TEORI PIAGET

Teori ini diperkenalkan oleh Jean Piaget, berasal daripada Switzerland, merupakan ahli psikologi yang banyak menyumbang kepada pemahaman bagaiman kanak-kanak belajar. Dari kajain dan permerhatiannya, Piaget mendapati bahawa perkembangan kognitif kanak-kanak berbeza dan berubah melalaui empat peringkat iaitu peringkat deria motor ! " # tahun$, pra-operasi # " % tahun$, operasi konkrit % " && tahun$ dan operasi formal && tahun ke dewasa$. 'alau bagaimana, usia ini tidak tetap kerana ia mengikut kemampuan pelajar itu sendiri. (enurut Jere )onfrey &***$, + Piagetian theory kindled my intense enjoyment of ,hildren and deep respe,t for their ,apabilities.Sebagai seorang guru matematik sekolah rendah, kita harus memberi tumpuan terhadap perkembangan kanak-kanak pada peringkat operasi konkrit. Ketika usia sebegini kanak-kanak hanya boleh memahami konsep matematik melalui pengalaman konkrit. Oleh itu, alat bantuan mengajar dapat membantu murid-murid memahami konsep matematik. Paiget berpendapat bahawa asas pada semua pembelajaran ialah aktiviti kanak-kanak itu sendiri. Beliau juga menegaskan kepentingan interaksi idea-idea antara kanak-kanak tersebut dengan kawan-kawan sejawatnnya penting untuk perkembangan mental.

TEORI BRUNER
Jerome Bruner, seorang ahli psikologi yang terkenal telah banyak menyumbang dalam penulisan teori pembelajaran, proses pengajaran dan alsa ah pendidikan. Bruner bersetuju dengan Piaget bahawa perkembangan kogniti kanak-kanak adalah melalui peringkat-peringkat tertentu. !alau bagaimanapun, Bruner lebih menegaskan pembelajaran se"ara penemuan iaitu mengolah apa yang diketahui pelajar itu kepada satu "orak dalam keadaan baru #lebih kepada prinsip konstruktivisme$. %enurut kajian dan pemerhatian yang telah dibuat oleh Bruner dan pembantunya, Kenney, pada tahun &'() mereka berjaya membina empat teorem pembelajaran matematik # %ok Soon Sang, &''($ iaitu* + ,eorem Pembinaan o -ara yang paling berkesan bagi kanak-kanak mempelajari konsep, prinsip atau hukum matematik ialah membina perwakilan dan menjalankan aktiviti yang konkrit.

+ ,eorem ,atatanda

,atatanda matematik yang diperkenalkan harus mengikut perkembangan kogniti murid tersebut.

+ ,eorem Kontras dan .ariasi o Konsep yang diterangkan kepada murid harus berbe/a dan pelbagai supaya murid dapat membe/akan konsep-konsep matematik tersebut.

+ ,eorem Perhubungan o Setiap konsep, prinsip dan kemahiran matematik hendaklah dikaitkan dengan konsep, prinsip dan kemahiran matematik yang lain.

Selain daripada kajian tersebut, Bruner per"aya bahawa kanak-kanak lebih dimotivasikan oleh masalah yang menarik yang tidak mampu diselesaikan oleh mereka dengan mudah seandainya tidak menguasai isi kandungan mata pelajaran dan kemahiran tertentu.

TEORI GAGNE
0obert %. 1agne, seorang pro essor dan ahli psikologi yang telah banyak membuat penyelidikan mengenai asa dalam rangkaian pembelajaran dan jenis pembelajaran matematik. ,eori pembelajaran 1agne berbe/a dengan ,eori Piaget dan Bruner. %enurut 1agne, terdapat empat kategori yang harus dipelajari oleh kanak-kanak dalam matematik iaitu akta, kemahiran, konsep dan prinsip. .agne mempunyai hierarki pembelajaran. /ntaranya ialah pembelajaran melalui isyarat, pembelajaran tindak balas rangsangan, pembelajaran melalui rantaian, pembelajaran melalui pembezaan dan sebagainya. (enurut .agne, peringkat yang tertinggi dalam pembelajaran ialah penyelesaian masalah. Pada peringkat ini, pelajar menggunakan konsep dan prinsip-prinsip matematik yang telah dipelajari untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang belum pernah dialami.

TEORI DIENES
Professor 0olton P. Dienes, seorang ahli matematik, ahli psikologi dan pendidik, pernah memberi banyak sumbangan dalam teori pembelajaran. 1eliau telah meran,ang satu sistem yang berkesan untuk pengajaran matematik untuk menjadikan matematik lebih mudah dan berminat untuk mempelajari. (engikut Dienes konsep matematik boleh dipelajari melalui enam peringkat iaitu

permainan bebas, permainan berstruktur, men,ari ,iri-,iri, perwakilan gambar, perwakilan simbol dan akhirnya formalisasi. Teori Dienes mengariskan beberapa prinsip bagaimana kanak-kanak mempelajari matematik iaitu2 Prinsip 3onstrukti4iti o Pelajar haruslah memahami konsep sebelum memahaminya dengan analisa yang logik.

Prinsip Perubahan Perspeptual o 3anak-kanak didedahkan pelbagai keadaan supaya dapat memaksimakan konsep (atematik.

Prinsip Dinamik o 3anak-kanak mempelajari sesuatu melalui pendedahan dan eksperimen untuk membentuk satu konsep.

Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

Overview: ,his theory stipulates that there are several di erent types or levels o learning. ,he signi i"an"e o these "lassi i"ations is that ea"h di erent type re2uires di erent types o instru"tion. 1agne identi ies ive major "ategories o learning* verbal in ormation, intelle"tual skills, "ognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. 3i erent internal and e4ternal "onditions are ne"essary or ea"h type o learning. 5or e4ample, or "ognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a "han"e to pra"ti"e developing new solutions to problems6 to learn attitudes, the learner must be e4posed to a "redible role model or persuasive arguments. 1agne suggests that learning tasks or intelle"tual skills "an be organi/ed in a hierar"hy a""ording to "omple4ity* stimulus re"ognition, response generation, pro"edure ollowing, use o terminology, dis"riminations, "on"ept ormation, rule appli"ation, and problem solving. ,he primary signi i"an"e o the hierar"hy is to identi y prere2uisites that should be "ompleted to a"ilitate learning at ea"h level. Prere2uisites are identi ied by doing a task analysis o a learning7training task. 8earning hierar"hies provide a basis or the se2uen"ing o instru"tion.

9n addition, the theory outlines nine instru"tional events and "orresponding "ognitive pro"esses* #&$ gaining attention #re"eption$ #:$ in orming learners o the obje"tive #e4pe"tan"y$ #)$ stimulating re"all o prior learning #retrieval$ #;$ presenting the stimulus #sele"tive per"eption$ #<$ providing learning guidan"e #semanti" en"oding$ #($ eli"iting per orman"e #responding$ #=$ providing eedba"k #rein or"ement$ #>$ assessing per orman"e #retrieval$ #'$ enhan"ing retention and trans er #generali/ation$. ,hese events should satis y or provide the ne"essary "onditions or learning and serve as the basis or designing instru"tion and sele"ting appropriate media #1agne, Briggs ? !ager, &'':$. Scope App!ication* !hile 1agne@s theoreti"al ramework "overs all aspe"ts o learning, the o"us o the theory is on intelle"tual skills. ,he theory has been applied to the design o instru"tion in all domains #1agner ? 3ris"oll, &'>>$. 9n its original ormulation #1agne, & '(:$, spe"ial attention was given to military training settings. 1agne #&'>=$ addresses the role o instru"tional te"hnology in learning. E"a#p!e* ,he ollowing e4ample illustrates a tea"hing se2uen"e "orresponding to the nine instru"tional events or the obje"tive, 0e"ogni/e an e2uilateral triangle* &. 1ain attention - show variety o "omputer generated triangles :. 9denti y obje"tive - pose 2uestion* A!hat is an e2uilateral triangleBA ). 0e"all prior learning - review de initions o triangles ;. Present stimulus - give de inition o e2uilateral triangle <. 1uide learning- show e4ample o how to "reate e2uilateral (. Cli"it per orman"e - ask students to "reate < di erent e4amples =. Provide eedba"k - "he"k all e4amples as "orre"t7in"orre"t >. Dssess per orman"e- provide s"ores and remediation '. Cnhan"e retention7trans er - show pi"tures o obje"ts and ask students to identi y e2uilaterals 1agne #&'><, "hapter &:$ provides e4amples o events or ea"h "ategory o learning out"omes. Princip!es:

