to the teaching process, they are considered to be functional. Hathaway (1998) set forth at the introduction part of his article named Educational Facilities as follows: First, we form the buildings, then they form us, and explained that the buildings were more than just physical places (as cited in Sarpkaya, 2011).
All variables related to the physical environment either support or hinder the education. Both their presence in the environment and their organization and appearance (aesthetics) are effective in terms of education. The physical obstacles, such as desks, tables, steel cabinet, distance, and students, constitute psychological obstacles between the teacher and students. They affect both the communication and interaction. (Blbl, 2008)
King and Marans had examined the studies conducted; detected that there were research findings proving that the colors, temperature, organization and lighting of the place had significant effects on teaching; and encouraged researches to conduct more researches on this subject (Shade, 1986, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002). Based on the studies conducted, it is proven that a good classroom organization motivates the students; increases their success; and ensures that they remember what they have learnt; that they gain the habit of working with others, and helps them to develop stronger friendship bonds (Baar, 1998). Cheng has studies the relationship between the performance of a student and physical environment of a classroom in his study which he conducted in Hong Kong on 21,522 sixth grade students. Based on his findings, it can be said that There is a significant relationship between how the quality of the physical environment is perceived and the performance of the student (Cheng, 1994, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002). A well organized classroom environment may improve the cooperation between the students; strengthen their friendships; increase their learning capacities; ensure that the teacher runs the class better (Cohen, 1996, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002). M. Manning and G. Manning, on the other hand, set forth that the physical environment of the classroom may positively affect the students, and help them to sustain their happiness and productivity, and that it is important for a teacher to benefit from the walls, ceiling, and floor of the classroom, because the will to
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research and productivity may be encouraged thanks to these factors (M. Manning G. Manning, 1993, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002). According to Bucko, a proper teaching atmosphere consists of the friendly classmates, a nice physical environment, soft colors, cleaning, classical music, and supportive teachers (Bucko, 1997; as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002). A classroom environment structured in accordance with the variables, such as the type and level of the education, and purposes of the class facilitate the motivation. The structured environment means the organization of the physical characteristics of a classroom in compliance with its purpose. In any case, the individuals should try to prepare the most appropriate classroom environment as far as possible, because a well-organized physical environment is an integral part of an effective learning-teaching process (Aydn, 2000). Bull and Solity (1987), on the other hand, set forth that there are some key points to be considered while organizing the physical environment of a classroom (as cited in Gnbay, 2011): (1) Since the physical environment affects the behavioral pattern of the people, it should be taken into account for guiding the behaviors of the children included in the classroom environment; (2) Since the way how the people benefit from the places they work in has an impact on where and how they sit/stand in their relationship with other people, it constitutes a significant part of their communication; (3) Different seating arrangements may be deemed proper and preferred for different kinds of activities and interactions; (4) The selection of different seating arrangements and plans in the classroom should be carried in accordance with the type of the activity. This way, the environment is transformed into a place where the children are encouraged to behave in compliance with the requirements of the classes they attend to.
Classroom Size
The students need their teachers more, especially in the first years of primary education. Therefore, the classroom size should be small for the first year pupils, and if needed, it should be increased in parallel with the level of the class (Finn Achilles, 1990, as cited in Karaal, 2006). The researches indicate that there is a significant relationship between the classroom size and success; and that the success in the small classroom size is relatively higher than the success observed in the large classroom size (Baar, 1998). It is possible to use a wide range of teaching methods in the small classroom sizes. There are some advantages of the small classroom sizes for teachers as well. In such classrooms, the teachers are able to use their extra time better, be content with less sources, spend more time with each student, monitor the students development more closely, manage the classroom more effectively, and facilitate the active learning (Celep, 2002).
The classrooms are classified according to the number of students; the classrooms with maximum 16 students are classified as small, those having 16 to 25 students are called medium, and the rest, in other words, those including more students are considered to be large. The classroom size may vary due to changes in the classes, teaching methods, and opportunities in the classroom. There is a significant relationship between the low number of students and the success of teachers and students. This relationship becomes more apparent in parallel with the increase in the classroom size. (Baar, 1999)
The following results have been obtained in many studies conducted on the effect of the classroom size on success (Tutkun, 2002): (1) The level of success is higher in the small classroom sizes; (2) For a high level of success, the number of the students within a classroom should not be higher than 20;
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(3) The small classroom sizes are more successful in the first reading phase and math classes, especially in the primary schools.
Aesthetic Appearance of the Classroom

The classroom should accommodate some features. These are: (1) Functionality that provides a productive studying area and learning opportunities; (2) Emotional intensity that will help students develop a desire to carry out learning activities; (3) Flexibility to serve for different objectives; and (4) Aesthetical value that will let students enjoy while learning, because the physical environment will affect the students psychologically from its organization to its construction. This environment will either increase teaching and continuing development by encouraging the students, or prevent the teaching and development by discouraging them. (Kleberg, 1998, as cited in Sarpkaya, 2011)
In this regard, each variable related to the physical environment can either support or hinder the education. Both the objects in the environment and their organization and appearance (aesthetical condition) are important and effective in education (Uluda Odac, 2002). The classroom should be spacious. The ceiling should not be low; the windows should be wide; the furniture should be attractive; and the teachers desk should be covered. These all make the classroom environment more attractive (Baar, 1999).
Seating Plan
The teacher should consider the individual differences of the students while arranging the seating plan (elik, 2002). One of the main concerns while arranging the seating plan is to ensure that everyone can easily see and listen and no one prevents anyone in this sense (Harris, 1991, as cited in Karaal, 2006). The main approaches used while arranging the desks in the classroom (Arends, 1991; Woolfolk, 1995, as cited in Karaal, 2006). Classic Arrangement in Columns and Rows This is one of the most common arrangement styles used in Turkey. In this kind of arrangement, the desks are lined up consecutively in two or three columns, depending on the size of the classroom. Cooperative Clusters In this approach, either four or six desks are grouped. This seating style is proper for teaching based on cooperation, and for other teaching methods applicable with the small groups, such as small discussion groups. Circle or U-shaped Arrangement In this approach, the desks are arranged either as a circle or in U-shape. This way, the students can carry out a face-to-face communication with each other. The teacher can have an easier eye contact with the students. This kind of arrangement can be used for large group discussions, solving problems with the group, and during the use of explanation and demonstration methods. Circle and U-shaped arrangement increase the students participation to classes, and interaction with each other, and has a positive influence on the teaching. However, it is hard to use this kind arrangement style in the large classroom sizes (Erden, 2005). Auditorium (Conference) Arrangement In case the number of the students is high and a subject which is based on giving formal information is being taught, the conference arrangement may be more effective . This kind of desk arrangement makes it hard for students to communicate with each other. This seating arrangement may be effective in cases requiring visual presentation (Erdoan, 2000).
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Multi-grouped Seating Arrangement

In this type, the desks are grouped to constitute many small study groups. Multi-grouped seating arrangement enables students to cooperate with each other and helps them to develop their leadership skills. If the students are not well organized, the disciplinary problems may arise in such classrooms. It is a proper layout for the laboratory practices. It is easier to use in the small classroom sizes. (Baar, 2005) This arrangement allows students to learn in cooperation; develop their leadership skills, solidarity, participation, discussion skills, ability to listen, and hands-on learning. (Hiebert Wearne, 1993, as cited in Karaal, 2006)
Single Group Arrangement

In this kind of arrangement, the entire classroom is considered as a whole. The students participate in the learning process actively. Since the student is able to see everyone, he is involved in a multi-dimensional interaction, including communication by means of body language. The students may be seated in a circle, square, U-shaped or V-shaped plan. The teacher is a member of this group. This arrangement is proper for the small classrooms. (Baar, 1999)
Individual Seating Arrangement

In this kind of seating arrangement, single-student desks are used, so that the students may act independently. The students have the opportunity to sit in various ways with such desks. However, while the student is acting independently, the rate of sharing, peer learning, and cooperation decrease. The students can get immediate help from their friends if they do not understand the subject during the class. Single-student desks were really common in our country for some time. However, it is seen that the two-student desks have started to regain their popularity back. (Sarpkaya, 2011)
Color
Color perception and color senses are important stimulants of the spatial perception. The energy created by the light and colors has a considerable effect to make a place (un)attractive. This effect is defined with the psychological-physical perception which is the combination of the psychological and physical perception. (Ylmaz, 2002)
The colors may make people feel energetic, excited, calm, cold or hot, and disturbed or peaceful; they can activate our passions or vice versa (H. Sun D. Sun, 1998, as cited in Odac Uluda, 2002).
Based on the results of the researches conducted, the colors cause some changes in the mood, psycho-motor function, muscle activities, breathing, pulse, or blood pressure. It is proven that the cool colors lead to a decrease in the blood pressure, and relaxation, and the warm colors cause an increase in the blood pressure, and nervousness. Considering that we spend almost 2/3 of our lives in the indoor spaces, it should not be so hard to guess how big the effect of the colors is on us and why they are so important. (H. Sun D. Sun, 1998, as cited in Odac Uluda, 2002)
Odaba (2006) summarized the effects of colors on people as follows: (1) Yellow: It lifts up our spirits. Bright yellow light has a positive influence on the blood circulation. It is the brightest color. It is a stimulus for intellectuality; (2) Orange: It gives joy. It ensures moving and increases vitality. As it gets closer to the Brown on the color chart, it starts to ensure serenity; (3) Red: It is the symbol of struggle of vitality. It is exiting. It creates sincerity and likeness. It is a color that makes people lose managerial control; (4) Green: It inspires gladness, quietness, and hope. It is a cool, fresh, and rejuvenating color. It is a relaxing color; (5) Blue: It is a cool and calm color. It increases the ability to think and make decision. It helps people to
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come up with creative ideas. It is a color that calms people and strengthens calmness; (6) Purple: It is the color of ideas that are hard to come true, and causes sadness. If it is applied on wide surfaces, it can be even perceived as scary. It is the color of regret; (7) White: It inspires cleanness and purity. It increases the sense of relief; (8) Black: It inspires severity and solemnity. If used on small surfaces it creates vitality; however, if used on large surfaces it causes terror and fear; (9) Gray: It is the color of maturity. It inspires caution and relaxation. It makes people perceive the other colors better. The classroom colors vary in accordance with the developmental characteristics of the students. Yellow, pink, and peach are recommended until the high school period starts; blue and blue-green hues are suggested for the period following the high school (Barker, 1982, as cited in Karaal, 2006).
Acoustic and Noise

The noise arising from the area where the school is located, its architectural structure, and students has a negative influence on teaching. As a result of the attention deficit, a classroom where it is hard to hear what the teacher says, weak teaching style that does not meet the expectations and needs of the students, the students are more likely to be distracted and start talking, and interrupt the integrity of the class. (nal Ada, 2000) In this sense, the noise is not desired at all in a teaching environment, because the external noises generally override the sounds in other studying areas. This situation creates an inappropriate teaching environment for the students. (Hathaway, 1988, as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002) Of course, the exterior is not the only noise source that disturbs people. The classroom environment where the social life takes place should be regarded as a noise producing environment as well. From this point of view, it is obvious that the teacher should be aware of the fact if she/he does not remove the noise source away, there wont be a peaceful teaching environment. (Aydn, 1988)
Ar and Saban, on the other hand, are of the opinion that:

the noise has an interruptive, preventive, distracting, and disturbing effect on the students in terms of hearing, listening and understanding; and therefore, the teachers have to be responsive to the internal and external noises and make the necessary arrangements in the classroom. (Ar Saban, 1999) Efficient learning is a product of a positive communication system while the undesired behaviors are the products of communicational pathology (Aydn, 1988). It is hard for a student who does not hear what the teacher says during the class in a noisy classroom environment, and cannot understand since he is not able to hear well to learn the subject well. Sometimes both the teachers and students have to raise their voices due to the noise and in order to achieve a good verbal communication; and sometimes they have to repeat their verbal message several times. (Baar, 2001)
Figure 1. Shannon and Weavers model of communication (Dkmen, 1999).
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In general sense, the communication is a process (see Figure 1) in which the participants produce information/symbol and deliver these symbols to each other, try to understand and interpret such messages (Dkmen, 1999).
Light and Illumination

In order to make the best use of the sunlight in the classrooms, the building facilities should face to the main light direction, the window surfaces should correspond to more than 20% of the floor area, and the depth of the classroom should be less than 6.50 m. (Neufert, 1974, as cited in Ycel, 2008) The illumination of the classroom should be provided by means of solar energy as much as possible. Artificial lighting cannot replace the solar energy. However, if artificial lighting is inevitable, then, fluorescent lights should be used. Although there is not any lighting source that can produce sufficient amount of light has not been developed yet, a lighting source, whose lighting capacity is almost as much as the sunlight should be preferred. Insufficient or redundant illumination is no good for human health. (Ik, iman, Turan, 2004)
Maas, Jayson, and Kleiber (1974) compared the effects created by the full spectrum (fluorescent light imitating the sunlight) and cool-white lights on the students of Cornell University in their study. The results indicated an increase in the visual perception problems of the students studying under the full-spectrum light; however, those studying under the cool-white light showed higher ratio of perceptual fatigue. Ott, Nations, and Mayron (1988) compared the effects of two different light sources on the students as well. While traditional cool-white light was used in one of the classrooms, full-spectrum fluorescent light was used in the other classroom. The results proved that the full-spectrum light has a positive effect on the behaviors of the students (as cited in Uluda Odac, 2002).
Cleaning and Ventilation

An adult has to consume 2.5 kgs of water, and 1.5 kgs of food, however, has to breathe approximately 15 kgs of air per day to survive. This means air is the most needed substance among others. A person is able to survive for 6 weeks without food, and for 6 days without water; however, he cannot survive not even for 6 minutes without air. (Ekinci Ozan, 2006)
Insufficient oxygen makes students inattentive and sleepy. In such cases, the teacher should have the students open the windows, instead of blaming them (Hull, 1990, as cited in Karaal, 2006). The classrooms should be ventilated during break times between the activities. Since ventilation that is carried out by open windows facing each other causes a strong air flow and it disturbs the students, the teachers should avoid such ventilation (Grel, 2003). The research conducted hereon emphasizes that the air within the classroom should be clean and fresh, and insufficient oxygen amount causes students to be inattentive and sleepy (Uluda Odac, 2002).
Cleaning is another factor that should be handled with great care in the schools, particularly in terms of our health and success. The teachers should cooperate with the school administration to ensure regular ventilation of the classrooms during the break times, which will get the students adopt it as a habit and facilitate visual learning as well. (Uluda Odac, 2002)
Temperature
The temperature has a significant influence on the people. Based on many findings obtained from the research conducted, the heating system affects both the performance and behaviors (Bul Solity, 1987, as
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM cited in Uluda Odac, 2002).
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It can be said that for someone who dresses appropriately for the occasion, the necessary room temperature is around 20 degrees. The temperature of the classroom depends on the season, humidity as well as students. Clothing and physical conditions of the classrooms change the effect of the temperature. (Baar, 1998) Extremely hot or cold temperatures in the classroom have a negative effect on the students concentration on the class. The classroom temperature must be at the normal room temperature. Extremely cold or hot classroom environments affect the student in a negative way. It is agreed that the ideal classroom temperature is between 19 C and 21.5 C. (nal Ada, 2000)
It is possible to regulate the classroom temperature by means of heaters and coolers. The students can wear proper clothing according to the changes in temperature as well (Baar, 2005).
The classroom temperature changes according to the seasons, humidity, and students. Clothing and physical conditions of the classroom change the effect of the temperature. Hot temperatures may cause physical disorders, inattention, fatigue, and other reflected problems. On the other hand, the students focus on getting warm at the low temperatures, which makes it hard for them to focus on teaching. (Celep, 2002)
Classroom Dimensions
The classrooms are the places where the students carry out their learning activities within the school. The classrooms should be large enough to enable students feel comfortable, walk around, change the seating plan according to the classes, and ensure extra space for steel cabinets for students to store their materials, and keep the files. Since the extra large classrooms will be accompanied by some problems, such as heating and sound system issues, the classrooms should not be extremely large. The small classrooms will ensure a functional educational environment due to the abovementioned factors. (Sarpkaya, 2011) It would not be realistic to set a number for students to be included within a classroom. One of the determinants related to the student number is the level of the class in general. The students need their teachers help more during the first years; and their circle of interest is not really wide. For this reason, the number of the students should be low, and increased in parallel with the level of the class, if necessary. The classrooms with maximum 20 students are classified as small, those having 20 to 30 students are called medium, and those including more than 30 students are considered to be large. (Gnbay, 2011) Since there can be physically handicapped students in the classroom, there should be safe environments where they can freely move as well. These students should be able to move between the desks and in the classroom. The reference materials, blackboard, equipments, and the shelves allocated to store them should be at an easily reachable height for them. Provided that such factors are considered, the handicapped students will be able to maintain their activities on their own. (Korkmaz, 2003)
According to Bull and Solity (1987), there are some environmental factors acting on the students behaviors (see Table 1) (as cited in elik, 2007). Table 1 Environmental Factors Acting on the Students Behaviors
Physical factors Social factors Educational factors Studying and movement area Classroom size, organization, and educational Educational duty, period of education in the classroom difficulties Seating plan Individual studying or studying in groups The way the teacher present the subject Writing down the research and subjects Distribution of the materials Classroom rules discussed Teachers attitude towards the students and Noise level class; students attitude towards the teacher and Practices performed during the day or in a class other students
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Result and Suggestions

