2013-14
Chapter 1
TURBOMACHINERY
Definition: A turbomachine is a device which adds energy to or extracts energy from the fluid passing through it.
Add Energy :
PUMPS:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Introduction and pump classification Basic energy consideration Elementary pump rotordynamics Pump characteristics and similarity Matching pump and system requirements Cavitation Further topics
REFERENCES:
1.
2.
Potter, C. P., Wiggert, D. C., & Ramandan, B. H. Mechanics of Fluids, Cengage Learning Engineering.
3.
Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M. and Swaffield, J. A. Mechanics of Fluid, Taylor & Francis.
4.
5.
Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala, J. M. Fluid Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill.
1.1 Terminology Pumping of liquids (essentially incompressible): PUMPS. Pumping of gases/vapours (compressible):
FANS
COMPRESSORS
Pumps for liquids may be divided into two categories: Dynamic Pumps Positive-displacement Pumps.
Basic types:
Schematic design of positive-displacement pumps: (a) plunger or reciprocating piston, (b) gear pump, (c) double-screw pump, (d) sliding vane, (e) three-lobe pump, (f) double-circumferential piston, (g) flexible-tube squeegee.
5
Basic construction - dynamic Pumps The basic components of a centrifugal pump are: - the impeller - the volute casing - the diffuser ring. (optional)
Impeller
Diffuser
Dynamic Pumps Positive-displacement Pumps add energy by fast-moving blades or force fluid along by volume changes; vane; no closed changes fluid cavity opens to admit which is then squeezed through an outlet steady discharge of fluid high flow rate low viscosity fluid low to moderately high pressure rise discharge may be pulsatile or periodic low flow rate may be used for very viscous fluid high to very high pressure rise (sturdy construction required) no priming needed for most applications
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12
The quantity (gH) is a measure of the energy per unit mass of the fluid. The Steady-State Energy Equation for flow through the pump is given by
= + 2 +
(2-1)
gH0 = gHi + ws - wf
where ws: shaft work per unit mass (energy input), wf : energy lost in the pump between inlet i and outlet o,
(2-2)
which is a statement that the energy at outlet is equal to the energy at inlet plus net gain in energy (ws-wf) (per unit mass).
H0 = Hi + hs - hf
(2-3)
13
where
, ,
Useful Power = Power transmitted to the fluid = where = Hi- Ho is the head transmitted to the fluid. Power input to pump: = = T: w: Torque at the shaft of the pump,
(g), (2-4)
(2-5)
where
()
(2-6)
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Vt2 V2
ub2
Vn2 ur2
ur1
V1 V1 n1 V1 = Vn1 Vt1
(a)
ub1
Axis of rotation
(b) Idealised flow through a centrifugal impeller. (a) Impeller control volume; (b) velocity diagrams at control surfaces.
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ub : ur : V: Vt: Vn :
Absolute blade velocity (= rw) ; Flow velocity relative to blade; Absolute flow velocity; Tangential component of V; Normal component of V.
Using a control-volume analysis: Rate of gain of angular momentum by volume = Torque (T) applied to the fluid by the impeller = rate of outflux angular momentum - rate of influx of angular momentum T = ( Q)
mass- flowrate
(r2 Vt2)
ang. mom/ unit-mass
- Qr1Vt1
or
(3-1)
= =
2 2 1 1
(3-3)
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The head He given by (3-3) is commonly termed the Euler Head. For the ideal or design case, the angle 1 = 90 ; the inflow has zero whirl, Vt1 = 0, Vn1 = V1. This is also known as the zero pre-whirl condition. For the design case : P = Qub2 Vt2
2 2
(3-4)
=
We note from geometry that
(3-5)
(3-6)
2 =
where b1 and b2 are the blade widths at the inlet and outlet respectively.
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= =
,
(3-7)
Equation (3-7) gives the Head versus Flowrate relation for the case of an ideal impeller operating at the design case. It can be seen that the relation is determined by the physical characteristics (quantities) of the impeller: 2 = 2 ,
2,
r2
and
b2
17
The figure on the left shows the effects of outlet blade angle 2 on the Head (H) versus Flowrate (Q) relationship for an ideal impeller. See figure below.
Backward-curved bladed pumps have a maximum point in their Power versus Flowrate curve. The power requirement (P QH) of Radial- and forward curved bladed pumps on the other hand rises continuously with the flowrate Q. An electric motor driving a radial- or forward-curved runs the risk of being overloaded. Forward-curved pumps may also suffer from unstable operation, an oscillatory condition in which a pump 'hunts' for its equilibrium point. Backwardcurved blade is therefore the generally preferred design.