&. 3i erent instru"tion is re2uired or di erent learning out"omes. :. Cvents o learning operate on the learner in ways that "onstitute the "onditions o learning. ). ,he spe"i i" operations that "onstitute instru"tional events are di erent or ea"h di erent type o learning out"ome. ;. 8earning hierar"hies de ine what intelle"tual skills are to be learned and a se2uen"e o instru"tion. References: 1agne, 0. #&'(:$. %ilitary training and prin"iples o learning. Dmeri"an Psy"hologist, &=, :()-:=(. 1agne, 0. #&'><$. ,he -onditions o 8earning #;th ed.$. Eew Fork* Golt, 0inehart ? !inston . 1agne, 0. #&'>=$. 9nstru"tional ,e"hnology 5oundations. Gillsdale, EJ* 8awren"e Crlbaum Dsso". 1agne, 0. ? 3ris"oll, %. #&'>>$. Cssentials o 8earning or 9nstru"tion #:nd Cd.$. Cnglewood -li s, EJ* Prenti"e-Gall. 1agne, 0., Briggs, 8. ? !ager, !. #&'':$. Prin"iples o 9nstru"tional 3esign #;th Cd.$. 5ort !orth, ,H* GBJ -ollege Publishers.

Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

Index | Source | !o"e | #o$n an On%$ne &o""un$t' Educat$on

5ale, /.1. &*6% 1rown, Ph.D. &*7!

&areer !$g(%$g(t

Professor, )onne,ti,ut )ollege &*7!-7*$ Professor, Penn State 8ni4ersity &*79-7:$ Dire,tor of Per,eptual and (otor Skills ;aboratory, 8.S. /ir <or,e &*7*-9=$

Professor, <lorida State 8ni4ersity present$

)a*or &ontr$but$on to In truct$ona% De+e%o,"ent

,o-de4eloper of >?nstru,tional Systems Design> wrote The Conditions of Learning, &*:9 ,o-wrote Principles of Instructional Design

-$nd$ng . Re earc(. Stud$e /lthough .agne@s earlier work refle,ted beha4iorist thought, he is ,onsidered to be an eAperimental psy,hologist who is ,on,erned with learning and instru,tion. ?n &*:9, .agne published The )onditions of ;earning whi,h outlined the relation of learning obje,ti4es to appropriate instru,tional designs. .agne identifies fi4e ,ategories of learning2 Taxono"' o/ 0earn$ng Outco"e &r$t$ca% 0earn$ng &ond$t$on &. Draw attention to distin,ti4e features by 4ariations in print or spee,h. :. Present information so that it ,an be made into ,hunks. ). Pro4ide a meaningful ,onteAt for effe,ti4e en,oding of information. ;. Pro4ide ,ues for effe,ti4e re,all and generalizatio n of information.

Exa",%e

1erba% In/or"at$on

Stating pre4iously learned materials su,h as fa,ts, ,on,epts, prin,iples, and pro,edures, e.g., listing the se4en major symptoms of ,an,er

Dis,riminations2 Inte%%ectua% Distinguishing obje,ts, features, S2$%% 2 Dis,riminations, or symbols, e.g., hearing different )on,rete pit,hes played on )on,epts, a musi,al Defined instrument )on,epts, Bules, Cigher Drder Bules )on,rete )on,epts2 ?dentifying ,lasses of ,on,rete obje,ts, features, or e4ents, e.g., pi,king out all the green (E(s from the ,andy jar Defined )on,epts2 ,lassifying new eAamples of e4ents or ideas by their definition, e.g., noting >she sells sea shells> as alliteration Bules2 /pplying a single relationship to sol4e a ,lass of problems, e.g., ,al,ulating the earned run a4erages FB/$ of the /tlanta 1ra4es Cigher Drder Bules2 /pplying a new ,ombination

&. )all attention to distin,ti4e features. :. Stay within the limits of working memory. ). Stimulate the re,all of pre4iously learned ,omponent skills. ;. Present 4erbal ,ues to the ordering or ,ombination of ,omponent skills. <. S,hedule o,,asions for pra,ti,e and spa,ed re4iew. (. 8se a 4ariety of ,onteAts to promote transfer.

of rules to sol4e a ,ompleA problem, e.g., generating a balan,ed budget for a state organization &. Des,ribe or demonstrate the strategy. :. Pro4ide a 4ariety of o,,asions for pra,ti,e using the strategy. ). Pro4ide informati4e feedba,k as to the ,reati4ity or originality of the strategy or out,ome. &. Fstablish an eApe,tan,y of su,,ess asso,iated with the desired attitude. :. /ssure student identifi,ation with an admired human model. ). /rrange for ,ommuni,ati on or demonstratio n of ,hoi,e

&ogn$t$+e Strateg$e

Fmploying personal ways to guide learning, thinking, a,ting, and feeling, e.g., de4ising a ,orporate plan to impro4e ,ustomer relations

3tt$tude

)hoosing personal a,tions based on internal states of understanding and feeling, e.g., de,iding to eAer,ise daily as a part of pre4enti4e health ,are

of personal a,tion. ;. .i4e feedba,k for su,,essful performan,eG or allow obser4ation of feedba,k in the human model. &. Present 4erbal or other guidan,e to ,ue the eAe,uti4e subroutine. #. /rrange repeated pra,ti,e. 6. <urnish immediate feedba,k as to the a,,ura,y of performan,e. 7. Fn,ourage the use of mental pra,ti,e. ?nformation from2 Dris,oll, (.(1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction. /llyn and 1a,on. .agne@s idea is tied to Skinner@s idea of seHuen,ed learning e4ents as displayed in his Iine F4ents of ?nstru,tion. The table below shows .agne@s e4ents of instru,tion and an eAample lesson that follows it.

)otor S2$%%

FAe,uting performan,es in4ol4ing the use mus,les, e.g., doing a triple somersault di4e off the high board

FAample ;esson2 1e ?nspired 8sing 3idspiration

Dbje,ti4e2 Students will learn how to use the 3idspiration multimedia software program to ,reate a diagram. Iote2 This lesson is geared for 3-9 tea,hers with basi, ,omputer skills. F4ent of ?nstru,tion ;esson FAample Bationale Tea,her tells learners how she has used 3idspiration in the ,lassroom. Shows an eAample diagram made using 3idspiration on proje,tion s,reenJTK monitor. /sks learners Huestions about diagramming.

&. .aining /ttention

.i4ing ba,kground information ,reates 4alidity. The use of multimedia grabs the audien,e@s attention. /sking Huestions in the beginning ,reates an intera,ti4e atmosphere.

Tea,her says, >Today ? am going (ake learners to show you how aware of what to #. ?nforming to use a eApe,t so that they the ;earner of multimedia are aware and the Dbje,ti4e presentation prepared to re,ei4e software ,alled information. 3idspiration.> <or this parti,ular group of learners, they ha4e learned pre4iously about 6. Stimulating (ind (apping Be,all of Prior and S,hemata. ;earning Tea,her asso,iates this knowledge with lesson at hand. 7. Presenting the Stimulus 'hen learning something new, a,,essing prior knowledge is a major fa,tor in the pro,ess of a,Huiring new information.

Tea,her gi4es The goal is students step-by- information

step tutorial on using 3idspiration. (y e)oa,h 3idspiration .uide$ and has installed 3idspiration software on their ,omputers. Tea,her demonstrates how to ,reate a diagram on the 4ideo proje,tion s,reenJTK monitor. Tea,her shows students how to use 3idspiration tools to type in teAt, add links, add symbols, use sounds, et,. ;earners are allowed to try the tools demonstrated in partners on their ,omputers.

a,Huisition, therefore, the stimulus employed is written ,ontent and the a,tual software program.