The teachers are not only responsible for educating the students, but also for creating a proper learning environment for them during this educational process. The classroom environment should be so attractive that the students are willing to learn. One of the most important objectives of the classroom is to facilitate the education/teaching activities. In this case, the importance of a well-organized physical environment becomes clearer. Constructivist approach, which is based on producing information, rather than consuming it, is adopted in our educational system. According to this approach, the physical arrangement of the classroom should be activity-centered, and the teacher should be the one who plans, evaluates, and guides this process. Each variable of the physical environment has both positive and negative effects on the education (Kkahmet, 2001). Both their presence in the environment and their organization and appearance (aesthetics) are effective in educational sense (Baar, 1998). The physical environment which has a considerable influence on the students social and communicative behaviors should have the following features at least (zyrek, 2001): (1) The physical environment should be comfortable and sufficiently large in size; (2) It should encourage students to participate in the teaching activities and maximize the participation; (3) The way to multi-learning opportunities should be paved for the students; (4) It should reflect the teachers expectations, and set a ground for the right communication environment within the classroom; (5) It should reiterate what the teachers have succeeded on new models, and ensure the continuity of the achievements. Following suggestions can be presented for the physical design of the classrooms: (1) The classroom size should be considered. The classroom size can differentiate depending on the educational/teaching activities and level. For instance, the number of the students should be low for the classes including experiments. However, this number can be high for classes straight lecture method. Generally, the classroom size should be limited with 30; (2) The classroom environment should be arranged in a way that ensures active participation of the students, informs them about all activities, and will not let them hide. Circle or U-shaped seating arrangement should be used for this reason; (3) The research has proved that the ideal temperature of the classroom environment should be between 19 C and 21.5 C. Considering that the colors also have an impact on the human psychology, the colors should be selected properly. Yellow, pink, and orange are recommended for the first and second cycles of the primary education; blue and blue-green hues are suggested for the high school and higher education institutes; (4) The teachers in charge of managing the class should be able to prevent the noise which may arise in the classroom with classroom rules, in-class activities etc.. Both in-class noise and external noises are important, because noise is variable that affects the communication and educational/teaching environment negatively, and therefore, has to be taken under control; (5) The dimension of the classroom must be able to provide a functional environment where the students can carry out their activities and move around easily, and which will not cause any physical problems for the students; (6) The classroom should comply with other dynamics of the school and be in connection with such
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dynamics; (7) The classroom should be designed spaciously and ensure a good ventilation to prevent some negative factors such as sleep, attention deficit etc. in the classroom; (8) While designing the physical conditions of a classroom, the expectations of the students should be considered as well; (9) Especially for the first cycle of the primary education, the classroom should not be designed much more different than the students usual living environment. The classroom should be designed in cooperation with the students in the following years; (10) It should be remembered that the classroom environment is a breathing and living organism; (11) The climate conditions and main sunlight direction within the area where the school will be built should be taken into account before the school construction starts.
References
Aaolu, E. Kaya, Z. (2003). Classroom management, general phenomenon with classroom management (pp. 1-14). Ankara: Pegem Yaynclk. Akar, H., & Yldrm, A. (2004, July). A case study of constructivist learning in classroom management course in teacher education. Paper presented at JURE Conference of EARLI, stanbul. Akyol, H. (2000). Classroom management, creating a positive learning environment (pp. 123-150). Ankara: Nobel Yayn Datm. Arends, I. R. (1991). Learning to teach. New York: McGrow-Hill Inc. Ar, R., Saban, H. (1999). Classroom management (p. 64). Konya: Gnay Ofset. Aydn, A. (1988). Classroom management (p. 42). Ankara: An Yaynclk. Aydn, A. (2000). Classroom management (p. 64). stanbul: Alfa Kitabevi. Balay, R. (2003). Classroom management in the 2000s. Ankara: Sandal Yaynclk. Barker, L. (1982). Communication in the classroom. Englewood Cliff: Prentice Hall Inc.. Baar, H. (1998). Classroom management (pp. 28-32). Ankara: nder Matbaaclk Ltd ti.. Baar, H. (1999). Classroom management (pp. 28-32). stanbul: Milli Eitim Basmevi. Baar, H. (2001). Classroom management. Ankara: Pegem Yaynclk. Baar, H. (2005). Classroom management (pp. 28-32). Ankara: An Yaynclk. Bucko, R. L. (1997). Using what brain-based research tells us. Streamlined Seminar, 16(2), 3. Bull, S. L., Solity, J. E. (1987). Classroom management: Principles to practice (pp. 49-62). London: Routledge. Blbl, T., Birol, Y. (2008). Communication in the classroom. Classroom management. stanbul: Kriter Yaynevi. Celep, C. (2002). Classroom management and discipline. Ankara: An Yaynclk. Cheng, Y. C. (1994). Classroom environment and student affective performance an effective profile. Journal of Experimental Education, 62(3), 221-239. Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. (1996). A guide to teaching practice (p. 342). London and New York: Rutledge, Great Britain by Clays Ltd.. elik, V. (2002). Classroom management. Ankara: Nobel Yaynlar. Dewey, J. (1996). Democracy and education. M. Salih Otaran (Trans.). stanbul: Baar Yaymclk. Dkmen, . (1999). Contact conflict and empathy (p. 322). stanbul: Sistem Yaynclk. Duman, T., Kkahmet, L. (2000). Classroom management, start a new era. Ankara: Nobel Yaynclk. Ekinci C. E., Ozan, S. S. (2006). Relationship building-environment and human-space. Geographical Information Systems Information Days. stanbul Fatih niversitesi. Erden, M. (2005). Classroom management. stanbul: Epsilon Yaynclk. Erdoan, . (2000). Classroom management. stanbul: Sistem Yaynclk. Ericson, D. K. (1993). Middle school mathematics teachers views of mathematics and mathematics education. Paper presented at The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta.
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Finn, J. D., Archilles, C. M. (1990). Answers and questions about class size: A statewide experiment. American Educational Research Journal, 27(3), 557-577. Gnbay, . (2011). Classroom management. stanbul: Eyll. Gven, B., Karata, . (2004). Designs primary school mathematics teachers classroom environment. lkretim Online, 3(1), 25-34. Harris, A. (1991). Proactive classroom management: Several ounces of prevention. Contemporary Education, 62(3), 56-160. Hasol, D. (2008). Encyclopedic dictionary of architecture. stanbul: YEM Yaynevi. Hathaway, W. E. (1987). Light, color & air quality: Important elements of the learning environment (pp. 35-44). Education Canada: Fall/Automne. Hathaway, W. E. (1988). Educational facilities (pp. 28-35). Education Canada: Winter/Hiver. Hiebert, J., Wearne, D. (1993). Instructional tasks, classroom discourse and students learning in second grade arithmetic. American Educational Research Journal, 30(2), 393-425. Hull, J. (1990). Classroom skills, a teacher guide. London: David Fulton Publishing. Ik, H., iman, M., & Turan, S.(2004). Classroom management, learning environments physical layout. Ankara: Pegem A Yaynclk. Jenkins, L., Yenersoy, G. (1988). Improving learning in classrooms. Papers presented at Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering Symposium on Teaching 30 years. KalderYaynlar No.118. Karaal, A. (2006). Evaluation of physical variables affecting class management. Gazi University Krehir Faculty of Education, 7(1), 145-155. Karakk, A. (2010). School counseling services in physical/spatial analysis of conditions, directory of teachers in the context of spatial perception. Sosyal Bilimler Enstits Dergisi Say, 28, 421-440. Karip, E. (2007). Classroom management. Ankara: Pegem A Yaynclk. Korkmaz, A., Kkahmet, L. (2003). Classroom management, classroom organization. Ankara: Nobel Yaynclk. Kkahmet, L. (2001). Classroom management. Ankara: Nobel Yaynclk. Maning, M., Manning, G. (1993). How comfortable is your classroom? Teaching and writing. Teaching Pre K-8, 24(2), 127-128. Odaba, H. A.(2006). Graph basic design. stanbul: Yorum Sanat Yaynlar. zyrek, M. (2001). Classroom management (p. 97). Ankara: Karatepe Yaynlar. Reboul, R., Grbz, I. (1991). Philosophy of education (pp. 44-49). stanbul: letiim Yaynlar. Sarpkaya, R. (2011). Classroom management. Ankara: htiya Yaynclk. Shade, B. J. (1986). Cultural diversity and the school environment. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 25(2), 80-87. Stokhols, D., Altman, I. (1987). The handbook of environmental psychology (p. 1360). New York: Wiley. Sun, H., Sun, D., Songr, A. E., Demirci, M. (1998). Spice up your life (p. 1). stanbul: Kurti Matbaaclk. Terzi, A. R. (2002). Behaviors of effective teachers in terms of classroom management (pp. 155-156). Milli Eitim Dergisi. Tutkun, ., Kaya, Z. (2002). Using lessons relevant period, classroom management. Ankara: Pegem A Yaynclk. Tutkun, . F., Kaya, Z. (2003). Classroom management, classroom layout. Ankara: Pegem A Yaynclk. Uluda, Z., Odac, H. (2002). Space activities physical education (pp. 153-154). Milli Eitim Dergisi. nal, S., Ada, S. (2000). Classroom management. stanbul: Marmara niversitesi Teknik Eitim Fakltesi Matbaas. Yalnkaya, M., Tonbul, Y. (2002). Perceptions of elementary school classroom teachers classroom management skills and observations. Ege Eitim Dergisi, 2, 1-10. Yldrm, A., Akar, H. (2004). Using constructivist teaching activities classroom management lesson: An action research. Papers presented at Sabanc niversitesi Eitimde yi rnekler Konferans, stanbul. Ylmaz, . (2002). Color systems, color spaces and transformations (p. 340). Papers presented at Seluk niversitesi Teaching 30 years of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering Symposium, Konya. Ycel, S. (2008). Effect of physical variables of the class student achievement in primary schools (Unpublished master thesis, Yeditepe niversitesi).
D
Ruta Renigere
DA VID
PUBLISHING
Ecological Competence Model for Nurses

Ludis Pks
Latvian University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia
Latvia University of Agriculture, Jelgava, Latvia; Riga Stradins University, Riga, Latvia
It is globally important to ensure sustainable development in all fields, including nursing education and patient care practice; such development can be ensured by an ecological approach in nursing education and patient care, where a nurses ecological competence has great importance. In this research, the theoretical base of nurses ecological competence is evaluated, the perceptions of nurse practitioners about ecological competence are determined, and an ecological competence model for nurses is developed. The model is based on nursing, ESD (education for sustainable development), the EQF (European Qualifications Framework), ecology of education, care practice, and experience gained during it. The bio-ecological model of the ecosystem and chronosystem of human development developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner and his follower serves as a methodological base. Keywords: ESD (education for sustainable development), care practice, ecological competence of nurses
Introduction
The World Health Organizations report on prognoses for the year 2050 indicates that life expectancy in the majority of European states will reach more than 80 years of age; that is not only a great achievement, but also a challenge for health and social care in order to ensure human survival and promote a high quality of life (World Health Organization, 2002). Thus, the education and practice of nurses must change accordingly. Sustainable development, which is related to the environment, economy, and the social sphere, is important on a global scale, or on a megasystem level. According to the UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) strategy (UNESCO Characteristics of ESD (Education for Sustainable Development), 2005), in the 21st century, it is necessary to develop and implement education, including nursing education, as ESD. An ecological approach in nursing education and practice that requires a nurse to have ecological competence fits in with this strategy. The necessity and possibilities of this approach have influenced trends in nursing and education by expanding the sphere of current patient care, incorporating into its concepts about global ecosystems, communities, and mutual relationships derived from the science of human ecology. The purpose of study: To develop a model of ecological competence for nurses. The objectives of study:
Ludis Pks, Dr. paed., Dr. Sc. ing., professor (emeritus), Institute of Education and Home Economics, Latvia University of Agriculture. Ruta Renigere, Mg. paed., Mg. Sc. sal., Dr. paed. candidate, Institute of Education and Home Economics, Latvia University of Agriculture; lecturer, Red Cross Medicine College, Riga Stradins University.
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ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES (1) To evaluate the theoretical base of the ecological competence of nurses; (2) To determine the perceptions of nurse practitioners about their ecological competence; (3) To describe graphically the creation of an ecological competence model for nurses. The methodological base of the study: The bio-ecological model of the ecosystem and chronosystem of human development created by U. Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and his followers (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989, 2005; Bronfenbrenner Morris, 2006). In the hierarchical structure of the system, Urie Bronfenbrenner divided the ecosystem of human development into four levels or systems: micro-, meso-, exo-, and macro- systems. The micro-system level includes the human (a nurse in the context of this study) who is viewed as an endosystem with several levels: level of overall functioning, psychological level, motoric level, and physiological level (Hirsto, 2001). The
chronosystem model includes three levels: micro-time, mega-time, and macro-time (Bronfenbrenner Morris, 1998). Nursing education and practice in Latvia are also regulated by European-level directives. The major directive in the context of the current study is the EQF (European Qualifications Framework) for Lifelong Learning (EQF, 2008). Trends in sustainable development and directives of UNESCOs ESD are important at the global level or scale. A specific study activity or professional development program, or care treatment, takes place within micro-time. Meso-time covers several activities, or patient care. The theoretical base of the study of nurses competenceecology of human development, deep ecologyhas developed within macro-time over the course of several decades. Awareness of the importance of ecology in the field of nursing has also increased during recent years. Three building blockssustainability/sustainable development, deep ecology or ecosophy, and ecology of human development make principles of an ecological approach in nursing education and health care practice. Building Blocks of the Ecological Competence Sustainable development. The need for sustainable development was actualized during a UN (United Nation) conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and attended by leaders of more than 170 countries. Agenda 21Action Programme for the 21st Century was established during the conference. It called for sustainable development of a global society that meets peoples current needs without endangering the environment and natural resources to satisfy the needs of future generations (UN Division for Sustainable Development Agenda 21, 2005). Since this conference, the need to apply the sustainability principle in economic, social, and environmental spheres has been widely recognized (Sterling, 2005). Research performed by the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) emphasizes that sustainable development and social solidarity depend on competencies of society as a whole. Competencies are defined as knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values; because these competencies cannot be taught, they must be learned (OECD, 2003). Sustainability and sustainable development depend on all eco- and chronosystem levels and dimensions. Health care is a sphere that must take issues of environmental protection very seriously because new technologies and achievements in pharmaceutics are not always friendly to people and the environment (in the context of this studyto patients, nurses, and the care environment). An ecological approach in
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nursing education and practice encourages a change in attitude, motivation, and awareness, creating a friendly and safe care process for patients, the environment, and care team that is focused on sustainabilitythe maintenance of patients survival and the development of nurses operational capabilities. Ecosophy or deep ecology. The Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess (1912-2009), a researcher of deep ecology and ecosophy, believed that the most promising way to protect internal values nowadays is to take gestalt thinking seriously. Then, objects will be defined as gestalts rather than as externally related bodies of things guided by forces, and thus, subject-object duality will be abolished (Naess, 1995; Sessions, 1995). The first and seventh points of Naesss and Sessions eight-point platform formulated in 1984 described the basic philosophical principles of the ecological competence of nurses (Naess, 1973; Sessions, 1995). The first point of the platform states:
The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth have value in themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent worth). These values are independent of the usefulness of the non-human world for human purposes. (Sessions, 1995, p. 213)
The seventh point declares that:

The ideological change will be mainly that of appreciating quality of life (dwelling in situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between bigness and greatness. (Sessions, 1995, p. 213)
From the first and seventh points of the deep ecology platform, we may conclude that the aim of nursing practice is to ensure patients survival and security, because every human being has value in our multicultural society. Questions that elicit heated debate are concerned not only with the rapid ageing of society, which is connected with the growth of the retirement age of the population, but also about successful and timely diagnosis of chronic diseases, treatment, and patient care. Society is shaken by discussions on controversial issues, such as euthanasia and abortion; these issues touch the very core of ecosophy, which holds it that each living being has value regardless of its usefulness for humans. The seventh point of the deep ecology platform emphasizes that ideology has to changeit must realize that scientific achievements and new technologies have to serve the welfare of mankind. Knowledge and understanding of ecosophy promote an ecological approach in patient care, embryo, and human rights defense, ensuring the vitality of the population, encouraging the survival of the population while preserving and enhancing its quality of life. Ecology of human development. The ecology of human development is based on the interaction between the individual and the environment, whereby, the development of the individual occurs in mutually subordinate environmental structures in which each of them supplements one another; the interaction of these mutually connected systems has to be taken into account in the context of human development. Authors rely on the insights of Bronfenbrenner and his followers, as well as others (Bronfenbrenner, 1989, 2005; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Bubolz & Sontag, 1993; Herrin & Wright, 1988; Hirsto, 2001; Huitt, 2012; Katane, 2005; Turpeinen, 2005); these insights form a significant theoretical base in the study of the ecological competence of medical nurses, as well as in developing nursing education and the nursing practice environment from a holistic perspective.
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ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES In transforming Bronfennbreners ecosystem model, three levels that directly or indirectly affect the development of nurses ecological competence were studied: (1) local level of the nursing education program and nursing practice; (2) European levelEQF; and (3) global levelESD. The ecological competence of a nurse is formed and developed in an educational institution that offers study and professional development programs for nurses, as well as in care practice where deliberate and unconscious informal learning occurs simultaneously with care. An ecologically competent nurse is characterized by the ability to think critically and prevent potential risks in endo- and microsystems, as well as to examine more broadly her activities in the wider context of the exo- and macrosystem. Basic Principles of the Ecological Approach in Nursing Education and Care Practice
(1) Each organism has the right to life, survival, and quality of life; (2) Sustainable development, survival, and quality of life apply to all levels and dimensions and their influence during micro-, mega- and macro- time; (3) Sustainability is encouraged by diversity, viewpoint complementarity, and an environmentally friendly attitude and actions in nursing education and care practice; (4) Quality of education in nursing and quality of patient care encourage a mutual conformity of the patients internal system (endosystem) and external system (exosystem)its increase and maintenance (adaptation) possibilities during changes in the internal or external environment (system); (5) In implementing nursing education and patient care, all resources (environmental, intellectual, and material) must be used most efficiently, rationally, and cautiously; (6) Elimination or minimization of all kinds of internal and external environmental pollution. The lessons, skills, and competences that a nurse has learned must serve the new understanding of the internal and external environment (endo- and exosystem), its structure, dimensions, and interactions in the context of education and care which must not be separated and which must be based not only on the mind but also on feelings. The ecological competence of a nurse is based on nursing, ESD, the EQF, educational ecology, care practice, and experience gained during it (see Figure 1). Nursing. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), the founder of the nursing profession, acknowledged the significance of the care environment, thus, marking the beginning of the ecological approach in nursing education and care (Dossey, Selanders, Beck, Attewell, 2005; Ellis, 2008; George, 2010; Kudzma, 2006; Miracle, 2008; Nightingale, 1992; Stanley, 2007; Whall, Shin, Colling, 1999). Most nursing theories have consistently taken into account the environment, but the nature of the ecosystem, which implies a functional relationship among organisms present in the environment, is not always identified in current theories. In developing a model of a nurses ecological competence and in conducting studies and care based on it, a nurses knowledge, skills, and competence characteristic of the ecological approach must be actualized. ESD (education for sustainable development). In UNESCO documents ESD: Three Terms and One Goal (UNESCO, 1995-2012), ESD is characterized by the use of three termssustainable development, ESD, and the UN DESD (Decade of Education for Sustainable Development) (2005-2014). ESD consequently promotes competencies, such as critical thinking, imagining future scenarios, and making decisions in a
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collaborative way. DESD seeks to integrate the principles, values, and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning in order to address the social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues we face in the 21st century.
Figure 1. Ecological competence model of nurses.
ESD is relevant to all learning settings and levelsformal, non-formal, and informal. All educational programs should be based on five fundamental pillars of learning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, learning to be, and learning to transform oneself and society. All learning settings and fundamental pillars are significant in nursing education, as well as in nursing practice. Informal education/learning takes place in daily life as a lifelong process, whereby, every individual acquires competenceknowledge, skills, attitudes, and values from daily experiences in his/her care environment, the family, the library, and the mass media. Informal education/learning is particularly important for learning to live together, learning to be, and learning to transform oneself and society. The EQF (European Qualifications Framework). The EQF contains the following definitions (European Qualifications Framework, 2008): (1) Learning outcomes refer to what the learner knows, understands, and is able to do after completing the learning process which is defined in terms of knowledge, skills, and competence;
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(2) Knowledge refers to the outcome of the assimilation of information through learning. Knowledge is the body of facts, principles, theories, and practices that are related to a field of work or study. In the context of the EQF, knowledge is described as theoretical and/or factual; (3) Skills refer to the ability to apply knowledge in order to complete tasks and solve problems. In the context of the EQF, skills are described as cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive, and creative thinking) or practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools, and instruments); (4) Competence refers to the proven ability to use knowledge, skills, and personal, social, and/or methodological abilities in work or study situations and in professional and personal development. In the context of the EQF, competence is described in terms of responsibility and autonomy. Nursing education in Latvia corresponds to the fifth level in the EQF. Knowledge, skills, and competence of this level are characterized in the following three ways: (1) Knowledgecomprehensive, specialized, factual, and theoretical knowledge within the field of work or study and an awareness of the boundaries of that knowledge; (2) Skillsa comprehensive range of cognitive and practical skills required to develop creative solutions to abstract problems; (3) Competencemanagement and supervision in contexts of work or study activities where there is unpredictable change, review, and development of performance of oneself and others (European Qualifications Framework, 2008). Evaluation of learning outcomes of a specific nursing study program which was created according to the EQF and Latvias nursing profession standard found that there a nurses ecological or sustainable aspect is directly described only as a nurses readiness to assess; the ability to ensure a safe working environment in compliance with occupational safety requirements; the ability to deliver rehabilitation services in order to restore and sustain a patients health; and the ability to ensure compliance with the employees rights and environmental protection regulations. Other descriptions of learning outcomes are only indirectly connected with ecological competence. Ecology of education. In recent decades, ecology of education was developed on the basis of Urie Bronfenbrenners aforementioned theorythe ecology of human development. Peks (2006) defined educational ecology as a discipline that integrates the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities and that studies the interrelation between the individual and a multi-dimensional environment from a holistic perspective within the context of education as a process and a result of human activities. The definition is refined in Katanes (2010) study Ecology of Education as a New Interdisciplinary Research Trend. Ecology of education is one of the aspects of human ecology. It is an interdisciplinary subject that integrates the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. It studies a human being as an individual and/or as the interaction between the social system and a multi-dimensional environment from a holistic perspective in the context of education which includes the spheres of human/social systems activities, process, and result, and means that promote development, the nature of the interaction, as well as human and environmental quality/characteristics. There are two significant research perspectives in the ecology of education (Katane, 2010): (1) the developmental perspective of an individual as a personality and/or a specialist; and (2) the developmental perspective of systems (social, educational, and environmental).
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Several doctoral dissertations are devoted to researching problems connected with the ecology of learning (Hirsto, 2001; Turpeinen, 2005; Katane, 2005, etc.). Scientific institutions were created to focus on the study of ecology of education, such as the Institute for Research on Educational Ecology (2011). The mission of the institute is to investigate characteristics of people and events in the social and educational environment; to comprehend the relationship between people and events in social and educational settings; and to guide educational reform on the basis of research on the ecology of education. Care practice. The connection between care practice and care environment was emphasized on International Nurses Day (Positive Practice Environments: Quality Workplaces = Quality Patient Care, 2007), indicating that a positive practice environment affects not only nurses, but also other health care workers and that it supports excellence in services and ultimately improves patient outcomes. The main key words of International Nurses Day 2007 were safety, supplies, resources, pay, education, support, equipment, and respect. For optimal social and psychological well-being of a nurse, the following are needed: demands that correspond to the resources of the person (absence of pressures at work); a high level of predictability (job security and workplace safety); good social support from colleagues and managers, as well as access to education and professional development opportunities (team work, study leave); meaningful work (professional identity); a high level of influence (autonomy, control over scheduling, and leadership); and a balance between effort and reward (remuneration, recognition, and rewards).
Experience in Care Practice

Methodology and Respondents A questionnaire was developed, and 65 students at two medical colleges in Latviarespondents of the research in 2012wrote their views on the ecological competence required for nurses, indicating the capabilities of an ecologically competent nurse. Results of the content analysis (Cropley, 2002) were compared with the research study of 2010 in which 106 nurses with work experience of 5-39 years participated; they studied in the re-qualification program nursedoctors assistant (see Table 1). Respondents of the research, nurses, and students at medical colleges had not participated in the study course Ecological Approach to Patient Care, which since 2009 is being perfected in one of Latvias medical colleges.
Results and Discussion

Students of medical colleges mostly (55%) associate the necessary environmental expertise (competence) and abilities of an ecologically competent nurse with environmental protection. When comparing the opinions of students and nurse practitioners, statistically important differences (p < 0.05) in the concepts environmental protection and educational process were found. They indicate that students associate ecological competence with environmental protection, but the answers of nurses show a connection between the ecological approach and education. That is also confirmed by differences in answers that apply to several categories simultaneouslyprofessional skills, educational process, professional competence, and holistic care. The diversity of views of respondents in the nurse re-qualification program can be explained by their attendance at conferences where issues regarding expansion of the environmental concept and an ecological approach in patient care are examined.
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ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES Table 1 Opinions of Medical College Students and Nurses on Ecological Competence
Concept Environmental protection, answers conform to the concept of environment Educational process answers conform to the concept of education without connection to the ecological approach Professional skills answers conform to the concept of skills without connection to the ecological approach Professional competence answers conform to the concept of competence without connection to the ecological approach Holistic care answers conform to the concept of the ecological approach Answers can be applied to several categories simultaneously Answers do not conform to the nature of the question Total percentages of given answers Student (%) 55 10 6 3 3 11 12 100 Nurse (%) 16 20 12 5 7 32 8 100
Ecological Competence of a Nurse

After evaluating the principles of the ecological approach and the characteristics of competence (see Table 1), we can formulate the key features of ecological competence. A nurses ecological competence is formed and developed in formal, non-formal, and informal learning if a transformative teaching-learning process is dominant. Ecological competence is holistically integrated into a nurses overall competence. It is based on a nurses ecological knowledge and skills, along with the nurses other knowledge and skills. An ecologically competent nurse is able to do the following: (1) To establish and develop a care environment and take care of patients both individually and in cooperation with the nursing staff, specialists in occupational safety and health, patients, or clients and their families, close-standing people at work and the non-formal micro-environment, as well as to take care of patients, so that there is a dominance of the following: (a) Subject-subject relationship in interaction of all persons present in the environment (care team, patient, patients immediate family, relatives, and community); (b) Holistic approach to patient care, assessing the meaning of synergy of components of the patients internal environment (psyche and soma), the interaction of the internal and external environment, as well as the patients/clients adaptability and ability to increase it according to ongoing or projected changes; (c) Maintain the patients survival and making his/her life as comfortable as possible. (2) To predict the impact of iatrogenic illnesses and minimize the possibility of their potential impact and consequences; (3) To evaluate dangerous and harmful environmental factors in patient care (nursing practice), including psycho-emotional, as well as dangerous and harmful factors resulting from developments in medical equipment, technologies, and pharmaceutical and other fields, their immediate and long-term influence on patients and staff in the context of sustainability, as well as duly prevented or minimized impacts;
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(4) To evaluate and implement all kinds of resources relevant to ones own field of action, including the use of psycho-emotional resources wisely and in the interests of the individual and society (I and We principle); (5) To Implement his/her own or subordinate staffs professional development based on an ecological approach to education in formal, non-formal, and informal learning within the framework of lifelong learning; (6) To actively participate in public education (formal, non-formal, and informal education), as well as in prophylactic activities that encourage the development of a healthy living and working environment and a healthy lifestyle suitable cognition according to ones own sphere of activity; (7) To systematically and critically evaluate ongoing public processes related to health in the context of sustainable development. To encourage the formation and development of ecological competence, the study course ecological approach in patient care was developed, and since 2009, it has been approbated and implemented as an alternative course in the programs of two colleges.
Conclusions
Principles of an ecological approach in nursing education are based on notions of sustainable development, deep ecology, and the ecology of human development. The theoretical base of a nurses ecological competence is nursing, ESD, framework of European qualifications, ecology of education, care practice, and experience gained during it. The content of sustainability concept in nursing education and practice develops the harmonization of human and environmental principles: the ecological principle and the principle of integration and spirituality. Respondents of the research questionnairenurses with practical work experience and medical college studentsassociate their perceptions of ecological competence mostly with environment protection. To improve the ecological competence of nurses according to the trends of sustainable development that prevail during the 21st century, a model of ecological competence is developed on the basis of both education and care practice research. On this basis, the study course Ecological Approach in Patient Care was developed, and it has been approbated and perfected in college study programs and also in professional development programs of working nurses.
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Cropley, A. (2002). Qualitative research methods: An introduction for students of psychology and education (p. 158). Riga: Zintne, Cop.. Dossey, B. M., Selanders, L. C., Beck, D. M., & Attewell, A. (2005). Florence Nightingale today: Healing, leadership, global action. Silver Spring, M.D.: American Nurse Association. Ellis, H. (2008). Florence Nightingale: Creator of modern nursing and health pioneer. Journal of Preoperative Practice, 18, 404-406. European Qualifications Framework. (2008). Retrieved March 25, 2012, from http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education training youth/vocational training/c11104_en.htm George, J. B. (Eds.) (2011). Nursing theories: The base for professional nursing practice (6th ed.), (p. 685). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education. Herrin, D. A., Wright, S. D. (1988). Precursors to family ecology: Inter related thread of ecological thought. Family Science Review, 1, 163-184. Hirsto, L. (2001). Children in their learning environments: Theoretical perspectives. University of Helsinki, Unit of Educational Psychology Reports. Helsinki: Yliopistopaino. Retrieved January 15, 2009, from https://oa.doria.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/ 3632/children.pdf?sequence=3 Huitt, W. (2012). A systems approach to the study of human behavior. Educational psychology interactive. Valdosta, G.A.: Valdosta State University. Retrieved July 30, 2013, from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/materials/sysmdlo.html Institute for Research on Educational Ecology. (2011). National academy for educational research, Taiwan. Retrieved December 15, 2011, from http://www.naer.edu.tw/editor_model/u_editor_v1.asp?id=230 Katane, I. (2005). The evaluation model of the rural school as educational environment (Doctoral dissertation for Scientific Degree of Dr. Paed., Daugavpils University, Daugavpils). Retrieved January 15, 2009, from http://www3.acadlib.lv/greydoc/ katanes_disertacija/katane_ang.doc Katane, I. (2010). Ecology of education as a new interdisciplinary trend on modern science. The 4th Green Week Scientific Conference 2010 Challenges of Education and Innovation, Berlin, Germany, January 13-14, Leibniz Institute of Agricultural Development in Central and Eastern Europe, Berlin. Kudzma, E. C. (2006). Florence Nightingale and health care reform. Nursing Science Quarterly, 19, 61-64. Miracle, V. A. (2008). The life and impact of Florence Nightingale. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 27 (1), 21-23. Naess, A. (1973). The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement. Inquiry, 16, 95-100. Naess, A. (1995). Ecosophy and gestalt ontology. In G. Sessions (Ed.), Deep ecology for the twenty-first century (pp. 240-245). Boston: Shambhala Publications. Nightingale, F. (1992). Notes on nursing: What it is and what it is not (Original work published in 1859). London: Harrison & Son. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2003). Learning for tomorrows world first results from PISA. Programme for International Student Assessment OECD. Retrieved December 19, 2004, from http://www.oecd.org/ education/preschoolandschool/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/34002216.pdf Pks, L. (2006). Changes to transformative education and ecological models of management of education. Journal of Science Education, 7(Special Issue), 50-52. Positive Practice Environments: Quality Workplaces = Quality Patient Care. (2007). Retrieved December 14, 2007, from http://www.icn.ch/publications/2007-positive-practice-environments-quality-workplaces-quality-patient-care/ Sessions, G. (Eds.) (1995). Deep ecology for the 21st century: Readings on the philosophy and practice of the new environmentalism. Boston and London: Shambhala Publications. Stanley, D. (2007). Lights in the shadows: Florence Nightingale: Selected letters. Contemporary Nurse, 24, 45-51. Sterling, S. (2005). Unit 7 study guide: Education for sustainability: Education in change. London: Distance Learning Centre South Bank University. Turpeinen, V. (2005). The ecology of learningSustainable education. Finland: University of Tampere. Retrieved December 20, 2006, from http://acta.uta.fi/english/teos.php?id=10715 UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Division for Sustainable Development. (2005). Agenda 21. Retrieved December 10, 2009, from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21toc.htm UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). (1995-2012). ESD (Education for Sustainable Development). Retrieved December 15, 2012, from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/
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Refinement of Logico-Mathematical Intelligence in the Context of Physics Education