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The boundary layers may separate due to adverse pressure gradient. Flow may separate due to 'shock' (non-tangential) condition at entry. The formation of boundary layers and separations reduces flow through the impeller. The flow is non-uniform circumferentially at the outlet.
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Elemental ring
ur1 ub1
VV t1 1
11 Vn = Vn1
V1
V2 Vn2
Vt2
ub2
ur2
Idealized axial-flow impeller We will consider the design case for which the flow has no pre-whirl: 1 = 90 1 = 0, 1 = 1 = =
2 2
(3-8)
Let us examine the contribution from one elemental ring of thickness (r) at radius r. The mass flowrate through the elemental ring is ( ) = (Q) = 2 r(r )Vf (3-9)
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The torque contribution from the elemental ring, (T), is (T) = (Q) r Vt2 (3-10)
We note from geometry that 2 = 2 (cot2 ) and 2 = 1 = (why?). From these, we have (T) = 2 2 (r)Vf [rw Vf (cot2)]
(3-11)
The total torque, T, summing the contributions from all the elemental rings, is
= , () =
0 2 (cot2 ) = 2
(3-12)
The torque T on the impeller as given by (3-12) may be evaluated when the outlet blade angle 2 is given as a function of radius: 2 = () . A changing 2 with radius r corresponds to a 'twist' in the blades. The theoretical power transmitted to the fluid is then P = Tw (3-13)
A cruder approximation to the torque T and power P for an axial impeller may be obtained by considering only the flow condition at the mean radius = + as an average of the condition over the whole blade:
2
T (rVt2)Rm (Q) = Q (2 )
(3-14)
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The power and the Euler Head are given respectively by: P = Tw = Q( 2 ) , He =
(3-15)
(3-16)
Note the close similarity of (3-16) with equation (3-5) for centrifugal pumps.
Simplifying Assumptions have been made in the above derivations for axial pumps:
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3.4
1. 2. Mechanical Efficiency
2. 3. Impeller Efficiency
= =
3. 4. Volumetric Efficiency
4. 5. Casing Efficiency
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Notes:
1. The mechanical losses Lm arise from frictional losses at the bearing and the
(Euler) head He such that (Ps- Lm) = pQi gHe. If hi denotes the fluid losses in a real impeller: then the actual head developed by the impeller would be Hi = He - hi.
3. Owing to the generally higher pressure at the outlet of the impeller, there is a
tendency for some of the outlet flow to circulate back (past the impeller) into the inlet of the impeller. Thus more flow goes through the impeller (Qi) than through the pump (Q). The amount of back-flow is q = Qi - Q.
4. There are also fluid-related frictional losses in the pump casing. If hc denotes
the head loss due to the casing, then the actual head imparted to the fluid is H = Hi- hc.
(3-18)
The hydraulic efficiency accounts for losses in a pump arising from fluid friction (viscosity). We note that
= =
(3-19)
(3-20)
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Q H Ps
- the flowrate through the pump, - the head the pump develops, - the power to drive the pump, and - the efficiency at which the pump is operating.
As an engineer, you will in general be interested in how the head H, the power Ps and the efficiency change with the flowrate Q delivered by the pump. Typical plots of these relationships for centrifugal pumps are shown below. These relationships are termed collectively as the performance characteristics of the pump. They are dependent upon the speed of the pump N, which is the rotational speed of the impeller.
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Q* Q
F Ps , H Head Power
Q The performance characteristics of centrifugal pumps The point of maximum efficiency is commonly-termed the Best Efficiency Point (abbrev. B.E.P.). Engineers try to operate their pumps near to their B.E.P.
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4.2 Geometrically-Similar Pumps and Dimensional Parameters Physical Parameters relevant to the performance Geometrically-Similar pumps are: D - Diameter of impeller (a measure of pump size), Q - Flowrate,
H - Head (or gH, the energy per unit mass), Ps - Power input to pump (shaft power), N - Rotational speed of impeller or shaft,
- Density of the fluid being pumped, - Viscosity of the pumped fluid, - Average surface roughness of pump components.
Dimensional Analysis reduces these dimensional parameters to a smaller number of non-dimensional parameters (the - groups). The use of non-dimensional parameters results in more compact representation for the performance data.