9. Pro4iding ;earner .uidan,e

Tea,her uses >dis,o4ery learning> be,ause learners are adults and it gi4es them the freedom to eAplore. Tea,her fa,ilitates the learning pro,ess by gi4ing hints and ,ues when needed. Sin,e the audien,e are tea,hers with some basi, le4el of te,hnology skills and the software program is easy to follow and understand, guidan,e is minimal.

:. Fli,iting Performan,e

BeHuiring the learner to produ,e Tea,her asks based on what has students to been taught enables demonstrate the learner to 3idspiration tools. ,onfirm their learning. Tea,her gi4es immediate feedba,k to learners after eli,iting responses.

%. .i4ing <eedba,k

Begular feedba,k enhan,es learning.

=. /ssessing Performan,e

?ndependent /ssign a pra,ti,e pra,ti,e for,es a,ti4ity - )reate a students to use what diagram that they learned and fo,uses on <arm apply it. /ssessing /nimals. su,h gi4es Tea,her ,he,ks instru,tors a means work. of testing student learning out,omes.

Tea,her asks learners to ,reate a,ti4ities using 3idspiration for #nd grade *. Fnhan,ing students. Betention and Tea,her also Transfer ,harges learner with tea,hing another learner how to use 3idspiration.

/pplying learning in real-life situations is a step towards (astery ;earning.

Source )onditions of ;earning2 .agne http2JJtip.psy,hology.orgJgagne.html Bobert .agne@s ?nstru,tional Design /pproa,h http2JJwww.gsu.eduJLmstswhJ,oursesJit%!!!JpapersJrobert.htm Dris,oll, (.(1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction2 /llyn and 1a,on.

$ero#e %r&ner and t'e process of ed&cation

Jerome Bruner has made a profound contribution to our appreciation of the process of education and to the development of curriculum theory. We explore his work and draw out some important lessons for informal educators and those concerned with the practice of lifelong learning.
contents: introd&ction ( $ero#e s. %r&ner ) 'is !ife ( t'e process of ed&cation ( t'e c&!t&re of ed&cation ( conc!&sion ( f&rt'er reading and references ( !in*s

It is s&re!+ t'e case t'at sc'oo!ing is on!+ one s#a!! part of 'ow a c&!t&re ind&cts t'e +o&ng into its canonica! wa+s. Indeed, sc'oo!ing #a+ even %e at odds wit' a c&!t&re-s ot'er wa+s of ind&cting t'e +o&ng into t'e re.&ire#ents of co##&na! !iving.... /'at 'as %eco#e increasing!+ c!ear... is t'at ed&cation is not just a%o&t conventiona! sc'oo! #atters !i*e c&rric&!&# or standards or testing. /'at we reso!ve to do in sc'oo! on!+ #a*es sense w'en considered in t'e %roader conte"t of w'at t'e societ+ intends to acco#p!is' t'ro&g' its ed&cationa! invest#ent in t'e +o&ng. 0ow one conceives of ed&cation, we 'ave fina!!+ co#e to recogni1e, is a f&nction of 'ow one conceives of c&!t&re and its ai#s, professed and ot'erwise. #Jerome S. Bruner &''(* i4-4$ 2ero#e S. 3r&ner #&'&<- $ is one o the best known and in luential psy"hologists o the twentieth "entury. Ge was one o the key igures in the so "alled @"ognitive revolution@ - but it is the ield o edu"ation that his in luen"e has been espe"ially elt. Gis books The Process of Education and Towards a Theory of Instruction have been widely read and be"ome re"ogni/ed as "lassi"s, and his work on the so"ial studies programme - %an* D -ourse o Study #%D-OS$ - in the mid-&'(Is is a landmark in "urri"ulum development. %ore re"ently Bruner has "ome to be "riti"al o the @"ognitive revolution@ and has looked to the building o a "ultural psy"hology that takes proper a""ount o the histori"al and so"ial "onte4t o parti"ipants. 9n his &''( book The Culture of Education these arguments were developed with respe"t to s"hooling #and edu"ation more generally$. @Gow one "on"eives o edu"ation@, he wrote, @we have inally "ome to re"ogni/e, is a un"tion o how one "on"eives o the "ulture and its aims, pro essed and otherwise@ #Bruner &''(* i4-4$.
2ero#e S. 3r&ner ) !ife

Bruner was born in Eew Fork -ity and later edu"ated at 3uke Jniversity and Garvard # rom whi"h he was awarded a Ph3 in &';=$. 3uring !orld !ar 99, Bruner worked as a so"ial psy"hologist e4ploring propaganda publi" opinion and so"ial attitudes or J.S. Drmy intelligen"e. D ter obtaining his Ph3 he be"ame a member o a"ulty, serving as pro essor o psy"hology, as well as "o ounder and dire"tor o the -enter or -ognitive Studies.
Beginning in the &';Is, Jerome Bruner, along with 8eo Postman, worked on the ways in whi"h needs, motivations, and e4pe"tations #or @mental sets@$ in luen"e per"eption. Sometimes dubbed as the @Eew 8ook@, they e4plored per"eption rom a un"tional orientation #as against a pro"ess to separate rom the world around it$. 9n addition to this work, Bruner began to look at the role o strategies in the pro"ess o human "ategori/ation, and more generally, the development o human "ognition. ,his "on"ern with "ognitive psy"hology led to a parti"ular interest in the "ognitive development o "hildren #and their modes o representation$ and just what the appropriate orms o edu"ation might be.

5rom the late &'<Is on Jerome Bruner be"ame interested in s"hooling in the JSD - and was invited to "hair an in luential ten day meeting o s"holars and edu"ators at !oods Gole on -ape -od in &'<' #under the auspi"es o the Eational D"ademy o S"ien"es and the Eational S"ien"e 5oundation$. One result was Bruner@s landmark book The Process of Education #&'(I$. 9t developed some o the key themes o that meeting and was an "ru"ial a"tor in the generation o a range o edu"ational programmes and e4periments in the &'(Is. Jerome Bruner subse2uently joined a number o key panels and "ommittees #in"luding the President@s Ddvisory Panel o Cdu"ation$. 9n &'(), he re"eived the 3istinguished S"ienti i" Dward rom the Dmeri"an Psy"hologi"al Dsso"iation, and in &'(< he served as its president. Jerome S. Bruner also be"ame involved in the design and implementation o the in luential %D-OS proje"t #whi"h sought to produ"e a "omprehensive "urri"ulum drawing upon the behavioural s"ien"es$. ,he "urri"ulum amously aimed to address three 2uestions* !hat is uni2uely human about human beingsB Gow did they get that wayB Gow "ould they be made more soB #Bruner &'=(* =;$ ,he proje"t involved a number o young resear"hers, in"luding Goward 1ardner, who subse2uently have made an impa"t on edu"ational thinking and pra"ti"e. %D-OS was atta"ked by "onservatives #espe"ially the "ross-"ultural nature o the materials$. 9t was also di i"ult to implement - re2uiring a degree o sophisti"ation and learning on the part o tea"hers, and ability and motivation on the part o students. ,he edu"ational tide had begun to move

away rom more liberal and progressive thinkers like Jerome Bruner. 9n the &'(Is Jerome Bruner developed a theory o "ognitive growth. Gis approa"h #in "ontrast to Piaget$ looked to environmental and e4periential a"tors. Bruner suggested that intelle"tual ability developed in stages through step-by-step "hanges in how the mind is used. Bruner@s thinking be"ame in"reasingly in luen"ed by writers like 8ev .ygotsky and he began to be "riti"al o the intrapersonal o"us he had taken, and the la"k o attention paid to so"ial and politi"al "onte4t. 9n the early &'=Is Bruner le t Garvard to tea"h or several years at the university o O4 ord. ,here he "ontinued his resear"h into 2uestions o agen"y in in ants and began a series o e4plorations o "hildren@s language. Ge returned to Garvard as a visiting pro essor in &'=' and then, two years later, joined the a"ulty o the new S"hool or So"ial 0esear"h in Eew Fork -ity. Ge be"ame "riti"al o the @"ognitive revolution@ and began to argue or the building o a "ultural psy"hology. ,his @"ultural turn@ was then re le"ted in his work on edu"ation - most espe"ially in his &''( book* The Culture of Education.
T'e process of ed&cation