Lina Vinitsky-Pinsky
Achva Academic College, Achva, Israel
Igal Galili
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Physics and mathematics are deeply interwoven causing complexity of their curricular relationship in science education. The span of perspectives spreads from their identity to opposition. Gardners (1983) multiple intelligences do not suggest more than one relevant category of logico-mathematical intelligence, and testing intelligence (e.g., IQ (intelligence quotient) and SAT (scholastic assessment test)) does not distinguish between the skills required in mathematics and natural sciences. The study investigated the interrelation of mathematics and physics in view of physics teachers. Twenty individual interviews were performed using the
constructive-qualitative research method. The constructed profile of teachers views on the virtues required in learning physics reveals the complexity of different and in a way, complementary views. Although, mathematics preparation apparently correlates with students performance in physics, one cannot state that it univocally stipulates their success in learning physics. The particular dependence on mathematics requires refinement. It is clear that physics demands specific internal and external psychological features suggesting reexamination and refinement of the concept of logico-mathematical intelligence currently accepted as a prerequisite in learning physics. Confusing the difference between mathematics and physics in our system of education implies far-reaching distortion and shortcomings of physics education. Keywords: physics, mathematics, education, intelligence
Introduction
The concept of intelligence has a long history that dates from antiquity. Gardner (1983) offered the theory of multiple intelligences and named seven types demonstrated by different people. Testing for intelligence in public education systems (e.g., IQ (intelligence quotient) and SAT (scholastic assessment test)) addresses mainly logico-mathematical and linguistic intelligence while ignoring other types. Moreover, such tests usually do not distinguish between mathematics and natural sciences, as if it is presumed that logico-mathematical ability fully matches the requirements of science. The study investigated the interrelation of mathematics and physics in school education. The results suggest that the concept of logico-mathematical intelligence must be further refined, since there are essential differences between mathematics and science, in particular physics. It is common to claim that mathematics serves as the language of physics. This is true and even stipulates the highest efficacy of science. Science employs mathematics, uses mathematical concepts and logical
Lina Vinitsky-Pinsky, Ph.D. candidate, teacher, School of Sciences and School of Education, Achva Academic College. Igal Galili, professor, chair, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
REFINEMENT OF LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE IN PHYSICS EDUCATION
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reasoning as its working tool, to establish its theory and produce new results. However, no matter how wide the use is, it does not imply identity, as there is no identity between language and literature. For many years, numerous historical and philosophical studies analyzed the fruitful and multifaceted connection between mathematics and physics (e.g., Poincar, 1958; Uhden, Karam, Pietrocola, Pospiech, 2011; Klein, 1968; Wilczek, 2006, 2007). The focus was in the relationship between physics and mathematics in the area of school curricula, checking the extent to which these two disciplines, known as confusingly close, are interdependent and inter-supportive, given the well-known and sometimes exaggerated claims of their connection and fusion. Although often considered inseparable in schools, mathematics, and physics education are distinguished in terms of formal and cognitive skills that they require for their study (e.g., Uhden, et al., 2011). As if the existing complexity were not enough, the current situation in Israel provides additional aspects of complexity and dimensions of problems. Unlike the situation in many countries, while mathematics presents a mandatory subject throughout the K-12 curriculum, physics in Israel presents an elective subject in high school and is chosen only by 7% of students population. Given that following the previous educational reform the middle school adopted an integrated course of science and technology during 3-4 hours a week, it became clear that we face a serious national problem since the great majority of students never learn physics at school1. Why the two disciplines, so closely connected in culture, leaving alone their vital importance for the society, have been treated so differently? Why are there so different status of mathematics and physics in public system? The initial motivation to investigate the subject was based on a very rich anecdotal evidence of parents, teachers, students, school administrators, and policy makers in the Ministry of Education. Despite the mentioned perspective of closeness in everyday life reference, schools consider the two disciplines differently. Physics is often perceived to be far more complex, demanding cognitive maturity, confusing, labor consuming, expensive to teach, not rewarding in terms of matriculate assessment resultsthe area for a few ingenious savants, and more often males, often arrogant and disconnected from their fellow classmates. From all this cluster of problems, each not simple at all, which should be considered by various experts involved in education, we choose a smaller group of questions in which we can be effective. Very often, those who want to study physics are warned by teachers and school administrators that they have to be superior in mathematics. Is this really so? Can one justify this claim? In what sense it is so and when it is not. If mathematics presents the language of physics, what is in physics beyond its language? Is there a different type of intelligence required? What level and what kind of mathematics it presumed in students taking school physics? and Does the AP (advance placement) course in mathematics present a prerequisite for taking physics course (as it is often practiced in our schools)? These questions guided us in the study. We intended to construct a profile of teachers views on students virtues conceived to be necessary for taking physics at high school. We expected that our results would shed light and perhaps change the common view reducing physics classes solely to those students who are superior in mathematics. We explored in details the nature of correlation between students mathematical preparation and their success in physics class and examinations. We have found that there is a variety of aspects of intelligence required for success in physics that are beyond students mathematical equipment. In a way, this result deconstructs the oversimplified idea of mathematics being a mere tool to make physics.
1
This academic year of 2011-2012, the first step was taken to correct the situation and some schools began to teach physics at middle school.
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Methods and Materials

Twenty individual interviews of one to three hours long were performed using a constructive-qualitative research approach. The sample included school teachers of physics, school teachers of mathematics and physics, physics professors with school teaching experience, teachers of science, researchers in science education, and a senior supervisor of physics teaching from the Ministry of Education. Among the school teachers, three were from rural areas and the rest worked in the urban ones reflecting variety in the socio-economic background of schools. We applied the constructive-qualitative approach to educational research (Shkedi, 2003; 2011), in which the researcher accumulates and analyzes peoples knowledge of a certain subject, eliciting it from their presentation in form of narratives. The research process is established in an investigative dialogue in which the researcher maintains a balanced involvement showing empathy to the subject. This strategy, opposing neutral distancing and unbiased criticism, is effective in revealing and elicitation of the individual knowledge and views (Shkedi, 2003, p. 68). The constructive-qualitative research transforms the usually hidden knowledge of the informant into explicit one. Six types of questions were used: descriptive, meaningful, comprisal, completion, oppositeness, and arousing questions. The data analysis included: (1) Full transcription of the interviews; (2) Initial analysis, including the first categorization using the words of the informants; (3) Selective analysis, construction of a tree of categories that enabled us to represent the relationship between the components through vertical and horizontal analysis; (4) Focused analysis based on the previous stage, the established central categories providing the final profile of the investigated knowledge (Shkedi, 2003, pp. 119-120, 140-141, 152-153); (5) Theoretical analysis providing theoretical account and explanation beyond phenomenological description (Shkedi, 2011).
Results and Discussion

By coding the collected data, it showed that the factors responsible for students success in learning physics can be divided into two major categories: (1) Psychological internal. These cognitive factors determine students internal representation of knowledge and information, their processing and transformation using language, memory, reasoning, and interpretation of perceptions. These factors imply enduring patterns of behavior, traits of thinking, and emotional responses commonly perceived as personality; (2) Psychological external. These cognitive factors determine students learning in educational settings, response to educational interventions, and perception of social environment. They determine how students interact with fellow classmates, are influenced by instruction, and conform to and are influenced by the outside world in their formation of beliefs and attitudes. Let us elaborate a bit these categories with regard to our subject of investigation mathematics-physics relationship of the knowledge taught-learned at schools. Regarding the internal cognitive factors, our informants noted whether the features they mentioned were required mainly in mathematics, physics, or in both subjects. Thus, thinking abstractly, formally, logically, working algorithmically, and analyzing rationally were ascribed to both subjects. Yet, the ability to imagine,
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think in analogies, intuitively, and concretely, perform experiments, transfer among representations and contexts, explain verbally, and make heuristic evaluations were ascribed to physics. They added that at university level the mentioned difference is significantly diminished. It appeared that the cognitive skills required for school mathematics are not sufficient for physics: Numerous skills appeared as specific for the latter. In their view, mathematics cannot replace physics and provide all the cognitive skills students need in physics. Doing physics may provide those skills missed. A physics teacher from one of the best schools put it as following:
Let us say everyone can study five units (the AP in IsraelLV) in almost everything. But no, I think that physics is mathematics plus. Physics presents difficulties beyond mathematics. Math is a world closed in itself, a logical world. And thats it. Physics is not only logical, physics requires a lotmany more abilities. To be able to do it you have to be concrete and in the abstract arena. You need to know how to translate from one to the other. The experiment in the laboratory is concrete, observation is concrete, and the mathematical model is abstract. You must be able, in order to do meaningful physics, to go from one to the other. Now, there is no doubt that is possible to do physics that is not meaningful, to solve problems disconnected from everything else, so it would be like mathematics physics is beyond mathematics. It has a set of skills and abilities that are heuristic despite the fact that mathematics, as it is taught, can be entirely algorithmic.
Seemingly, the list of skills required for studying physics mingles its two important aspects experimental and theoretical, while mathematics is considered to be only theoretical. Moreover, mathematics, in the evidence we collected from physics teachers, is often deprived of its depth and ideological aspects. Indeed, similar to the fact that math cannot replace physics, the reverse is not true either. Mathematics is beyond the the language and it is not seen here. Furthermore, the informants did not agree regarding the cognitive maturity required for learning the subjects at AP level of instruction. One teacher expressed the extreme view:
It is likely that students who are studying three points (lower level of instruction in Israel) have the mathematical tools required for the matriculation exam. Look, I do not believe that we need to conduct an experiment and prove that everyone can do AP. The problem is not about three, four, or five points (different levels of instruction in mathematics), the question is when. And if the system were organized differently, everyone could move to five points (the heist level of instruction). The schools are organized according to age, so we push children into study groups according to their age and not always according to their intellectual development; what is terribly difficult and incomprehensible today, will be clear (to the same students) in six months. We do not allow this (to happen)... At the high-school level, all could do five points, it is only a matter of patience; not everyone is at the same place (of development), and we do not have that patience.
Others claimed that some students are able to study physics at the AP level to the extent it does not involve mathematics that is, solely the qualitative aspect of physics. Teachers mentioned individual cognitive preferences of students which may lead them to humanities instead of science and mathematics. Others informed that some students are interested in learning physics, but not mathematics, and some just the opposite: To learn mathematics, but not physics. They claimed that students definitely distinguished between math and physics as differently featured and attract subjects. Many informants mentioned that learning physics was highly demanding and required such qualities as a special ambition, devotion, working discipline and ethics, persistence, and pragmatism. The mentioned emotional factors included students fear of mathematics and being recognized as not intelligent enough to study physics. Personal appreciation of the teacher was stated by some as the main reason of choosing physics as elective subject. Another reason for that was trying to study together with friends. A physics teacher who expressed the extreme view said:
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I see a problem with students who are doing lower mathematics, in their fear of mathematics. However, you can take three-unit students and bring them up to four or five units in mathematics. It is my belief that anyone can It is possible. But students decide to take three units (in mathematics) not because they are incapable, but because they are terrified. This fear will not help them in physics. So that is our problem. The problem is fictitious, not cognitive. But, again, I am not a math teacher.
With regard to the external psychological factors, teachers mentioned that mathematics was often considered as a filter for classifying students in general. Selection for physics class often seeks for sufficient mathematical knowledge and level of instruction ignoring other cognitive abilities necessary for studying physics. Students with lower level of math are discouraged to take physics course, leaving outside those with a more practical orientation of skills (Faraday, Franklin, and Edison, renowned physicists with a clear preference to experiment and qualitative thinking, would seemingly be prevented from taking physics in our schools). There is a clear lack of symmetry between the demands of logico-mathematical and practical thinking skills, and the situation seemingly matches the educational policy adopted by schools and the Ministry of Education. At the same time, some teachers informed us about their successful experience with the students with lower level of mathematics instruction who did succeed in the AP physics class, even if teachers help was provided. The teachers claimed that actually understanding physics does not presume advanced mathematical knowledge. A teacher from a religious school in town in the periphery shared with us his experience:
Many students who studied three units of mathematics, as I told you, got 90 in physics, or even over 90, and today are engineers; these kids I am talking about (the oriented to math/science). There are plenty of those. But again, it is not because they are by definition three-unit students; it is because something happened to them to make them take three units that is because the whole process (of students classification) is tough. I am less tough, and I give them all a chance. Everyone who we took care of succeeded. From my point of view, if a student is very good in algebraic technique, and understands physics and its mind, he/she will succeed.
Teachers are pragmatic, they prefer students well equipped in mathematical tools to save the time and effort of additional explanations regarding the mathematics required in the course of physics learning. One teacher said:
The question is how much you are willing to invest and how much the student is ready to invest. If he is anxious and constantly stops you asking for explanations, then you lose the whole class and do not go forward with the material, so the question is why should you do that? So he has to come being prepared for explanations so you will not stuck in mathematics.
Among other external psychological factors, teachers mentioned the influence of peers, and students desire to belong to the elite group of intelligent students. It is important for a teacher to know the ways to motivate students. Performance in examination sand attitude of parents and friends were also among the mentioned factors of psychological influence on the students. Teachers are aware of the competition within the classes and the high image of studying physics often associated with high intelligence and advantages to those taking physics in their future career. One of the experts in mathematics and science education suggested:
The question is whether it is necessary to study physics in order to be accepted to certain training programs, for example, to be a pilot (considered to be socially prestigious). This could be one of the reasons that people study physics, but it is strange that in order to take a pilot training you need to study physics at school, and in order to study physics at university, you do not... So maybe the university should require physics as a prerequisite in order to encourage more high school students to take physics.
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Implications and Final Remarks

Finally, with regard to our subject of investigation, we may infer that according to teachers opinion, although mathematics preparation apparently correlates with students performance in physics class and assessment results, one cannot state that it univocally stipulates the success of the students in learning physics. The particular dependence on mathematics deserves more elaboration, and it requires refinement in further study. The study clearly suggests investing further effort in reexamination and refinement of the concept of logico-mathematical intelligence as the one required in science and mathematics. There are essential differences between these two subjects in perspective of intelligence and its required features. When refined, the features of intelligence involved in learning physics will imply suggestions of far reaching importance for the system of public physics education, especially in the places like Israel, where both physics and mathematics are perceived as requiring the same skills with the only difference that physics requires the highest level of mathematical instruction. Physics and mathematics, although deeply interwoven, are different in nature, and to succeed in their learning, to master them, one should recognize that difference. The educational policy, curricula design, and students guidance by teachers and school administrators should distinguish between mathematics and physics and the skills required by each. In this sense, the study could be informative for those NARST (National Association for Research in Science Teaching) members who are interested in investigation of students aptitude and success to learning physics.
References
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books, Inc.. Klein, J. (1968). Greek mathematical thought and the origin of algebra. New York: Dover Publications. Poincar, H. (1958). The value of science. New York: Dover Publications. Shkedi, A. (2004). Words of meaning: Qualitative researchTheory and practice. Tel Aviv: University of Tel Aviv Press. Shkedi, A. (2011). The meaning behind the words: Methodologies of qualitative researchTheory and practice. Tel Aviv: University of Tel Aviv Press. Uhden, O., Karam, R., Pietrocola, M., & Pospiech, G. (2011). Modeling mathematical reasoning in physics education. Science and Education, 21(4), 485-506. Wilczek, F. (2006). Reasonably effective I: Deconstructing a miracle. Physics Today, Nov., 8-9. Wilczek, F. (2007). Reasonably effective II: Devils advocate. Physics Today, May, 8-9.
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An Ecological Approach to Using Ubiquitous Handheld Devices in the Classroom

Dorota Domalewska
Rangsit University, Pathumthani, Thailand
Technology has radically changed the teaching paradigm offering learning that is effective and attractive to students. Ubiquitous handheld devices enhance knowledge acquisition through contextualized and social learning that is relevant to students needs. Mobile technology provides learners with additional educational experiences, hence, increasing their learning spaces by taking learning out of the classroom. The aim of this paper is to analyze the use of technology in learning a foreign language from the ecological viewpoint. The use of handheld devices in education is discussed as playing a part in educational context in the interaction of the learner, the worlds languages, and communicative technologies. Keywords: ecology, foreign language learning, mobile learning, ubiquitous handheld devices
Introduction
Technology, especially mobile technology, is ubiquitous; wireless networks expand and mobile devices connected to the Internet increase in popularity. Most students own and use handheld technological devices on a daily basis. Increasingly widespread use of technology in the modern world affects every sphere of life, including education. Educators should seize the opportunity arising from students interest in these technological devices and their extensive use for instructional purposes, hence, increasing their learning spaces by taking learning out of the classroom. It helps to build up learners autonomy and makes learning more personalized. Furthermore, it helps the school to keep up with the changing world.
Ecological Approach to Learning

Technology-supported education proves to be highly successful in supporting learning and teaching (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008; Traxler, 2005). An ecological approach to learning perceives education as a collaborative process embedded within an environment; learning takes place in the interaction between the learner and the environment (Van Lier, 2004, pp. 4-5). Ecological approach emphasizes diversity, active participation of every individual working towards the intended goal, and the environment seen as exerting an influence on the course and consequence of human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1988, p. 68; Brown, 2000, p. 12). It introduces dynamics into the classroom, interaction, and complexity of relationships, which is in line with Vygotskys learning theory. The psychologist sees learning as a complex and dynamic social experience. Bronfenbrenner (1988) also emphasized that development cannot be separated from the complex system of relationships within the environment, which can be presented in the form of an order of systems:
Dorota Domalewska, Ph.D., lecturer, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rangsit University.
AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO USING UBIQUITOUS HANDHELD DEVICES
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the microsystem, which refers to the structures and processes taking place in an immediate setting (e.g., home, classroom, and playground) (Bronfenbrenner, 1988, p. 80); the mesosystem, which is the links between different settings (e.g., the link between family and school); the exosystem, which involves the links between different settings when one of the settings affects the individual indirectly (e.g., parents work and the childs schoolwork); and the macrosystem, which is an overarching pattern of ideology and organization of the social institutions common to a particular culture or subculture (Bronfenbrenner, 1988, p. 81). The applications of Bronfenbrenners theories in education are numerous comprising general education of the learner, which needs to be instilled in close cooperation with the childs caregivers taking into consideration social, cultural, political, and linguistic contexts. First, students live in a larger political and historical context (the macrosystem), which affects their learning, for example, by motivating or demotivating them to learn the language of a country with which their native country maintains friendly or hostile relations. Next, complex relationships within the mesosystem and the exosystem (in particular, the family, peers, school, as well as the mass media) directly affect students learning process. Family The family plays a significant role in childrens academic achievement; students who do better at school are the ones who come from a stable family exhibiting consistent raising style, allowing joint decision-making, and monitoring childrens behaviour, rather than a single-parent one in which children are allowed to take decisions early. Communication style appears to be another factor important for educational success; teenagers used to a free style communication at home become better students and have more positive attitudes towards learning as they are more likely to interact successfully with teachers and peers, whereas, pupils brought up in families where conformity was required tend to receive lower grades (Dornbusch, 1989, pp. 239-248). Familial socialization is so influential as to precondition the childs educational achievements and occupational career (Hurrelmann, 1988, p. 75; Sugarman, 1967, pp. 158-160). Peers Apart from the family, peer groups form another part of network with complex and multidimensional character affecting the learner. Past research (Coleman, 1961, as cited in Dornbusch, 1989, p. 236; Parsons, 1942, as cited in Sugarman, 1967, p. 152) showed that the peer group remains in opposition to parents with peers and parents struggling for control over teenagers. However, Bandura (1964, as cited in Dornbusch, 1989, p. 249; Coleman, 1961, as cited in Sugarman, 1967, p. 152) maintained that peers reinforce rather than oppose the values exhibited by parents. Thus, parental and peer influence does not stand in opposition; actually, parents influence the choice of peers first, by providing the relational model (i.e., children learn from the parents formation and maintenance of social relations as well as social skills) and by affecting other social factors, such as social class and educational level (Meeus, Oosterwegel, & Vollebergh, 2002, p. 95). It needs to be pointed out that peers influence extends within the field limited by the factors that are closely connected with the function of the group; thus, in certain matters, such as physical appearance, peers acceptance is essential while in others, such as the choice of career and further education, it is less significant. Another research, carried out by Brittain (1963) (also in Kandel Lesser, 1970, p. 284; Meeus, Oosterwegel, & Volleberegh, 2002) had shown that adolescents are likely to follow their parents expectations in future oriented situations as well as roles and their peers expectations in current oriented situations and identity needs. On the other hand, Brown, Clasen, and Eicher (1986) found that the influence of peers decreases as teenagers mature and becomes
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dissatisfied with conformity. School Alongside the family and peers, school is a social institution that affects the learner to a great extent. By and large, it is contended that school (especially post-primary school) is focused on developing cognitive skills rather than social ones; however, teachers ought to remember that both cognition and socialization are the main goals of school education as well as fostering the ability to learn or forming the necessary social and psychological attitudes (Hurrelmann, 1988, p. 69). The development of social and affective dimensions is possible due to student-teacher interaction and technology-supported education can create an abundance of opportunities for learners to acquire skills of social interaction, cooperation and proper interpersonal relations in a group, turn-taking, face-saving, or civility. Mass Media Finally, the mass media affect learning and development of students. The majority of teenagers watch television for at least two hours a day. Assuming that at least 15 commercials are broadcast every hour, a young person may watch over 11,000 advertisements a year the majority of which carry consumerist values and gender stereotypes. During their lifetime, adolescents have seen 13,000 violent deaths on television (Gerbner Gross, 1980, as cited in Witt, 2000); Aronson (2004) claimed that an average teenager has seen 100,000 acts of violence (both physical and verbal). The mass media affect education of young people in several dimensions. First, the mass media not only provide information, viewpoints on current and past affairs, entertainment, and education, but also judge and decide on the attractiveness of various domains of culture (music, film, literature, ideology, religion, and sport). Second, the mass media create, reinforce, alter, or destroy values and norms of behaviour, stereotypes, gender roles as well as authorities. Furthermore, mass media publicize knowledge and various domains of culture; and thus, introduce and reinforce the youths intellectual diversity, promote the model of a good man, help to preserve cultural heritage, introduce cultural novelties, and promote prosocial behaviour. The influential role of the mass media may be used to the advantage of the learning process that takes place at school. First, television offers numerous educational programmes that are more attractive for children and adolescents than school. Spending an abundant amount of time in front of a television set, young people are used to being flooded with an unlimited number of images, sounds, and pieces of information. Thus, the use of educational and information programmes as well as films allows escaping the routine of the lesson. An interesting source of authentic and descriptive language is commercial, which includes a short message placed in a setting familiar for learners. A rapidly developing branch of foreign language teaching is CALL (computer assisted language learning) that, through the use of the World Wide Web or e-mail, provides students with real-life social context and interpersonal interaction (other than teacher-student or student-student) that will enhance learning, develop communicative and intercultural competences, and increase motivation. Furthermore, the Internet provides a rich source of online materials for individual use, which increases learners autonomy and provides an abundance of opportunities for learning. By and large, the ecological approach to learning provides a conceptual framework for education where learning is based on interaction between the learner, the teacher, other students, instructional content, and technology, thus, enriching the resources for the learners and increasing their learning spaces. But it is upon the teacher to determine the extent to which technology is introduced to ensure meaningful learning that fits the needs of the learners and their changing learning habits. The ecological theory emphasizes that successful
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learning is collaborative, responds to the needs of learners, and takes place through well-adjusted and harmonious relationship with the environment. All elements of this relationship are dynamic and interdependent. Technology can be one of the factors that form a bridge between the school setting and their personal life. Large-scale social, cultural, political, and technological changes affect learners, modify the way they learn, and thus, should be reflected in the changes in education.
Technology in the Classroom

Handheld devices can be easily integrated with classroom activities; thus, they become convenient pedagogical tools that are very popular with all learners. They are both content-based and social devices. First, mobile technologies deliver content in the form of written text, graphics, audio, e.g., mobile phones, MP3 players, handheld computers, and gaming devices. At the same time, these devices can be used as social tools that promote interaction with other people (the teacher or students) through communicative activities and teamwork. Handheld computers facilitate collaboration through Web 2.0 tools (students actively participate in creating blogs, wikis, tags, or instant messaging) while other mobile devices can become tools for doing team projects, which promotes autonomous learning. Students can do the project at their own pace. When they are invited to present the results of their study or research to other students, learners actively participate in the construction of the class content, contrary to the traditional classroom where it is the teacher who provides learning material (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008). Mobile technology transforms classroom instruction so that it supports learning styles that promote fluency in multiple media, learning based on collectively seeking, sieving, and synthesizing experiences rather than individually locating and absorbing information from a single best source, and active learning based on real and simulated experience that includes frequent opportunities for reflection (Dieterle, Dede, Schrier, 2007, p. 50).
Using Ubiquitous Handheld Devices in the Classroom

Various ubiquitous handheld devices can be used in the classroom to supplement learning activities. Teachers may integrate technology into the curriculum in order to facilitate students learning process as well as to help with classroom administration, e.g., mobile devices can be used to distribute announcements or for grading. Students, on the other hand, can use technological devices to collect data and explore topics, learn and review vocabulary, or reflect on the activity. These devices can be used both for individual and teamwork when learning becomes a social process, which further enhances the learning process. Handheld devices then offer collaborative learning activities that rely on the students interaction with their peers as opposed to online forums or chats that substitute face-to-face discussion (Kadirire, 2009). Furthermore, technology-supported education facilitates learning as it addresses multiple learning styles and intelligences. Visual students can use mobile devices to present information in graphic form accompanied by charts, video, animations, and other visual materials. Auditory learners may listen to podcasts or video in order to get information. Kinesthetic students enjoy developing their motor skills. Finally, analytic students can use mobile devices to collect the chunks of information from which they will build up their knowledge while holistic students might look for an overview first and then break it into smaller chunks; they can use drawing and manipulating to assist in the learning process. Introducing technology into the classroom may involve several challenges that teachers need to take into account. First, some handheld devices are expensive, but when students work in a group, they can share one
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device per group. Moreover, due to the small size of portable devices, classroom management is more difficult: Teachers should monitor students in order to make sure all students work on the assigned task.
Conclusions
Technology has radically changed the teaching paradigm; the integration of mobile technologies into education makes learning effective and attractive to students. The present article examines technology-supported education from the ecological perspective. At the beginning of this paper, we discussed the effect of students environment on their learning processs. We then explored the benefits of introducing technology, in particular, mobile technology into the classroom. Using mobile devices promotes autonomy, supports collaborative learning, and allows learners to take responsibility for their learning as they can structure the task according to their preferable learning styles and pace, thus, lowering the affective filter and boosting their motivation.
References
Aronson, E. (2004). The social animal (9th ed.). New York: Worth. Brittain, C. V. (1963). Adolescent choices and parent-peer cross-pressures. American Sociological Review, 28(3), 358-391. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1988). Interacting systems in human development. Research paradigms: Present and future. In N. Bolger, A. Caspi, G. Downey, & M. Moorehouse (Eds.), Persons in context: Developmental processes (pp. 25-49). New York: Cambridge University Press. Brown, B. B., Clasen, D. R., & Eicher, S. A. (1986). Perceptions of peer pressure, peer conformity dispositions, and self-reported behavior among adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 22, 521-530. Brown, J. S. (2000). Growing up digital: How the Web changes work, education, and the ways people learn. Change Magazine, March/April, 11-20. Dieterle, E., Dede, C., & Schrier, K. (2007). Neomillennial learning styles propagated by wireless handheld devices. In M. Lytras, & A. Naeve (Eds.), Ubiquitous and pervasive knowledge and learning management: Semantics, social networking and new media to their full potential (pp. 35-66). Hershey, P.A.: Idea Group, Inc.. Dornbusch, S. M. (1989). The sociology of adolescence. Annual Review of Sociology, 15, 233-259. Hurrelmann, K. (1988). Social structure and personality development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kadirire, J. (2009). Mobile learning demystified. In R. Guy (Ed.), The evolution of mobile teaching and learning. Santa Rosa, California: Informing Science Press. Kandel, D., & Lesser, G. S. (1970). School, family, and peer influences on educational plans of adolescents in the United States and Denmark. Sociology of Educatio, 43, 270-287. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. Recall, 20(3), 271-289. Meeus, W., Oosterwegel, A., & Vollebergh, W. (2002). Parental and peer attachment and identity development in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 93-106. Sugarman, B. (1967). Involvement in youth culture, academic achievement and conformity in school: An empirical study of London school boys. The British Journal of Sociology, 8, 151-164. Traxler, J. (2005). Mobile learning: It is here, but what is it? Interactions, 9, 1. Van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Witt, S. (2000). The influence of television on childrens gender role socialization. The Journal of Childhood Education: Infancy Through Adolescence, 76, 322-324.
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Vulnerabilities and Attacks on Information Systems in E-learning Environments in Higher Education