The Process of Education #&'(I$ was a landmark te4t. 9t had a dire"t impa"t on poli"y ormation in the Jnited States and in luen"ed the thinking and orientation o a wide group o tea"hers and s"holars, 9ts view o "hildren as a"tive problem-solvers who are ready to e4plore @di i"ult@ subje"ts while being out o step with the dominant view in edu"ation at that time, stru"k a "hord with many. @9t was a surprise@, Jerome Bruner was later to write #in the pre a"e to the &'== edition$, that a book e4pressing so stru"turalist a view o knowledge and so intuitionist an approa"h to the pro"ess o knowing should attra"t so mu"h attention in Dmeri"a, where empiri"ism had long been the dominant voi"e and @learning theory@ its ampli ier@ #ibid.* vii$. 5our key themes emerge out o the work around The Process of Education #&'(I* &&-&($* T'e ro!e of str&ct&re in !earning and 'ow it #a+ %e #ade centra! in teac'ing. ,he approa"h taken should be a pra"ti"al one. @,he tea"hing and learning o stru"ture, rather than simply the mastery o a"ts and te"hni2ues, is at the "enter o the "lassi" problem o trans er... 9 earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general pi"ture in terms o whi"h the relations between things en"ountered earlier and later are made as "lear as possible@ #ibid.* &:$. Readiness for !earning. Gere the argument is that s"hools have wasted a great deal o people@s time by postponing the tea"hing o important areas be"ause they are deemed @too di i"ult@.

!e begin with the hypothesis that any subje"t "an be taught e e"tively in some intelle"tually honest orm to any "hild at any stage o development. #ibid.* ))$ ,his notion underpins the idea o the spira! c&rric&!&# - @D "urri"ulum as it develops should revisit this basi" ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the ull ormal apparatus that goes with them@ #ibid.* &)$. Int&itive and ana!+tica! t'in*ing. 9ntuition #@the intelle"tual te"hni2ue o arriving and plausible but tentative ormulations without going through the analyti"al steps by whi"h su"h ormulations would be ound to be valid or invalid "on"lusions@ ibid.* &)$ is a mu"h negle"ted but essential eature o produ"tive thinking. Gere Bruner notes how e4perts in di erent ields appear @to leap intuitively into a de"ision or to a solution to a problem@ #ibid.* (:$ - a phenomenon that 3onald S"hKn was to e4plore some years later - and looked to how tea"hers and s"hools might "reate the "onditions or intuition to lourish. 4otives for !earning. @9deally@, Jerome Bruner writes, interest in the material to be learned is the best stimulus to learning, rather than su"h e4ternal goals as grades or later "ompetitive advantage@ #ibid.* &;$. 9n an age o in"reasing spe"tatorship, @motives or learning must be kept rom going passive... they must be based as mu"h as possible upon the arousal o interest in what there is be learned, and they must be kept broad and diverse in e4pression@ #ibid.* >I$. Bruner was to write two @posts"ripts@ to The Process of Education* Towards a theory of instruction #&'(($ and The Relevance of Education #&'=&$. 9n these books Bruner @put orth his evolving ideas about the ways in whi"h instru"tion a"tually a e"ts the mental models o the world that students "onstru"t, elaborate on and trans orm@ #1ardner :II&* ')$. 9n the irst book the various essays deal with matters su"h as patterns o growth, the will to learn, and on making and judging #in"luding some help ul material around evaluation$. ,wo essays are o parti"ular interest - his re le"tions on %D-OS #see above$, and his @notes on a theory o instru"tion@. ,he latter essay makes the "ase or taking into a""ount 2uestions o predisposition, stru"ture, se2uen"e, and rein or"ement in preparing "urri"ula and programmes. Ge makes the "ase or edu"ation as a knowledge-getting pro"ess* ,o instru"t someone... is not a matter o getting him to "ommit results to mind. 0ather, it is to tea"h him to parti"ipate in the pro"ess that makes possible the establishment o knowledge. !e tea"h a subje"t not to produ"e little living libraries on that subje"t, but rather to get a student to think mathemati"ally or himsel , to "onsider matters as an historian does, to take part in the pro"ess o knowledge-getting. Knowing is a pro"ess not a produ"t. #&'((* =:$ ,he essays in The Relevance of Education #&'=&$ apply his theories to in ant development.

T'e c&!t&re of ed&cation

Jerome Bruner@s re le"tions on edu"ation in The Culture of Education #&''($ show the impa"t o the "hanges in his thinking sin"e the &'(Is. Ge now pla"ed his work within a thorough appre"iation o "ulture* @"ulture shapes the mind... it provides us with the toolkit by whi"h we "onstru"t not only our worlds but our very "on"eption o our selves and our powers@ #ibid.* 4$. ,his orientation @presupposes that human mental a"tivity is neither solo nor "ondu"ted unassisted, even when it goes on Ainside the headA #ibid.* 4i$. 9t also takes Bruner well beyond the "on ines o s"hooling.

Conc!&sion

Jerome S. Bruner has had a pro ound e e"t on edu"ation - and upon those resear"hers and students he has worked with. Goward 1ardner has "ommented* Jerome Bruner is not merely one o the oremost edu"ational thinkers o the era6 he is also an inspired learner and tea"her. Gis in e"tious "uriosity inspires all who are not "ompletely jaded. 9ndividuals o every age and ba"kground are invited to join in. 8ogi"al analyses, te"hni"al dissertations, ri"h and wide knowledge o diverse subje"t matters, asides to an ever wider orbit o in ormation, intuitive leaps, pregnant enigmas pour orth rom his inde atigable mouth and pen. 9n his words, @9ntelle"tual a"tivity is anywhere and everywhere, whether at the rontier o knowledge or in a third-grade "lassroom@. ,o those who know him, Bruner remains the -ompleat Cdu"ator in the lesh... #1ardner :II&* ';$ To %e co#p!eted
-urt(er read$ng and re/erence

Bruner, J #&'(I$ The Process of Education, -ambridge, %ass.* Garvard Jniversity Press. '= L 44vi pages. 0ightly re"ogni/ed as a twentieth "entury edu"ational @"lassi"@, this book argues that s"hooling and "urri"ula should be "onstru"ted to oster intuitive @graspings@. Bruner makes the "ase or a @spiral "urri"ulum@. ,he se"ond edition, &'==, has a a new pre a"e that reassesses the book. Bruner, J. S. #&'(($ Toward a Theory of Instruction, -ambridge, %ass.*

Belkapp Press. &=( L 4 pages. Bruner, J. S. #&'=&$ The Relevance of Education, Eew Fork* Eorton. 9n this book Bruner applied his theories to in ant development. Bruner, J. #&''($ The Culture of Education, -ambridge, %ass.* Garvard Jniversity Press. ::; L 4vi pages.

Constr&ctivist T'eor+ (2. 3r&ner)

Overview: D major theme in the theoreti"al ramework o Bruner is that learning is an a"tive pro"ess in whi"h learners "onstru"t new ideas or "on"epts based upon their "urrent7past knowledge. ,he learner sele"ts and trans orms in ormation, "onstru"ts hypotheses, and makes de"isions, relying on a "ognitive stru"ture to do so. -ognitive stru"ture #i.e., s"hema, mental models$ provides meaning and organi/ation to e4perien"es and allows the individual to Ago beyond the in ormation givenA. Ds ar as instru"tion is "on"erned, the instru"tor should try and en"ourage students to dis"over prin"iples by themselves. ,he instru"tor and student should engage in an a"tive dialog #i.e., so"rati" learning$. ,he task o the instru"tor is to translate in ormation to be learned into a ormat appropriate to the learner@s "urrent state o understanding. -urri"ulum should be organi/ed in a spiral manner so that the student "ontinually builds upon what they have already learned. Bruner #&'(($ states that a theory o instru"tion should address our major aspe"ts* #&$ predisposition towards learning, #:$ the ways in whi"h a body o knowledge "an be stru"tured so that it "an be most readily grasped by the learner, #)$ the most e e"tive se2uen"es in whi"h to present material, and #;$ the nature and pa"ing o rewards and punishments. 1ood methods or stru"turing knowledge should result in simpli ying, generating new propositions, and in"reasing the manipulation o in ormation. 9n his more re"ent work, Bruner #&'>(, &''I, &''($ has e4panded his theoreti"al ramework to en"ompass the so"ial and "ultural aspe"ts o learning as well as the pra"ti"e o law. Scope App!ication: Bruner@s "onstru"tivist theory is a general ramework or instru"tion based upon the study o "ognition. %u"h o the theory is linked to "hild development resear"h #espe"ially Piaget $. ,he ideas outlined in Bruner #&'(I$ originated rom a "on eren"e o"used on s"ien"e and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the "onte4t o mathemati"s and