Muhamad Hugerat, Saeed Odeh, Salem Saker,
The Academic Arab College for Education, Haifa, Israel
Adnan Agbaria
SAP Labs, Israel
This paper presents a framework for examining and understanding the technical attacks in e-learning systems in the teacher training college, types of attacks, causes, meanings, relations, differences, motives, and consequences that may result from these attacks. In order to develop mechanisms of action and to prepare for protection against attacks and security breaches in e-learning systems. The article relies on the analysis and scanning of 12 types of computer attacks from 1998 to 2004 in the enrollment of college students of different ages. There were also 32 interviews with young students (up to age 30) in a teacher training institute majoring in computer science and actual teachers taking continuing education courses. Afterwards, content analysis of the interviews was done. Keywords: e-learning system, technical attacks, teacher training, vulnerabilities, CERT (computer emergency response team)
Introduction
There is no doubt that we live in a new and different era, not only from a technical, but rather social-developmental aspects, that determines and influences behavior, language, and values, under which humans are developed (Bradley, 2005), in addition to the information and learning that they are exposed to (Borzekowski, 2006). Society should adopt methods and approaches appropriate to this era in order to achieve the best. Only recently, the psychological establishment began to intensively explore and get important insights into the human beings of different ages and the Internet (Greenfield & Yan, 2006; Livingstone, lafsson, & Staksrud, 2013). It seems that we are just beginning the process of recognition and understanding of the importance of cyberspace in the development of humans in the online media. Online communication allows maintaining anonymity, that is, anonymity in terms of name identity of the user or other details that could lead to such identification. In fact, a process of removing barriers is enacted here, which releases restraints to act in a more authentic manner, according to the basic characters and personality of the user (Bargh, McKenna, & Fitzsimons, 2002). Dealing with potential negative impacts of experiences (attacks and weaknesses) in the network is characterized by views affected by educational, cultural, religious, legal, and political aspects. The access that
Muhamad Hugerat, Ph.D., vice president and chairman of Continuing Education Department, The Academic Arab College for Education in Israel-Haifa. Saeed Odeh, M.Sc., director of professional development in service teachers, The Academic Arab College for Education in Israel-Haifa. Salem Saker, M.Sc., chief information officer, The Academic Arab College for Education in Israel-Haifa. Adnan Agbaria, Ph.D., researcher, SAP Research, SAP Labs.
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many Israelis support that advocates putting strict limits, enacting censorship (terms of content filtering or blocking harmful sites), or installation of technical obstruction to prevent negative effectsis fatally flawed, or at least is inefficient (Bross, 2005). This approach, not only fails to take into consideration the simplicity and ease of breaking the restrictions, but also provides a challenge to human beings, which makes it intriguing and incentive for many of them to overcome the barriers. These measures not only will not achieve their educational goal, but they will set a bad example to carry out coercive measures as a method of social serviceseducation, instead of taking an enlightened human method of education and training. In other words, instead of fighting human beings and communities by setting boundaries for them that lead to resistance, anger, and counter activities, one can embrace the internet as positive social, relevant, conducive, and pleasurable environment, through education for awareness, balance, and integration relative to this environment as part of their existence. The network thus represents not only a parallel social environment, but also a greenhouse for the cultivation of behavior patterns, development of attitudes and values, adoption of thinking and expression styles, and independent learning of diverse content. Due to the open and non-regulated character of the Internet, and because of the many sites and content, humans can gain a positive contribution in their personal development from the Internet experience (for example, getting support during emotional distress, academic tutoring, accumulation of self-confidence in social interactions), but there is a possibility to be negatively affected (for example, exposure to harmful content, heavy to compulsive and malicious use of the network, risk-taking deceptions, and exploitation), according to the accepted cultural standards (Gross, Juvonen, & Gable, 2002).
Behavior-Based Use
Users surveys show that the computer and the Internet have become a means of interpersonal communication, if not primary, for many humans in the current Internet generation. Being part of a generation that grew and evolved with the computer and the network, this fact is not surprising, since these tools have become normative in society; they are in many homes and even necessary to use in the current education system. That is, while many adults see it as a phenomenon, in terms of youth it is an acceptable, expected, and perfectly normal standard of behavior; and for others, it is considered as negative behavior due to negative motives. Harris (2004)) reported that most computer hackers are below the age of 30; she pointed to the need to investigate users in this age group and their perceptions about unethical behavior, especially in security attacks. Motivation of students to engage in ethical behavior can be explained by the temptation to speed graduation (Lawson, 2004), availability of its tools (Molnr, Andersson, Ekholm, 2008), a sense of rights and lack of results, peer pressure, as well as a lack of understanding of their education purpose (Nguyen Biderman, 2008). Lawson (2004) found that students engaged in misconduct by their academic career are more likely to engage in unethical behavior during their professional career compared to students who are ethical. Therefore, the focus of this study was to investigate the perceptions of students about the risk level of e-learning developer of security attacks, and to create awareness on e-learning security. This core idea behind the investigation was that if students perceive the severity of e-learning security attacks developer to be low, then they may be more likely to engage in or seek help for their own reasons and far from the ethical code of behavior.
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This study presents a framework for examining and understanding the technical attacks in e-learning systems in the teacher training college, the types of attacks, the reasons, motives, and consequences that may result from these attacks. All this is in order to develop mechanisms of action and prepare protection against attacks and security breaches in e-learning systems.
Methodology
The article relies on analysis and scanning of 12 types of computer attacks on the learning system in the college from 1998 to 2004 among students of different ages. It also carried out 32 interviews with young students (up to age 30) majoring in computer science in a teacher training institution, and actual teachers enrolled in continuing education courses. Afterwards, content analysis of interviews was carried out. The interviews are designed to answer the following questions (see Figure 1): (1) What are the styles of vulnerabilities and attacks encountered during implementation and execution processes of the e-learning? (2) What are the types and causes of vulnerabilities and attack encountered during implementation and execution process of the e-learning? (3) What are the consequences of attacks and vulnerabilities encountered implementation and execution processes of the e-learning on the personal and systemic aspects? (4) Is there a link between vulnerabilities and attacks on the e-learning area and ethical or unethical motives or behaviors? (5) Are there differences between internal and external causes of vulnerabilities and attacks on the e-learning area in the context of ethical or unethical behaviors?
Figure 1. The questions to answer.
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Findings and Discussion

In this study, a search was carried out. A CERT (computer emergency response team) search for technical reports from 1991 to December 2004 was performed on weaknesses and attacks by categories.
350 300 #ofvulnerabilities 250 200 150 100 50 0 2004 2003 2002 2001 Year
Figure 2. The annually reported vulnerabilities as recorded from CERT.
2000
1999
The CERT search for technical reports from 1991 to December 2004 was broken down based on weaknesses and attacks categories by percent.
1% 0% 0% 3% 1% 7% 13% 10% 0% 0% 10% 10% 1% 2% 0% 3% 34% Accesscontrolandauth Bufferoverflow Cachepoisoning Crosssitescripting Directorytraversal Doublefree Handling Formatstring Inconsistentstate Injection Inputvalidationproblem Insecure/incorrectconf/call Maliciouscode Memorycorruption Noncompleteoperation Nullpointersdereference OffByOne
1%
Figure 3. The distribution of technical-based vulnerabilities.
A reduced breakdown of the CERT search for technical reports from 1991 to December 2004 was done based on weaknesses and attacks categories by percent. The CERT search for technical reports from 1991 to December 2004 was broken down based on weaknesses and attacks due to human errors and categories by percent. Summary of the figures preceding the search and catalog of categories mentioned earlier in Figures 2-5
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represents the new model in Figure 6 below, which shows the reasons and motives for attacks and weaknesses arising and caused by technical-based behaviors due to lack of human ethics and values.
0% 1% 1% 0% 5% 4% 3% 25% 11% 32%
4% 14%
Accessvalidationerror Boundaryvalidationerror Handlingerror Inputvalidationerror Memoryrelatedoperation error Noncompletedoperation error
Figure 4. The main groups of technical-based cause.
Handilingerror
1% 3% 2% Handling Crosssitescripting 1% 16% 77% Formatstring Insecureconf/call Reachthelimit Symboliclink
Figure 5. All the causes are due to these human errors.
The study found that the relationship between internal and external vulnerability and human and technical behavior with ethical and unethical moral implications, and the way these types of vulnerabilities can be taken into account to prevent malicious attacks. One of the students said: .... In our studies, there was vulnerability in the information systems and the data we collected by an internal source of information, most likely from members of our group, mostly from our department.... Content analysis of the students interviews showed answers to questions of this study. Although the answers were clear, they suggested further consideration in future research. The other answers rely on unaudited interviews and observations and on testimonies of students (users). Later on, we try things and bring some of the answers and formulate some interesting insights. In conclusion, we present the overall picture as it appears from the knowledge accumulated in an attempt to formulate some conclusions and significant consequences.
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There is no doubt that we are living in a new and different era, not only from the technical but rather social-developmental aspects that regulate and influence human behavior, language, and values by which they develop (Bradley, 2005), and the information and learning they are exposed to (Borzekowski, 2006). The community should adopt appropriate methods and approaches to this era in order to make the best of it. It seems that we are just beginning the process of recognition and understanding of the importance of the expanded and extensive online network in the development and design of human users. Network attacks can be passivetapping for passing information through the network, network motion analysissuch an attack is difficult to detect, and therefore, it is important to prevent it in the first place. However, active attackchange or transplantation of information by phishing, capturing the information sent, and sending information in its placesuch an attack is difficult to prevent so it is important to discover. Figure 6 shows two categories of human vulnerability types: Vulnerability based on weak spot that exists due to technical reasons (design, coding) and vulnerability based on weak spot that exists due to human behavior (lack of values and code of ethics), for example, attack internally as defined above, or making more phone cheating.
Figure 6. Classification of types of vulnerabilities with the causes of attacks.
The initial research findings and implications when dealing with systems that are used for learning in a secure electronic environment, with the characteristics of: (1) Confidentialityauthorized access only; (2) Integrity and reliability of information. Who is allowed to edit or delete? (3) Availabilityaccess to available information for the authorized individuals; (4) Authenticity-truths. Identification of the other side and confidence in him as reliable; (5) Accountability and commitment. The ability to know who is responsible for each action. In addition to other future implications, this research raises educationally interesting questions: What are the specific motives of human beings fervent use of internet? What attracts them to this complex technology? What leads them to build sabotage and attacks systems? These personal needs are provided by different negative uses of the network? What is the source of intrinsic motivation for human beings (as opposed to external, relating essentially to the demand or fashionable) that pushes them to such a broad, negative, positive, vigilant, enthusiastic, and fun use of internet? What makes the Web applications for the human user from the mental, emotional, and behavioral prospective?
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Summary
The study found that the relationship between internal and external vulnerability and human and technical behavior, with ethical and unethical moral implications, and the way these types of vulnerability can be taken into account to prevent malicious attacks. The findings show that the vulnerabilities and attacks can be classified as the following: (1) Leakagevulnerability of student confidentiality and information credibility. Availabilityvulnerability of accessibility and availability of information; (2) Active attackscause alarm or affect the activity of the e-learning system at the college. Passive attacksto listen to or to use information without knowledge and without damage to the e-learning system in the college; (3) Externallyhacking by an entity outside the college of unauthorized access. Internallyhacking by an entity of the college system that bypasses authorization and privileges. Solutions of the breaches of the e-learning security system at the college can be prevention, detection, and recovery. Every vulnerability and attack can cause other vulnerabilities to the security system at the college, which will be exploring with more recent data by continuous research in the near future. After treatment and recovery, remnants effects may remain, such as: (1) Unauthorized exposure of information to unauthorized individuals; (2) Deception and fraud; (3) Disruption interference with the system; (4) Usurpation-use inappropriate information.
References
Bargh, J. A., McKenna, K. Y. A., & Fitzsimons, G. M. (2002). Can you see the real me? Activation and expression of the true self on the Internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 33-48. Borzekowski, D. L. G. (2006). Adolescents use of the Internet: A controversial, coming-of-age resource. Adolescent Medicine Clinics, 17, 205-216. Bradley, K. (2005). Internet lives: Social context and moral domain in adolescent development. New Direction for Youth Development, 108, 57-76. Bross, D. C. (2005). Minimizing risks to children when they access the World Wide Web. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 749-752. Carnegi Mellon Universitys Software Engineering Institute. (2007). CERT knowledgebase. Retrieved from http://www.cert. org/kb Cheswick, W. R., Bellovin, S. M., & Rubin, A. D. (2003). Firewalls and Internet security: Repelling the wily hacker (2nd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. Geva, A. (2006). Three models of corporate social responsibility: Interrelationships between theory, research, and practice. Business and Society Review, 113(1), 1-41. Greenfield, P., & Yan, Z. (2006). Children, adolescents, and the Internet: A new field of inquiry in developmental psychology. Developmental Psychology, 42, 391-394. Gross, E. F., Juvonen, J., & Gable, S. L. (2002). Internet use and well-being in adolescence. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 75-90. Harris, J. (2004). Maintaining ethical standards for a computer security curriculum. Proceedings of The 1st Annual Conference on Information Security Curriculum Development (pp. 46-48). Kennesaw, Georgia. Johnson, A. R. (2009). Distance learning in higher education. Review of Higher Education, 32, 542-545. Kreie, J., & Cronan, T. P. (1998). How men and women view ethics. Association for Computing Machinery. Communications of the ACM, 41(9), 70-78. Kritzinger, E. (2006). Information security in an e-learning environment. In T. D. Kumar (Ed.), International federation for information processing, education for the 21st centuryImpact of ICT and digital resources (Vol. 210, pp. 345-349). Boston:
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Springer. Livingstone, S., lafsson, K., Staksrud, E. (2013). Risky social networking practices among under-age users: Lessons for evidence-based policy. Journal for Computer-Mediated Communication, 18(3), 303-320. Lawson, R. A. (2004). Is classroom cheating related to business students propensity to cheat in the real world. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(2), 189-199. Molnr, M., Andersson, R., Ekholm, A. (2008). Benefits of ICT in the construction industryCharacterization of the present situation in house-building processes. Proceedings of The 24th W78 Conference, Maribor 2007 & 14th EG-ICE Workshop (pp. 423-428). Maribor, Slovenia. Nguyen, N. T., & Biderman, M. D. (2008). Studying ethical judgments and behavioral intentions using structural equations: Evidence from the multidimensional ethics scale. Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 627-640. Popov, G. P., & Strigini, L. (2004, June). Fault diversity among off-The-shelf SQL database servers. In Proceedings of the 2004 International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks (pp. 388-389). Florence, Italy. Schneider, F. B. (1999). Trust in cyberspace. Washington DC, USA: The National Academies Press. Show, W. H. (2008). Business ethics (6th ed.). Belmont: Thompson-Wadsworth. US Department of Education. (2009). National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): Distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions. National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education, Washington D.C., USA.
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New Media and Social Networks as a New Phenomenon of Global Access to Information and Education
Bozena Supsakova
Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
This paper considers the issue of new media and social networks as a new phenomenon of global access to information and education. The article describes the issue of media literacy as a way to education of the young generation and a better understanding of media content. And the article also describes approaches to media literacy in some European countries and especially in Slovakia, where the author carried out research. Keywords: new media, social networks, global access to information and education, the European approach to media literacy, media education in Slovakia
New MillenniumNew MediaNew Forms of Personal and Mass Communication

The current civilization paradigm can be characterized: new millenniumnew medianew forms of personal and mass communication. The Internet, a new phenomenon of the global information infrastructure and access to information, was born in the seventies of the last century and began to affect significantly the way we communicate, collect, and share information. Nowadays, it penetrated to new dimensions of its development, as developing multimedia technologies and content (Web 2.0), as well as new phenomenal contacts: mobile communications (mobile phones, smart phones, and tablets) and social networks (Facebook, Twitter, and a lot of others). The Internet is used nowadays worldwide by one third of population, we register incredible five billion subscribers to mobile services; in economically developed countries, one user has more than one prepaid mobile service (Potter, 2012). This modern paradigm has also obviously affected and influenced the younger generation. It is apparent that the time for adoption of new literacy has comea media literacy, but also acquiring, in other words, an adoption of new social skills, especially how to get orientated, and most recently, also to achieve a self-fulfilment in the multimedia online space. It takes the series of new communications competences and skills that include the ability to search, select, analyze, evaluate, create, and thus, to pass information in variety of formatsby word, image, and sound. Media literacy is defined by most policymakers and academics as the ability to access, analyze, and evaluate media in multiple forms and communicate competently within these forms (Livingstone, Bober, & Helsper, 2005; ONeill & Hagen, 2009). Traditionally, education, training, and lifelong learning policies have been perceived as critical to develop media literacy. Therefore, any future interventions in this area must take into account the fact that media messages are constructed, have a purpose, may be affected by potential biases, and are subject to regulatory issues that potentially affect access and use (Martens, 2010; Ofcom, 2008). At the theoretical level, the media literacy can therefore be characterized as an ability to seek, receive,
Bozena Supsakova, professor of Visual Communication, Faculty of Education, Comenius University.
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analyze, evaluate, and communicate multi-media contents. By Hoechsmann and Poyntz (2012, p. 1), Media literacy is a summary of competences that allow us to interpret the media content and processes of the media world to create our own media, to recognize and deal with the social and political impact of media in everyday life. While the media contents (news, music, and websites) are produced by broadcasters, film-makers, and Web designers, and are broadcast by media technologies (television, film, and digital technologies, such as smart phones, MP3 players, tablets, or digital cameras). An interesting view on media literacy was expressed by a prominent expert and author of media literacy Potter, who said that:
To become more media literate means a boundary between ones real world and the world, produced by media. Being media literate also means get the information and experience you want, without getting out of the media what you do not want. Then you will be able to create your life as you want, and do not allow the media to create it as they wanton your behalf. (Potter, 2012, p. 14)
The author is clearly pointing at the present world of media, which continues its unprecedented development and is beyond the power of human senses to cover all new information created every day. Bearing in mind that every day in the world 1500 new titles of books are published, radio stations broadcast 65.5 million hours of the original program per year, televisions 48 million hours. At present, 35 million websites are available, Internet users send 300 billion emails per day, on YouTube 50 thousand hours of new videos are added daily, and in the short messaging social network known as Twitter, 70 million twitter a day are sent. People spend with new media more and more time, on average it is eight hours a dayall studies over the past three decades confirm this fact. Even children (and young people) in Slovakia are not an exception. Within the past decade, policymakers have recognized the importance of critical approaches to media messages, prompting position statements, exploratory research, and policy recommendations.
The European Approach to Media Literacy

In particular, the competencies correspond with the definitions of media literacy developed by members of the Media Literacy Expert Group convened by the European Commission as the ability to access, analyze, and evaluate the power of images, sounds, and messages which we are now being confronted with on a daily basis and are an important part of our contemporary culture, as well as to communicate competently in media available on a personal basis. Media literacy relates to all media, including television and film, radio and recorded music, print media, the Internet, and other new digital communication technologies. The aim of media literacy is to increase awareness of many forms of media messages encountered in our everyday lives. It should help citizens to recognize how the media filter their perceptions and beliefs, shape popular culture, and influence personal choices. It should empower them with critical thinking and creative problem-solving skills to make them judicious consumers and producers of information. Media education is part of the basic right of every citizen, in every country in the world, to freedom of expression and the right to information and it is instrumental in building and sustaining democracy. Media literacy may be defined as the ability to access, analyze, and evaluate the power of images, sounds, and messages which we are now being confronted with on a daily basis and are an important part of our contemporary culture, as well as to communicate competently in media available on a personal basis. Media literacy relates to all media, including television and film, radio and recorded music, print media, the Internet and other new digital communication technologies. Media literacy is often summarized as the capacity of individuals to interpret analyses, contextualize, and
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produce media messages. Any convergence of multiple platforms and technologies in which a variety of languages and media streams co-exists and merges the concept of media literacy affords an inclusive and practical point of reference. In this regard, media literacy implies a broadening, but also a reinforcement of the elemental functions, whereby, traditional literacy is defined, i.e., a critical and analytical reading of numerous simultaneous sources of information, reasoning, influenced by social injunction, symbolic and cultural codes and conventions. With the development of the digital world, the ways to transfer knowledge have shifted from the traditional media (television, radio, books, newspaper, and cinema) and have become increasingly dependent on digital technologies (Internet). While not undermining the relevance of the traditional media sources, nowadays, possessing certain technical skills to access digital technologies without difficulties enables citizens to engage more with and participate in every level of public life, from social networking to e-government. Individuals not equipped to utilize digital technologies are necessarily isolated from this aspect of the media flow, next to the additional negative effects of being solely reliant on traditional media to obtain information (Testing and Refining Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe, 2011, p. 14).
The Media Reality Is not Always an Actual Reality

Information society delivers almost uncontrolled growth of media messages. To some extent, this new functionality was brought with new social networks and media that allow anyone to create any content, and publish it publicly and globally. The public space thus offers countless source of information, which is increasingly difficult to get orientated in and to verify its validity and relevance. The media reality is not always an actual reality, the boundaries between true and false are vague and often fictitious. This virtual world is naturally attractive, especially for children (and youth) and the part of the population is among the first to be able to acquire new skills quickly and thus to obtain gradually a new media literacy. Young people crave much more frequently than adults to control new technologies and know to manage them very easily while their cognitive skills and the ability to make decisions based on values are not yet fully developed. Globalization and convergence of media, along with a wide range of options they offer are also raising new concerns: a flood of information; uniformity undoubtedly caused by the dominance of one language and one culture in the new media, the increasing commercialization. There is also a serious risk of a new form of social exclusion for those who cannot communicate through the media and/or are unable to assess their content critically (Recommendation of Commision No. 1466/2000, 2000). The European approach to media literacy covering all media and media literacy levels includes (Recommendation of Commision No. 6464/2009, 2009): (1) Feeling of comfort when using all existing media from newspapers even to virtual communities; (2) Active use of media through interactive television, use of Internet browsers or participation in virtual communities and better use of a potential of entertainment media, cultural and inter-cultural dialogues, learning and everyday applications (e.g., libraries, Webcast, and podcast services); (3) Critical approach to media in terms of quality and accuracy of their content (e.g., the ability to evaluate information, (prudent) perception of advertising in various media, and smart use of search engines); (4) Creative use of media, since the evolution of media technologies and the growing importance of the Internet as a distribution channel allows a constantly growing number of Europeans to create and distribute images, information, and content; (5) Understanding of economic relations in the media industry and the difference between pluralism and
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media ownership, awareness of copyright issues, which is necessary for so-called culture of legality, especially for the younger generation in its double position of consumer and content producer.
Children Read Only 80 Minutes Daily, but Spend Four Times More Watching a Screen
Our research adds that in Slovakia (see Figure 1) children 8-10-year-old spend about five hours watching a screen. They read only for one hour and 20 minutes on daily basis, while 87% of them focus mostly on the text and 13% on images (illustration), 11-14-year-old children spend seven hours daily watching TV and reading daily one hour, while 78% of them focus on the text and 22% on images (illustration) (upkov, 2010, pp. 138-147). Within another project in Slovakia, an online survey panel of active Internet users confirmed that the most frequently used activities with mobile phones carried out by children include making calls, sending SMS/text message/or MMS messages, taking photographs, listening to music or radio, and playing games. The survey results indicate that children, who themselves actively use the Internet, spend too much time online and the most frequently the Internet is used by the eldest children, i.e., of 16-19 years of age, daily (76%) or several times a week (20%). The most common activities of youth (16-19 years) on the Internet are searching for information (89%), chatting (88%), emails (79%), and downloading of music, pictures, and movies (76%). The youngest children (6-9 years) spend most of the time playing online games, and most of all seeking entertainment and information, contacts of their family and friends, as well as contacts for new friends. Provision of data through the Internet is risky, particularly in the age group from 10 to 19 years. The most common information provided through the Internet includes email address, photo, phone number, and home address (Project Zodpovedne.sk, 2008). Regarding the threats and risks on the Internet more than a quarter of interviewed children are aware of being in a risky situation sometimes. The younger children state has met risks more frequently. It could be related to a raising awareness of Internet risks as well as that a lot of activities on the Internet are done by still younger children when they are not able to handle difficult situations (this age shift has been a long-term trend). Children aged 9-10 years have got less technical skills and experiences with social situations. They have not got developed their abstract and critical thinking sufficiently yet and are not able to consider consequences of their actions properly, which are significant disadvantages in decision-making in ambiguous situations (Tomkova, 2012, p. 3).
Figure 1. How much time do you spend on the Internet (A survey among children younger school age 8-10 years in Slovakia, 2010, N = 301). Source: upakov (2010).
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Research of Roberts and Foehr (2008) showd that at average a child and young person (8-18 years) spend in the new media ecosystem up to 7 hours 50 minutes a day, and the new trend is to use multiple functions and resources at the same time (so-called multitaskingperformance of several activities at once), when, e.g., a young man is listening to music on the Internet, at the same time, chatting with friends and in another window on the screen watching video. It is not surprising that this generation of children and teenagers acquires the name M generation, i.e., a generation strongly linked with media (Potter, 2012). We can definitely say that if in the past media literacy was linked mostly with written words, now it is not valid, as new types of literacy enter our livesvisual literacy, computer literacy, and context (content) literacy.
Education Is a Form That Cultivates Curiosity of Children

Media education creates a space for young people to express freely and the right for information. It is beneficial not only for their personal development, but it enhances participation and interactivity in society. Thus, it prepares them for democratic citizenship and political consciousness. As pointed out also in studies of Buckingham, education for media literacy is a potentially very significant place to define future civic attitudes of individuals, especially in the ability to combine basic procedures in the field of gathering and analyzing of media messages with civic participation and social action (Buckingham, 2000, p. 221). As he further noted, the media education curriculum must socialize young people, to acquire experiences from social changes (Buckingham, 2000, p. 223). We can also agree with the Thomas and Jolly (2004) who said that education can begin in the classroom, but culminate in a meaningful, creative participation of individuals in a broader cultural and social environment, and lead to personal and political transformation from a passive observer of events to an actionable citizen who can take interested citizen attitudes (Thomas Jolly, 2004, pp. 18-29). Media education is here to help children to cultivate their curiosity to learn how to evaluate the highest variety of questions and situations in contexts complexly, to accept diverse perspectives and think optimistically to the future. Reflected into the educational practice, media education at the primary level of education should include all personal levels of children/students as well as cognitive (basic orientation in the media environment, recognizing of differences and diversity, decoding of reality represented by media, understanding the positive and negative impacts of the media, etc.), psychomotoric (active communication in the media environment, creation of their own media content, and ability to collaborate and communicate with the media environment), and attitudinal (the ability to take their own attitude to media products, the ability of critical analysis, and responsibility for content creation, etc.). Also in this case, it would be valid that the practice is the criterion of truth. The media environment should become a textbook as well as a kind of laboratory of media education in schools.
Approaches of European Countries

At present, the media education is included into the content of education in most European countries, where it is mostly integrated into the compulsory subjects, particularly into their mother language subject, communication education as an interdisciplinary subject, sociology, psychology, art history, and so on. In some countries, it is also part of non-formal education. In the UK, it is a part of the English language, while its main task is to teach children/students to develop critical opinions to media texts and institutions. In France, since 2006, media education has been included in the areas of education, which mainly deals with social and civic issues. On the other hand, Belgium integrated media education into their music education or foreign languages.
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Germany experienced the biggest boom in the sixties and seventies of the last century, media education is today a part of the compulsory subjects (German, aesthetic or artistic education, music, and social science). In Finland, it is integrated into the (interdisciplinary) subjectcommunication education, in recent years, however, more and more high schools offer media education in special courses. Sweden, Denmark, and Austria develop media competencies in the frame of other compulsory subjects. In Hungary, film and media education were included in the curricular documents already in 2003 as a part of other compulsory subjects. In the Czech Republic, already in 2002, an educational and simultaneously pilot Media Smart Project had been initiated whose objective was to increase a media literacy of primary school students at the age of 6-11 years. Based on the recommendation of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic from 2008/2009 pupils in elementary and secondary schools can attend courses of media education, if their school included it into their educational programs. Based on recommendation of the Ministry of Education of Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic from 2008/2009, the students of elementary and secondary schools are able to attend media education lessons if the school included such form of education into its educational programs. According to conceptual framework educational program of the Ministry of Education of Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic, the media education isin addition to personal and social education, education for democratic citizen, education towards thinking within European and global relations, a multicultural education and environmental educationbeing integrated into education as a cross-cutting topic. Media education in such a form has become a mandatory part of school education programs in elementary schools and high schools.
Institutional and Formal Framework of Media Education in Slovakia

Institutional and formal framework of media education in Slovakia is created by the concept of media education in the Slovak Republic in the context of postgradual learning, which defines and describes formal and informal forms of education (The subjected concept was preceded by experimental verification of media education). The subjected concept was preceded by experimental verification of media education as a non-mandatory and optional subject in fifth to ninth class of primary schools and first to fourth class of eight-year grammar schools. In each class, there was different core media to be taught, in the fifth year, there was television; in the sixth, a film was included; in the seventh, the auditory media were involved; in the eighth, the printed media were taken; and in the ninth class, there were the new electronic media and multimedia services. The results of the experiment proved that the introduction of media education subject is to be relevant. Students in the experimental groups scored in tests and questionnaire surveys usually better than in comparison with controlling groups. Based on the results of the experimental verification project, media education was included in the list of compulsory and optional subjects for the fifth to ninth classes of primary school and the first to fourth classes of eight-year grammar schools since the school year 2008/2009 (The Concept of Media Education in the Slovak Republic in the Context of Lifelong Learning, 2009). The project indicates that children/students in the frame of media education in primary schools should better know and understand the rules of media world functioning and learn how to orient in it in a meaningful way. The main objective is to evoke a reflection of children/students to media content and increase their sensitivity to use of specific content (e.g., inadequate occurrence of violence and sexuality, information and content not respecting human dignity, etc.), teach them to detect manipulation features in media, to discover positive life values and assess behavior of heroes in audio-visual and television works. Also to analyze
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commercials, to take evaluation and critical attitude to produced entertainment, to verify the truth and neutrality of information, to create media content actively, and to review it, etc..
Media education has its place in the State educational program. Its aim is to teach students of primary level education to understand better the rules of functioning of the media world, and in accordance with their age to get oriented in it, being able to assess media messages. At the secondary level, the emphasis is on developing their ability to competent and responsible treatment of different types of media, communication technologies, and their products. It is expected, however, that pupils acquire the ability to use media meaningfully and selectively, to know the rules of their functioning and based on the received information form their own opinion. As a cross-cutting theme it is incorporated into the mandatory education program in kindergartens. At present, media education is no longer a compulsory part of the education program in primary and secondary schools; it is integrated in the State curriculum as a cross-cutting theme and can be taught in individual subjects, or in a form of individual courses, or as a single optional subject. (The National Education Program ISCED 1 (The International Standard Classification of Education), 2008)
Media education officially became part of the NEP (National Education Program) as late as in 2008. Following the basic documents of the European Union, the Council of Europe and UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), it is defined as practical training aimed to build media competence understood as a critical and distinctive attitude towards the media to educate emancipated citizens, able to make their own opinion on the basis of the information received (The National Education Program ISCED 1, 2011). It contributes to the personal and social development of pupils to obtain a basic level of media literacy. In public documents, it is designed as a transversal theme, whose primary aim is to open for pupils further perspectives of knowledge, creating attitudes to the substantive issues of the modern world to gain experience to be used in everyday life. The transversal theme goes across educational fields, integrates educational area contents, and creates scope to obtain a comprehensive view of the same issue. It participates in the creation and development of core competencies. The meaning and relevance of media education in society is growing proportionally with the continuous development of information and communication technologies, opportunities for their use and access to them, and also the variety and quantity of media content offered. The concept of media education in the Slovak Republic emphasizes that All skills are factors of personal development that form awareness, critical thinking, and the ability to solve problems. In the information society, media literacy is an essential skill for all population age groups, and is considered as one of the basic assumptions of active and full citizenship in order to eliminate the risk of social exclusion (The Concept of Media Education in the Slovak Republic in the Context of Lifelong Learning, 2009). In the last decade, experts of international institutions in connection with the media have been focused on skills, then in responsible, creative, and critical approach, selection, impact, and effectiveness. In the context concept of media education in the Slovak Republic, it perceives media education as the lifetime, systematic, and focused process of obtaining media competences and upgrading media literacy, the main objective of which is to support the reliable use of the media and to develop critical attitudes in relation to media contents, with an emphasis on moral principles and humanism (The Concept of Media Education in the Slovak Republic in the Context of Lifelong Learning, 2009). According to the National Education Program, the main objective of media education is to gain and develop media literacy, to acquire media competences, i.e., the ability to receive, evaluate, analyze, and communicate a wide range of media content (The National Education Program ISCED 1, 2011). The secondary goal in the cognitive field is to develop knowledge of individual types of media, their function, development, social, economic, technological, and organizational aspects of their functioning; to obtain a basic orientation of
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the types, functions, and effects of the media on children recipients; to form their own opinion; to know types of media products and the process of their formation; to understand and critically assess the medially processed and displayed reality; to know media means of expression, the manner of arrangement of media products; to use the media and its products differentiated based on the quality performance of its functions (information, education, ethic, moral, and fun) and meeting their own needs. The psychomotor area is focused on the development of these skills: To use the media in the communication process actively; to create and produce their own media products; to operate technical equipment and control new media technologies; and to work with other media makers in the process of communication. In the affective area, which plays a more and more significant role in media education since it also deals with emotional and attitudinal components, the goals are: To cooperate with other media makers in the process of communication; to take a positive attitude to media products that provide positive value orientation for life; to choose them; to reject media content that resists ethical standards and produces a distorted view of values, harmful, threatening an individuals personal development; to try to use a responsible approach and eliminate the negative impact of the media on the individual; to be able to review their relationship to the media; to reflect their habits when using the media; to correct them; and to substitute their own media consumption with an alternative activity (The National Education Program ISCED 1, 2011).
National Education Program and Media Education in Primary School