so"ial s"ien"e programs or young "hildren #see Bruner, &'=)$. ,he original development o the ramework or reasoning pro"esses is des"ribed in Bruner, 1oodnow ? Dustin #&'<&$. Bruner #&'>)$ o"uses on language learning in young "hildren. Eote that -onstru"tivism is a very broad "on"eptual ramework in philosophy and s"ien"e and Bruner@s theory represents one parti"ular perspe"tive. 5or an overview o other -onstru"tivist rameworks, see http*77"arbon."udenver.edu7Mmryder7it"Ndata7"onstru"tivism.html. E"a#p!e: ,his e4ample is taken rom Bruner #&'=)$* A,he "on"ept o prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the "hild, through "onstru"tion, dis"overs that "ertain hand uls o beans "annot be laid out in "ompleted rows and "olumns. Su"h 2uantities have either to be laid out in a single ile or in an in"omplete row-"olumn design in whi"h there is always one e4tra or one too ew to ill the pattern. ,hese patterns, the "hild learns, happen to be "alled prime. 9t is easy or the "hild to go rom this step to the re"ognition that a multiple table , so "alled, is a re"ord sheet o 2uantities in "ompleted mutiple rows and "olumns. Gere is a"toring, multipli"ation and primes in a "onstru"tion that "an be visuali/ed.A Princip!es: &. 9nstru"tion must be "on"erned with the e4perien"es and "onte4ts that make the student willing and able to learn #readiness$. :. 9nstru"tion must be stru"tured so that it "an be easily grasped by the student #spiral organi/ation$. ). 9nstru"tion should be designed to a"ilitate e4trapolation and or ill in the gaps #going beyond the in ormation given$. References: Bruner, J. #&'(I$. ,he Pro"ess o Cdu"ation. -ambridge, %D* Garvard Jniversity Press. Bruner, J. #&'(($. ,oward a ,heory o 9nstru"tion. -ambridge, %D* Garvard Jniversity Press. Bruner, J. #&'=)$. 1oing Beyond the 9n ormation 1iven. Eew Fork* Eorton. Bruner, J. #&'>)$. -hild@s ,alk* 8earning to Jse 8anguage. Eew Fork* Eorton. Bruner, J. #&'>($. D"tual %inds, Possible !orlds. -ambridge, %D* Garvard Jniversity Press.

Bruner, J. #&''I$. D"ts o %eaning. -ambridge, %D* Garvard Jniversity Press. Bruner, J. #&''($. ,he -ulture o Cdu"ation, -ambridge, %D* Garvard Jniversity Press. Bruner, J., 1oodnow, J., ? Dustin, D. #

2ero#e 3r&ner
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Jump to* navigation, sear"h 2ero#e S. 3r&ner #b. & O"tober &'&<$ is an Dmeri"an psy"hologist who has "ontributed to "ognitive psy"hology and "ognitive learning theory in edu"ational psy"hology and to the general philosophy o edu"ation. Bruner is "urrently a senior resear"h ellow at the Eew Fork Jniversity S"hool o 8aw. Bruner@s ideas are based on "ategori/ation. A,o per"eive is to "ategori/e, to "on"eptuali/e is to "ategori/e, to learn is to orm "ategories, to make de"isions is to "ategori/e.A Bruner maintains people interpret the world in terms o its similarities and di eren"es. 8ike Bloom@s ,a4onomy, Bruner suggests a system o "oding in whi"h people orm a hierar"hi"al arrangement o related "ategories. Ca"h su""essively higher level o "ategories be"omes more spe"i i", e"hoing Benjamin Bloom@s understanding o knowledge a"2uisition as well as the related idea o instru"tional s"a olding. Ge has also suggested that there are two primary modes o thought* the narrative mode and the paradigmati" mode. 9n narrative thinking, the mind engages in se2uential, a"tionoriented, detail-driven thought. 9n paradigmati" thinking, the mind trans"ends parti"ularities to a"hieve systemati", "ategori"al "ognition. 9n the ormer "ase, thinking takes the orm o stories and Agripping drama.A 9n the latter, thinking is stru"tured as propositions linked by logi"al operators. 9n his resear"h on the development o "hildren #&'(($, Bruner proposed three modes o representation* ena"tive representation #a"tion-based$, i"oni" representation #imagebased$, and symboli" representation #language-based$. 0ather than neatly delineated stages, the modes o representation are integrated and only loosely se2uential as they AtranslateA into ea"h other. Symboli" representation remains the ultimate mode, or it Ais "learly the most mysterious o the three.A Bruner@s theory suggests it is e i"a"ious when a"ed with new material to ollow a progression rom ena"tive to i"oni" to symboli" representation6 this holds true even or adult learners. D true instru"tional designer, Bruner@s work also suggests that a learner #even o a very young age$ is "apable o

learning any material so long as the instru"tion is organi/ed appropriately, in sharp "ontrast to the belie s o Piaget and other stage theorists.

Contents
OhideP

& ,he Earrative -onstru"tion o 0eality : 5ormer Students ) Bibliography o ).& Books
o

).: Drti"les

[edit] he !arrative Construction of "eality

9n &''&, Bruner published an arti"le in Critical Inquiry entitled A,he Earrative -onstru"tion o 0eality.A 9n this arti"le, he argued that the mind stru"tures its sense o reality through mediation through A"ultural produ"ts, like language and other symboli" systemsA #)$. Ge spe"i i"ally o"uses on the idea o narrative as one o these "ultural produ"ts. Ge de ines narrative in terms o ten things* &. Earrative dia"hroni"ity* ,he notion that narratives take pla"e over some sense o time. :. Parti"ularity* ,he idea that narratives deal with parti"ular events, although some events may be le t vague and general. ). 9ntentional state entailment* ,he "on"ept that "hara"ters within a narrative have Abelie s, desires, theories, values, and so onA #=$. ;. Germeneuti" "omposability* ,he theory that narratives are that whi"h "an be interpreted in terms o their role as a sele"ted series o events that "onstitute a Astory.A See also Germeneuti"s <. -anoni"ity and brea"h* ,he "laim that stories are about something unusual happening that Abrea"hesA the "anoni"al #i.e. normal$ state. (. 0e erentiality* ,he prin"iple that a story in some way re eren"es reality, although not in a dire"t way that o ers verisimilitude. =. 1eneri"ness* ,he lipside to parti"ularity, this is the "hara"teristi" o narrative whereby the story "an be "lassi ied as a genre. >. Eormativeness* ,he observation that narrative in some way supposes a "laim about how one ought to a"t. ,his ollows rom "anoni"ity and brea"h. '. -onte4t sensitivity and negotiability* 0elated to hermeneuti" "omposability, this is the "hara"teristi" whereby narrative re2uires a negotiated role between author or te4t and reader, in"luding the assigning o a "onte4t to the narrative, and ideas like suspension o disbelie . &I. Earrative a""rual* 5inally, the idea that stories are "umulative, that is, that new stories ollow rom older ones.

Bruner observes that these ten "hara"teristi"s at on"e des"ribe narrative and the reality "onstru"ted and posited by narrative, whi"h in turn tea"hes us about the nature o reality as "onstru"ted by the human mind via narrative.

[edit] #ormer $tudents

2ean Piaget
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Jump to* navigation, sear"h

Piaget, by DndrQ Koehne 2ean Piaget OR pjaP #Dugust ', &>'( S September &(, &'>I$ was a Swiss philosopher, natural s"ientist and developmental psy"hologist, well known or his work studying "hildren and his theory o "ognitive development. D""ording to Crnst von 1lasers eld, Jean Piaget is also Athe great pioneer o the "onstru"tivist theory o knowingAO&P.

Contents
OhideP

& Biography : ,he stages o "ognitive development ) Piaget@s view o the "hild@s mind ; ,he developmental pro"ess < 9n luen"e o <.& 3evelopmental psy"hology o <.: Cdu"ation o <.) Gistori"al studies o thought and "ognition o <.; Cvolution o human intelligen"e o <.< Primatology o <.( Philosophy o <.= D9 ( %ajor works and a"hievements o (.& %ajor works o (.: Other works o (.) Dppointments = Piagetian and post-Piagetian stage theories > Tuotations ' See also &I Eotes && 0e eren"es &: C4ternal links

[edit] Biography
Piaget was born in Eeu"hUtel in the 5ren"h-speaking part o Swit/erland. Gis ather, Drthur Piaget, was a pro essor o medieval literature at the Jniversity o Eeu"hUtel. Piaget was a pre"o"ious "hild who developed an interest in biology and the natural world, parti"ularly mollusks, and even published a number o papers be ore he graduated rom high s"hool. 9n a"t, his long "areer o s"ienti i" resear"h began when he was just eleven, with the &'I= publi"ation o a short paper on the albino sparrow. Over the "ourse o his "areer, Piaget wrote more than si4ty books and several hundred arti"les. Piaget re"eived a Ph.3. in natural s"ien"e rom the Jniversity o Eeu"hUtel, and also studied brie ly at the Jniversity o VWri"h. 3uring this time, he published two philosophi"al papers whi"h showed the dire"tion o his thinking at the time, but whi"h he later dismissed as adoles"ent work. Gis interest in psy"hoanalysis, a strain o psy"hologi"al thought burgeoning at that time, "an also be dated to this period. Ge then moved rom Swit/erland to 1range-au4-Belles, 5ran"e, where he taught at the s"hool or boys run by Dl red Binet, the developer o the Binet intelligen"e test. 9t was while he was helping to mark some instan"es o these intelligen"e tests that Piaget

noti"ed that young "hildren "onsistently gave wrong answers to "ertain 2uestions. Piaget did not o"us so mu"h on the a"t o the "hildren@s answers being wrong, but that young "hildren kept making the same pattern o mistakes that older "hildren and adults did not. ,his led him to the theory that young "hildren@s thought or "ognitive pro"esses are inherently di erent rom those o adults. #Jltimately, he was to propose a global theory o developmental stages stating that individuals e4hibit "ertain distin"tive "ommon patterns o "ognition in ea"h period in their development.$ 9n &':&, Piaget returned to Swit/erland as dire"tor o the 0ousseau 9nstitute in 1eneva. 9n &':), he married .alentine -hUtenay, one o his students6 together, the "ouple had three "hildren, whom Piaget studied rom in an"y. 9n &':', Jean Piaget a""epted the post o 3ire"tor o the 9nternational Bureau o Cdu"ation and remained the head o this international organi/ation until &'(>. Cvery year, he dra ted his X3ire"torYs Spee"hesZ or the 9BC -oun"il and or the 9nternational -on eren"e on Publi" Cdu"ation in whi"h he e4pli"itly e4pressed his edu"ational "redo.

[edit] he stages of cognitive development

Main article: Theory of cognitive develop ent Piaget served as pro essor o psy"hology at the Jniversity o 1eneva rom &':' to &'=< and is best known or reorgani/ing "ognitive development theory into a series o stages, e4panding on earlier work rom James %ark Baldwin* our levels o development "orresponding roughly to #&$ in an"y, #:$ pre-s"hool, #)$ "hildhood, and #;$ adoles"en"e. Ca"h stage is "hara"teri/ed by a general "ognitive stru"ture that a e"ts all o the "hild@s thinking #a stru"turalist view in luen"ed by philosopher 9mmanuel Kant$Ocitation neededP. Ca"h stage represents the "hild@s understanding o reality during that period, and ea"h but the last is an inade2uate appro4imation o reality. 3evelopment rom one stage to the ne4t is thus "aused by the a""umulation o errors in the "hild@s understanding o the environment6 this a""umulation eventually "auses su"h a degree o "ognitive dise2uilibrium that thought stru"tures re2uire reorgani/ing. ,he our development stages are des"ribed in Piaget@s theory as &. !ensori otor stage* rom birth to age : years #"hildren e4perien"e the world through movement and senses and learn obje"t permanen"e$ :. Preoperational stage* rom ages : to = #a"2uisition o motor skills$ ). Concrete operational stage* rom ages = to && #"hildren begin to think logi"ally about "on"rete events$ ;. "or al operational stage* a ter age && #development o abstra"t reasoning$. ,hese "hronologi"al periods are appro4imate, and in light o the a"t that studies have demonstrated great variation between "hildren, "annot be seen as rigid norms. 5urthermore, these stages o""ur at di erent ages, depending upon the domain o knowledge under "onsideration. ,he ages normally given or the stages, then, re le"t when ea"h stage tends to predominate, even though one might eli"it e4amples o two,

three, or even all our stages o thinking at the same time rom one individual, depending upon the domain o knowledge and the means used to eli"it it. 3espite this, though, the prin"iple holds that within a domain o knowledge, the stages usually o""ur in the same "hronologi"al order. ,hus, there is a somewhat subtler reality behind the normal "hara"teri/ation o the stages as des"ribed above. ,he reason or the invariability o se2uen"e derives rom the idea that knowledge is not simply a"2uired rom outside the individual, but it is "onstru"ted rom within. ,his idea has been e4tremely in luential in pedagogy, and is usually termed "onstru"tivism. #!ee #Constructivis $learning theory%#$ On"e knowledge is "onstru"ted internally, it is then tested against reality the same way a s"ientist tests the validity o hypotheses. 8ike a s"ientist, the individual learner may dis"ard, modi y, or re"onstru"t knowledge based on its utility in the real world. %u"h o this "onstru"tion #and later re"onstru"tion$ is in a"t done sub"ons"iously. ,here ore, Piaget@s our stages a"tually re le"t our types o thought stru"tures. ,he "hronologi"al se2uen"e is inevitable, then, be"ause one stru"ture may be ne"essary in order to "onstru"t the ne4t level, whi"h is simpler, more generali/able, and more power ul. 9t@s a little like saying that you need to orm metal into parts in order to build ma"hines, and then "oordinate ma"hines in order to build a a"tory.

[edit] %iaget&s view of the child&s mind

Piaget viewed "hildren as little philosophers, whi"h he "alled tiny thought&sac's and s"ientists building their own individual theories o knowledge. Some people have used his ideas to o"us on what "hildren "annot do. Piaget, however, used their problem areas to help understand their "ognitive growth and development.

[edit] he developmental process

Piaget provided no "on"ise #or "lear$ des"ription o the development pro"ess as a whole. Broadly speaking it "onsisted o a "y"le*

,he "hild per orms an a"tion whi"h has an e e"t on or organi/es obje"ts, and the "hild is able to note the "hara"teristi"s o the a"tion and its e e"ts. ,hrough repeated a"tions, perhaps with variations or in di erent "onte4ts or on di erent kinds o obje"ts, the "hild is able to di erentiate and integrate its elements and e e"ts. ,his is the pro"ess o reflecting abstraction #des"ribed in detail in Piaget :II&$. Dt the same time, the "hild is able to identi y the properties o obje"ts by the way di erent kinds o a"tion a e"t them. ,his is the pro"ess o empirical abstraction. By repeating this pro"ess a"ross a wide range o obje"ts and a"tions, the "hild establishes a new level o knowledge and insight. ,his is the pro"ess o orming a new cognitive stage. ,his dual pro"ess allows the "hild to "onstru"t new ways o dealing with obje"ts and new knowledge about obje"ts themselves.

Gowever, on"e the "hild has "onstru"ted these new kinds o knowledge, he or she starts to use them to "reate still more "omple4 obje"ts and to "arry out still more "omple4 a"tions. Ds a result, the "hild starts to re"ogni/e still more "omple4 patterns and to "onstru"t still more "omple4 obje"ts. ,hus a new stage begins, whi"h will only be "ompleted when all the "hildYs a"tivity and e4perien"e have been re-organi/ed on this still higher level.