Several published studies in Slovakia indicate that since 2008 media education has not moved significantly on from the declarative nature to the real school experience. As noted above, we have defined the National Education Program, which is a general framework, a kind of an indicative compass how to go further. However, what is significantly missing is a next upgrading and more detailed specification of the document on the level of basic schools, and its adaptation to local conditions and needs. It is just one of our reasons to reflect the content of primary learning in SEP (School Education Programs) in selected primary schools in the context of a transversal topicmedia education1. The content analysis method is intended to measure the level of a transversal theme and the structure of its content in SEPs. At the same time, we are looking for an answer to the question how such contents are reflected in educational areas and specific subjects. We note that media education incorporated into the National Education Program as a transversal theme is conceived more generally; the share of its presence in the total content is about 3%. The analysis of SEPs show that transversal themes are an integral part of the educational area content: Language and Communication; Mathematics and Handling Information; Nature and Society; Arts and Culture; People and Values; Health and Movement; Man and the World of Work, with an emphasis on the links and relationships between educational areas. The transversal theme media education is particularly integrated into the curriculum of Slovak language and literature (six thematic units) in the form of interactive exercises: phonetic aspects of the language and spelling (literary Slovak, correct pronunciation and writing); communication and composition (simple narrative, description in oral and writing (SMSshort messages, e-mail, advertisement, and advertising); and reading and
interdisciplinary based educational model development and their implementation to state curriculum. Project Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport SR KEGA 023UK-4/2012, Boena upkov, chief project. PrimIntegra.skWeb support of integrated primary education content. Project Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport SR KEGA 047UK-4/2013, upkov, co-author of the project.
1
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literature (film, radio, television, drama, and fairy tale). Thus, it supports both acquiring the basic rules of communication, dialogue, and argumentation. However, it is incorporated in the folder reading and literature; surprisingly little or almost not at all is it represented in composition. In English language and literature, it appears not more than in one thematic unit representing, 6.25%. Usually, the National Education Program formulates the general objectives in the education area of mathematics and handling information as follows: To understand the rules of functioning of the media world, and to orient in it depending on their age, to be able to assess messages disseminated by the media, to find positives in favor of their personal and professional growth, to realize the negative media influences on their personality, and to develop the media competences of pupils2. We find out that mathematics is a subject consisting of four thematic units; the transversal theme does not appear in any thematic unit, though in this case one would expect that the teacher will use new media to learn mathematical operations. Informatics is an ideal subject for the implementation of media/multimedia. In the analyzed SEPs, it is usually broken down into five thematic units, which is directly related to the media. We appreciate that the content standard includes the thematic unit Internet security. The educational field nature and society and two subjectsnatural science and regional studies. The subject natural science is usually divided into 10 thematic units. The transversal theme is represented in only one thematic unit (usually human body), which in our opinion is insufficient, since just in this subject there is wide scope to search, review, select knowledge and information from the Internet, encyclopedias, as well as to create computer presentations and present subject contents through the media, multimedia, etc.. Creators of SEP more accentuate innovative approaches in regional studies, the transversal theme is incorporated into five thematic units of the total seven thematic units. They focus more on interactive maps, the Internet, television, and interactive boards, etc.. The educational field man and values deal with the compulsory optional courses of religion and ethics, which is conducted more educationally, and thus, creates appropriate scope to develop personal communication competences, as well as media competences. It is usually represented in four or five thematic units: attitudes and skills in interpersonal relations; ethics in the media, the functioning and impact of media in society; and the Internet as a source of information and entertainment, which is evaluated very positively. Thematic units are designed so that through the transversal topic pupils learn to observe sensitively perceive and assess various media programs. At the same time, to be able to name and define the basic media types, differentiate and compare media (newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet), as well as their role in society (informative, educational, and entertaining) and to learn to distinguish between positive and negative forms of expression in print and digital media. The educational field arts and culture are perceived primarily through fine arts and music. The transversal theme media education is part of several thematic units, mainly aimed at the development of psychomotor skills: compositional principles of two- and three- dimensional imaging, computer graphics, stimuli of photographs, film and video, and virtual galleries. Working with video deserves greater attentioni.e., the ability to perceive, read, interpret, and critically evaluate artefacts of everyday art and media production. In music education, the presence of media education is significantly lower. Based on the content analysis of SEP, we note that the educational content of primary education from the perspective of developing media literacy is in accordance with the National Education Program. The structure of the transversal theme content reflects the content standard, SEP (The National Education Program ISCED 1, 2011), which is reflected in the specific areas of learning areas and subjects, especially in the SL (Slovak
2
Formulation of the objectives of the SEP (School Education Program) in our survey.
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Language and Literature), IN (Informatics), ET (Ethics), FT (Folk Traditions), less in Fine AE (Arts/Art Education), partly in Natural SC (Science), PE (Physical Education), and TE (Technical Education). Only in one school is the representation of transversal theme in natural science at the level similar to folk traditions (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. The share of media education in the thematic units by subjects. Note. Subjects: SL (Slovak Language and Literature); EN (English); MA (Mathematics); IN (Informatics); Natural SC (Science); National HO (History); ET (Ethics), Fine AE (Arts/Art Education); ME (Music Education); FT (Folk Traditions), PE (Physical Education), TE (Technical Education).
Theoretically, the School Education Program reflects the present, the transversal theme amends the educational content of subjects, while creating scope for learning and developing attitudes on the substantive issues of the present, and obtaining new experience3. They are qualitatively developed quite well. It is a pity, however, that the school does not quantify its time allotment, and thus, does not guarantee with the quantity of integration of media education in learning areas and subjects. At the same time, there is an urgent requirement to develop common goals into each learning area, to specify them as far as possible in all subjects and grades, to name activities, and set outcomes of learning areas of individual subjects reasonably and clearly. We note that the content of SEP further emphasizes the development of media competences at the cognitive and psychomotoric level. The analysis also shows that performance standards are related to media education only with some specified topics. It is necessary to develop appropriate evaluation tools of the transversal theme at the level of schools, classes, and pupils.
Conclusions
Although media education is part of the curriculum in many European countries, the Member States, its practical application is still problematic, even in relation with traditional media. The qualified teachers and
3 Note: With the support of international projects, for example, the European Digital Library, Infovek, the National Project Use of ICT in Subjects, Multimedia Reader, Internet Knowledge Olympic Games and other. These activities are usually a reflection of the quality and professional access of school teachers, their teamwork, and interest in education.
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educational materials are an essential condition of media education, and therefore, the constant attention should be paid to teacher training in primary schools, as well as at other levels of education. Uncertainties remain in question, which place media education would have in the curriculum, what goals and tasks should be fulfilled. Also uncertainties remain in education methodology and assessment of results. Most schools have not adapted to the educational model, in which students and teachers are in a position of learning (Recommendation of Commision No. 1466/2000, 2000). This statement concerning deficiencies in media education throughout Europe unfortunately persists till today. Involved professionals, experts in media education identified misunderstanding and lack of status of the subject and its content in the educational system, incompetent teaching, inadequate teacher education, lack of basic educational facilities, and lack of funds, etc.. We share the same opinion with recommendations of experts in media education (Testing and Refining Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe, April, 2011) that there are several necessary steps to improve the situation: (1) Initiatives and founding sources should be provided for national governments of Member States to exchange experiences with countries; (2) Measurements tools should be introduced as integral parts of media education. It would particularly allow long-term observations of trends, and would provide systematic measurements of skill levels and of cognitive critical thinking elements: (a) Traditional media access/exposure; (b) Exposure to Internet and social networks; (c) Use skills (computer and Internet skills, and more sophisticated skills measurement for all media in educational systems); (d) Protection skills: The ability to change their privacy settings or to block other users online, from EU (European Union) kids online content creation skills; (e) Content creation: Making videos/taking photos on digital video, digital camera, and mobile phones, SMS messages, post messages on Internet. (3) The manifestation of communicative abilities into media content is most characteristic among young populations. To extend the population that is active in these fields, secondary and tertiary education as well as lifelong learning initiatives targeting mature and elderly populations should promote the uptake of these elements of media literacy as key competences and skills and should promote the development of didactical tools, and extend teachers training programs of media teachers; (4) The development of practical easy-to-follow educational tools, or guidance sheets for media teachers. This finding can be even more applied to the Slovak reality, where media education is only in the beginning. It is true that the legislative framework for media education and its anchoring in the system of formal and informal education in Slovakia we have already had. Talking about basic education, in addition to the results of the experimental verification, there are no relevant outcomes, even though, there is no known extent (and whether the education exists at all), and in particular, in what quality the education is performed, how teachers teach the subject, and how many professionally trained teachers we actually have. It is a challenge for our applied research to evaluate the quality of school education programs just in this field and uncover
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deficiencies4. Now, we cannot speak about a coordinated education system, where the activities of the state are linked with the activities of non-governmental and civil sectors. Minus is the lack of the Media Education Centre at the Ministry of Culture to be the coordinator of activities in the field of media education; it was to develop the concept of media education in non-formal education, plans, and projects for the development of media education system. The commitment to establish it as part of the existing institutions at the Ministry of Culture failed because of austerity. Today, we have no other option, just keep doing what we started. Media education at primary and secondary levels of basic schools definitely deserves adequate attention, because as a cross-cutting theme it can enrich each pupil, but also teach such subjects as mother language, history, geography, and art. It is actually a good investment.
References
Buckingham, D. (2000). The making of citizens: Young people, news and politics (pp. 221-223). London : Routledge. Hardt, H. (2004). Myths for the masses: An essay on mass commnication. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.. Hoechsmann, M., Poyntz, S. (2012). Media literacies: A critical introduction. Oxford: Buckwell Publishing Ltd.. Livingstone, S., Bober, M., & Helsper, E. (2005). Internet literacy among children and young people: Findings from the UK children go online project. London: LSE Research Online. Retrived from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/397/1/UKCGOonline Literacy.pdf Martens, H. (2010). Evaluating media literacy education: Concepts, theories and future directions. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 2, 1-22. McLuhan, M. (2008). A man, electronic media and culture (p. 262). Brno: Jota. Ofcom. (2008). Media literacy audit: Report on UK adults media literacy. London: Ofcom. ONeill, B., & Hagen, I. (2009). Media literacy. In S. Livingston, & L. Haddon (Eds.), Opportunities and risks for children (pp. 229-240). Bristol: The Policy Press. Potter, W. J. (2012). Media literacy. London: SAGE Publishing. Project Zodpovedne.sk. (2008). Child safety in the use of Internet and mobile phone. Retrieved from http://www.zodpovedne.sk Recommendation of Commision No. 1466/2000. (2000). Media education. Council of Europe, The Parliamentary Assembly. Retrieved from http://www.culture.gov.sk/extdoc/2636/ Recommendation of Commision No. 6464/2009. (2009). Commission recommendation on media literacy in the digital environment for a more competitive audiovisual and content industry and an inclusive knowledge society, Brussels. Retrieved August 20, 2009, from http://ec.europa.eu/culture/media/literacy/docs/recom/c_2009_6464_sk.pdf Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G. (2008). Trends in media use. The Future of Children, 18(1), 11-37. upakov, B. (2012). Technological changeover to the internet age and its effect to social communication of the youth. In ICT Education design : Processes, materials, resources 1 ( pp. 133-153). Zielona Gora: Universytet Zlielonogrski. upkov, B. (2010). Reflection of the media in expressing the image of children and youth. In J. Masek, Z. Sloboda, V. Zikmund (Eds.), Media education in theory and practice pilsen (pp. 138-147). Pilsen: Faculty of Education, University of West Bohemia. Testing and Refining Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe (p.14). (2011). European Association for Viewers Interests & Danish Technological Institute, Final Report. The National Education Program ISCED 0. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/ms/isced_0.pdf The National Education Program ISCED 1. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/1stzs/isced1/ isced1_spu_uprava.pdf The National Education Program ISCED 1. (2011). Media education (cross-cutting theme) (p. 2). Retrieved from http://www. statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/prierezove_temy/medialna_isced1.pdf
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Interdisciplinary based educational model development and their implementation to state curriculum. Project Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport SR KEGA 023UK-4/2012, Boena upkov, chief project. PrimIntegra.skWeb support of integrated primary education content. Project Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport SR KEGA 047UK-4/2013, upkov, co-author of the project.
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The National Education Program ISCED 2. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/2stzs/isced2/ isced2_spu_uprava.pdf The National Education Program ISCED 3A. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.statpedu.sk/files/documents/svp/gymnazia/ isced3_spu_uprava.pdf The Concept of Media Education in the Slovak Republic in the Context of Lifelong Learning (p. 24). (2009). The Resolution of the Government of the Slovak Republic. Retrieved December 16, 2009, from http://old.culture.gov.sk/uploads/9z/9U/ 9z9UuLgW-4Iwh72hQv9adw/vlastny_material.pdf Thomas, E., Jolly, St. (2004). Media literacy: A national priority for a changing world. American Behavioral Scientis, 48(1), 18-29. Tomkova, J. (2012). Mediation of safer internet use (p. 3). The Survey Final Report, Research Institute for Child Psychology and Pathopsychology, Bratislava.
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NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

The Purpose and Importance of the Study

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

NON-ROUTINE MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING AT HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL

Mehmet Habaci, Fadime Adiguzelli, Sultan Kurt

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

The Purpose of the Study

The Importance of the Study

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Effective Classroom Management

Classroom Organization in the Classroom Management

The Importance of the Physical Environment

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

The Physical Variables Affecting the Classroom Management

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Aesthetic Appearance of the Classroom

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Multi-grouped Seating Arrangement

Single Group Arrangement

Individual Seating Arrangement

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Acoustic and Noise

Ar and Saban, on the other hand, are of the opinion that:

Figure 1. Shannon and Weavers model of communication (Dkmen, 1999).

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Light and Illumination

Cleaning and Ventilation

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM cited in Uluda Odac, 2002).

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Result and Suggestions

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM

Ecological Competence Model for Nurses

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

The seventh point declares that:

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

Figure 1. Ecological competence model of nurses.

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

Experience in Care Practice

Results and Discussion

Ecological Competence of a Nurse

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

ECOLOGICAL COMPETENCE MODEL FOR NURSES

Refinement of Logico-Mathematical Intelligence in the Context of Physics Education

REFINEMENT OF LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE IN PHYSICS EDUCATION

REFINEMENT OF LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE IN PHYSICS EDUCATION

Methods and Materials

Results and Discussion

REFINEMENT OF LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE IN PHYSICS EDUCATION

REFINEMENT OF LOGICO-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE IN PHYSICS EDUCATION