,his pro"ess is not wholly gradual, however. On"e a new level o organi/ation, knowledge and insight proves to be e e"tive, it will 2ui"kly be generali/ed to other areas. Ds a result, transitions between stages tend to be rapid and radi"al, and the bulk o the time spent in a new stage "onsists o re ining this new "ognitive level. !hen the knowledge that has been gained at one stage o study and e4perien"e leads rapidly and radi"ally to a new higher stage o insight, a Agesta!tA is said to have o""urred. 9t is be"ause this pro"ess takes this diale"ti"al orm, in whi"h ea"h new stage is "reated through the urther di erentiation, integration, and synthesis o new stru"tures out o the old, that the se2uen"e o "ognitive stages are logi"ally ne"essary rather than simply empiri"ally "orre"t. Ca"h new stage emerges only be"ause the "hild "an take or granted the a"hievements o its prede"essors, and yet there are still more sophisti"ated orms o knowledge and a"tion that are "apable o being developed. Be"ause it "overs both how we gain knowledge about obje"ts and our re le"tions on our own a"tions, PiagetYs model o development e4plains a number o eatures o human knowledge that had never previously been a""ounted or. 5or e4ample, by showing how "hildren progressively enri"h their understanding o things by a"ting on and re le"ting on the e e"ts o their own previous knowledge, they are able to organi/e their knowledge in in"reasingly "omple4 stru"tures. ,hus, on"e a young "hild "an "onsistently and a""urately re"ogni/e di erent kinds o animals, he or she then a"2uires the ability to organi/e the di erent kinds into higher groupings su"h as [birdsY, [ ishY, and so on. ,his is signi i"ant be"ause they are now able to know things about a new animal simply on the basis o the a"t that it is a bird S or e4ample, that it will lay eggs. Dt the same time, by re le"ting on their own a"tions, the "hild develops an in"reasingly sophisti"ated awareness o the [rulesY that govern in various ways. 5or e4ample, it is by this route that Piaget e4plains this "hildYs growing awareness o notions su"h as [rightY, [validY, [ne"essaryY, [properY, and so on. 9n other words, it is through the pro"ess o obje"ti i"ation, re le"tion and abstra"tion that the "hild "onstru"ts the prin"iples on whi"h a"tion is not only e e"tive or "orre"t but also (ustified. One o PiagetYs most amous studies o"used purely on the dis"riminative abilities o "hildren between the ages o two and a hal years old, and our and a hal years old. Ge began the study by taking "hildren o di erent ages and pla"ing two lines o % ? %Ys, one with the % ? %Ys in a line spread urther apart, and one with the same number o % ? %Ys in a line pla"ed more "losely together. Ge ound that, X-hildren between : years, ( months old and ) years, : months old "orre"tly dis"riminate the relative number o obje"ts in two rows6 between ) years, : months and ; years, ( months they indi"ate a

longer row with ewer obje"ts to have AmoreA6 a ter ; years, ( months they again dis"riminate "orre"tlyZ #-ognitive -apa"ity o .ery Foung -hildren, p. &;&$. 9nitially younger "hildren were not studied, be"ause i at our years old a "hild "ouldnYt "onserve 2uantity, how "ould a "hild that is youngerB ,he results show however that "hildren that are younger than three years and two months have 2uantity "onservation, but as they get older they lose this 2uality, and donYt re"over it until our and a hal years old. ,his attribute may be lost due to a temporary inability to solve be"ause o an overdependen"e on per"eptual strategies, whi"h "orrelates more "andy with a longer line o "andy, or due to the inability or a our year old to reverse situations. By the end o this e4periment several results were ound. 5irst, younger "hildren have a dis"riminative ability that shows the logi"al "apa"ity or "ognitive operations e4ists earlier than a"knowledged. ,his study also reveals that young "hildren "an be e2uipped with "ertain 2ualities or "ognitive operations, depending on how logi"al the stru"ture o the task is. 0esear"h also shows that "hildren develop e4pli"it understanding at age < and as a result, the "hild will "ount the % ? %Ys to de"ide whi"h has more. 5inally the study ound that overall 2uantity "onservation is not a basi" "hara"teristi" o manYs native inheritan"e.

[edit] 'nfluence
3espite "easing to be a ashionable psy"hologist, the magnitude o PiagetYs "ontinuing in luen"e "an be measured by the global s"ale and a"tivity o the Jean Piaget So"iety, whi"h holds annual "on eren"es and attra"ts very large numbers o parti"ipants. Gis theory o "ognitive development has proved in luential in many di erent areas*

3evelopmental psy"hology Cdu"ation Gistori"al studies o thought and "ognition Cvolution o human intelligen"e Primatology Philosophy Drti i"ial 9ntelligen"e #D9$

On the other hand, Piaget does not seem to have in luen"ed therapeuti" methods or models to any signi i"ant degree.

4ed$t5 De+e%o,"enta% , 'c(o%og'

Piaget is without doubt one o the most in luential developmental psy"hologists, in luen"ing not only the work o 8ev .ygotsky and o 8awren"e Kohlberg but whole generations o eminent a"ademi"s. Dlthough subje"ting his ideas to massive s"rutiny led to innumerable improvements and 2uali i"ations o his original model and the emergen"e o a plethora o neo-Piagetian and post-Piagetian variants, PiagetYs original model has proved to be remarkably robust #8ouren\o and %a"hado &''($.

Stage One - Sensorimotor #birth to &.< years$ Stage ,wo - Preoperational #&.< years to = years$ Stage ,hree - -on"rete Operations #= years to && years$ Stage 5our - 5ormal Operations #&& years and onward$

4ed$t5 Educat$on
3uring the &'=Is and &'>Is, PiagetYs works also inspired the trans ormation o Curopean and Dmeri"an edu"ation, in"luding both theory and pra"ti"e, leading to a more ["hild"entredY approa"h. 9n Conversations with )ean Piaget, he says* ACdu"ation, or most people, means trying to lead the "hild to resemble the typi"al adult o his so"iety . . . but or me and no one else, edu"ation means making "reators. . . . Fou have to make inventors, innovators]not "on ormists,A #Bringuier, &'>I, p.&):$.

4ed$t5 !$ tor$ca% tud$e o/ t(oug(t and cogn$t$on

Gistori"al "hanges o thought have been modelled in Piagetian terms. Broadly speaking these models have mapped "hanges in morality, intelle"tual li e and "ognitive levels against histori"al "hanges #typi"ally in the "omple4ity o so"ial systems$. 0obinson@s *istory of *u an Reason #:II;$ also suggests that history itsel is the e4pression o our intelligen"e. Eotable e4amples in"lude*

%i"hael Barnes@ study o the "o-evolution o religious and s"ienti i" thinking #Barnes :III$ Peter 3amerow@s theory o prehistori" and ar"hia" thought #3amerow &''<$ Kieran Cgan@s stages o understanding James !. 5owler@s stages o aith development Su/y 1ablik@s stages o art history #1ablik &'==$ -hristopher GallpikeYs studies o "hanges in "ognition and moral judgment in prehistori"al, ar"hai" and "lassi"al periods #Gallpike &'=', :II;$ 8awren"e Kohlberg@s stages o moral development 3on 8epan@s theory o the origins o modern thought and drama #8ePan &'>'$ -harles 0adding@s theory o the medieval intelle"tual development #0adding &'><$ 0.J. 0obinson@s stages o history #0obinson :II;$

4ed$t5 E+o%ut$on o/ (u"an $nte%%$gence

,he origins o human intelligen"e has also been studied in Piagetian terms. !ynn #&'=', &'>&$ analysed D"heulian and Oldowan tools in terms o the insight into spatial relationships re2uired to "reate ea"h kind. On a more general level, 0obinsonYs +irth of Reason #:II<$ suggests a large-s"ale model or the emergen"e o a Piagetian intelligen"e.

4ed$t5 6r$"ato%og'
PiagetYs models o "ognition have also been applied outside the human sphere, and there is a thriving "ommunity o primatologists assessing the development and abilities o primates in terms o PiagetYs model. Eotable names in"lude Sue ,aylor Parker and 5ran"es"o Dntinu""i. D summary o the very e4tensive literature "an be ound in Parker and %"Kinney #&'''$.

4ed$t5 6($%o o,('

Some have taken a""ount o Piaget@s work. 5or e4ample, the philosopher and so"ial theorist JWrgen Gabermas has in"orporated Piaget into his work, most notably in The Theory of Co unicative ,ction. ,he philosopher ,homas Kuhn "redited Piaget@s work in helping him understand the transition between modes o thought whi"h "hara"teri/ed his theory o paradigm shi ts. Shortly be ore his death #o"tober &'=<$, Piaget was involved in a debate about the relationships between innate and a"2uired eatures o language, at the -entre 0oyaumont pour une S"ien"e de l@Gomme, where he dis"ussed his point o view with the linguist Eoam -homsky as well as Gilary Putnam and Stephen ,oulmin.

4ed$t5 3I
Piaget also had a "onsiderable impa"t in the ield o "omputer s"ien"e and arti i"ial intelligen"e. Seymour Papert used Piaget@s work while developing the 8ogo programming language. Dlan Kay used Piaget@s theories as the basis or the 3ynabook programming system "on"ept, whi"h was irst dis"ussed within the "on ines o the Hero4 Palo Dlto 0esear"h -enter, or Hero4 PD0-. ,hese dis"ussions led to the development o the Dlto prototype, whi"h e4plored or the irst time all the elements o the graphi"al user inter a"e #1J9$, and in luen"ed the "reation o user inter a"es in the &'>I@s and beyond.

[edit] (a)or works and achievements

4ed$t5 )a*or 7or2

Piaget, J. #&'<I$. Introduction - l./pist0 ologie 10n0tique. Paris* Presses Jniversitaires de 5ran"e. Piaget, J. #&'(&$. 2a psychologie de l3intelligence. Paris* Drmand -olin #&'(&, &'(=, &''&$. Online version Piaget, J. #&'(=$. 2ogique et Connaissance scientifique, Cn"y"lopQdie de la PlQiade. 9nhelder, B. and J. Piaget #&'<>$. The 1rowth of 2ogical Thin'ing fro Childhood to ,dolescence. Eew Fork* Basi" Books. 9nhelder, B. and Piaget, J. #&'(;$. The Early 1rowth of 2ogic in the Child: Classification and !eriation. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&':>$. The Child3s Conception of the 4orld. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. #&'):$. The Moral )udg ent of the Child. 8ondon* Kegan Paul, ,ren"h, ,rubner and -o. Piaget, J. #&'<:$. The Child3s Conception of 5u ber. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'<)$. The 6rigins of Intelligence in Children. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'<<$. The Child3s Construction of Reality. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'=&$. +iology and 7nowledge. -hi"ago* Jniversity o -hi"ago Press. Piaget, J. #&''<$. !ociological !tudies. 8ondon* 0outledge. Piaget, J. #:II&$. !tudies in Reflecting ,bstraction. Gove, JK* Psy"hology Press.

4ed$t5 Ot(er 7or2

Beth, C.!., and Piaget, J. #&'(($. Mathe atical Episte ology and Psychology. 3ordre"ht* 3. 0eidel. Piaget, J. #&';:$. 8es trois stru"tures ondamentales de la vie psy"hi2ue* rythme, rQgulation et groupement. Rev. !uisse de Psychologie ,ppliqu0e, &7: 'S:&. Piaget, J. #&';>$. 68 va l.0ducation9 JECS-O. Piaget, J. #&'<&$. Psychology of Intelligence. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul Piaget, J. #&'<)$. 2ogic and Psychology. %an"hester* %an"hester Jniversity Press. Piaget, J. #&'(:$. Play: ;rea s and I itation in Childhood. Eew Fork* Eorton. Piaget, J. #&'(($. EQ"essitQ et signi i"ation des re"her"hes "omparatives en psy"hologie gQnQti2ue. )ournal International de Psychologie, & #&$* )-&). Piaget, J. #&'=I$. !tructuralis . Eew Fork* Garper ? 0ow. Piaget, J. #&'=:$. Psychology and Episte ology: Towards a Theory of 7nowledge. Garmondsworth* Penguin. Piaget, J. #&'=:$. Insights and Illusions of Philosophy. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'=;$. E<peri ents in Contradiction. -hi"ago* Jniversity o -hi"ago Press. Piaget, J. #&'=;$. The Place of the !ciences of Man in the !yste of !ciences. Eew Fork* Garper and 0ow, Publishers. Piaget, J. #&'=<$. The 6rigin of the Idea of Chance in Children. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'==$. The 1rasp of Consciousness. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'=>$. !uccess and =nderstanding. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'='$. +ehaviour and Evolution. 8ondon* 0outledge and Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. #&'>I$. ,daptation and Intelligence. 8ondon* Jniversity o -hi"ago Press.

Piaget, J. #&'>I$. 2es "or es /l0 entaires de la ;ialectique. Paris, Cditions 1allimard. Piaget, J. #&'>&$. Intelligence and ,ffectivity. Their Relationship during Child ;evelop ent. Palo Dlto* Dnnual 0eviews. Piaget, J. #&'>)$. Piaget@s theory. 9n P. %ussen #ed.$. *andboo' of Child Psychology. ;th edition. .ol. &. Eew Fork* !iley. Piaget, J. #&'><$. The Equilibration of Cognitive !tructures: The Central Proble of Intellectual ;evelop ent. -hi"ago* Jniversity o -hi"ago Press. Piaget, J. #&'>=$. Possibility and 5ecessity. : vols. %inneapolis* Jniversity o %innesota Press. Piaget, J. #:III$. -ommentary on .ygotsky. 5ew Ideas in Psychology, &>, :;&<'. Piaget, J., and 1ar"ia, 0. #&'>'$. Psychogenesis and the *istory of !cience. Eew Fork* -olumbia Jniversity Press. Piaget, J., and 1ar"ia, 0. #&''&$. Towards a 2ogic of Meanings. Gillsdale, E.J.* 8awren"e Crlbaum Dsso"iates. Piaget, J., and 9nhelder, B. #&'(:$. The Psychology of the Child. Eew Fork*Basi" Books Piaget, J., and 9nhelder, B. #&'(=$. The Child.s Conception of !pace. Eew Fork* !.!. Eorton.

4ed$t5 3,,o$nt"ent

&':&-:< 0esear"h 3ire"tor, 9nstitut Jean-Ja"2ues 0ousseau, 1eneva &':<-:' Pro essor o Psy"hology, So"iology and the Philosophy o S"ien"e, Jniversity o Eeu"hatel &':'-)' Pro essor o the Gistory o S"ienti i" ,hought, Jniversity o 1eneva &':'-(= 3ire"tor, 9nternational Bureau o Cdu"ation, 1eneva &'):-=& 3ire"tor, 9nstitute o Cdu"ational S"ien"es, Jniversity o 1eneva &')>-<& Pro essor o C4perimental Psy"hology and So"iology, Jniversity o 8ausanne &')'-<& Pro essor o So"iology, Jniversity o 1eneva &';I-=& Pro essor o C4perimental Psy"hology, Jniversity o 1eneva &'<:-(; Pro essor o 1eneti" Psy"hology, Sorbonne, Paris &'<<->I 3ire"tor, 9nternational -entre or 1eneti" Cpistemology, 1eneva &'=&->I Cmeritus Pro essor, Jniversity o 1eneva

[edit] %iagetian and post*%iagetian stage theories

%i"hael Barnes@ histori"al stages o religious and s"ienti i" thinking #Barnes :III$ Peter 3amerow@s theory o prehistori" and ar"hia" thought #3amerow &''<$ Kieran Cgan@s stages o understanding James !. 5owler@s stages o aith development Su/y 1ablik@s stages o art history #1ablik &'==$ -hristopher Gallpike@s histori"al stages o "ognitive moral understanding #Gallpike &'=', :II;$

8awren"e Kohlberg@s stages o moral development 3on 8epan@s theory o the origins o modern thought and drama #8ePan &'>'$ -harles 0adding@s theory o the medieval intelle"tual development #0adding &'><$ 0.J. 0obinson@s stages o history #0obinson :II;$ 0obert Kegan@s "onstru"tive-developmental theory #Kegan &'>:$ Dllen 9vey@s developmental "ounseling and therapy #3-,$ #9vey &'>($ Keith S. 8o"kwood@s "onstru"tivist pra"ti"e with "hildren who are dea or hard o hearing #8o"kwood :II($

[edit] +uotations