Dimensional Analysis carried out on the above set of dimensional parameters yield the relations:
2 = 3 , , 3 5
2 = 3 , , 2 2
(4-1)
(4-2)
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= 2 2 = 35 = 3 =
: Head Coefficient
: Power Coefficient
: Flow Coefficient
: Reynolds number
= , , = , ,
(4-3)
(4-4)
Most commercially available pumps operate in the fully-turbulent flow regime; the Reynolds number Re being of the order of 107. At such large Reynolds numbers, the viscous action of the fluid is small. The effects of Re in (4-3) and (4-4) are then fairly weak. If we further assume that the pumps are well made with small relative roughness factor /D (so that the effect of /D is also small), then we can simply write (4-3) and (4-4) as
which are simple two-variable relations.
(4-5) (4-6)
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so that
( )
(4-7)
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4.3 Pump Similarity To achieve similarity between two pumps A and B in operation, we need :
Geometry Similarity : the pumps and all its component parts must be scaledup or -down version of one another (same shape). Strict geometrical similarity also requires that
= =
Note
= 3 =
/2
Dynamic similarity : Similarity of Forces. This condition is satisfied when the dynamic parameter
() =()
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A geometrically-similar series of pumps is also called a homologous series. The diameter of a pump in a series is therefore a good measure of its size. The performance of a homologous series of pumps is governed (and fully specified) by relations of the form and (4-8a,b)
by that of ( ).
when the effects of /D and Re are small. The specification of CP may be replaced
REMARKS: When using dimensionless performance parameters supplied by others, the units of the physical quantities involved must be known. For example:
= 3
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EXAMPLE: Given the performance curves for a family of homologous pumps, you know that the BEP occurs at CQ* 0.1, CP* 0.6, CH 2.0. Calculate Q, H, (static pressure across the pump), Ps and for a pump of
impeller diameter D = 0.6 m operating at 1500 rpm at BEP. You may assume Q in m3/s, N in rps, D in m and in kg/m3
* is the head rise across the pump (inlet to outlet). Assuming that Vi Vo and zi zo , the rise in pressure (static) is
The efficiency is
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EXAMPLE: Given the performance curve (graph) CH = fh (CQ) for a family of homologous pumps, describe how you can estimate the Q vs H (flowrate versus head) curve for a given pump, say of size D, from the family. Assume that the pump is to operate at speed N.
2. Choose a value of Q from the range, and calculate the corresponding value of CQ = Q / (ND3 ) (N and D are known). 3. Find the value of CH from the series' performance curve CH = fh (CQ).
2 2
Thus for a given flowrate Q ,we can find the corresponding head H.
5. Repeating steps 1 to 4, work through the selected range of Q to determine the Q versus H curve for the pump, of size D running at speed N.
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The efficiency versus Q and power Ps versus Q curves for the pump may also be estimated from the series' performance curves (graphs) = fh (CQ) and CP = fp (CQ) respectively following the above procedures.
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4.4 Similarity Rules for Pumps in a Homologous Series Pump characteristics for a homologous series: CH
Seris H CQ H
DA, NA Q
DB, NB Q
Consider the characteristics of two pumps A and B from the same homologous series. The above figure shows that for every point on the pump characteristics of pump A, there is a corresponding point on the characteristics of pump B with the same CQ . The two corresponding points will also have the same CH, Cp and because these are functions of CQ. In particular, for corresponding points we have:
= ( ) = ( ) ( ) = ( )
3
2 2
3 5
( )
3
2
( ) )
3 5
( )
2 2
(4-10)
(4-11)
3 5
(4-12)
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(4-13)
Using equations (4-10) to (4-13), we can predict (estimate) the performance of one pump, say B, from the known performance curves (data) of another pump, say A, from the same homologous series.
Since a pump is always homologous to itself, the performance of the pump at one speed, say N2, may be predicted (estimated) from its performance data at another speed, say N1 .
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Limitations to Pump Similarity Laws : Pump Similarity Laws are direct results of the relations :
, ( )
They are therefore truly valid only if 1. 2. there is complete geometric similarity. Reynolds number effects are completely negligible.
In practice : 1. Larger pumps in commercially available series tend to have smaller roughness ratio / D (relatively smoother). smaller casing-impeller clearance to diameter D ratio (relatively smaller leakage losses).
2.
Reynolds number / viscosity-related effects are not completely negligible. Larger pumps tend to be generally more efficient.
An empirical correlation between pump size and maximum pump efficiency max was given by Moody:
1 2 1 1/4 1 1 2
37
Another empirical relation obtained by Anderson from thousands of tests: 0.94 2 1 0.32 0.94 1 2 These formulae assume equal value of surface roughness for both pumps. 0.94 instead of l.0 was assumed by Anderson to be the maximum efficiency a pump can attain regardless of size.
Centrifugal pumps have often been used to pump oils and some rather viscous liquids. Typical centrifugal pump performance curves are:
38
The maximum efficiency tend to decline with the viscosity . Typical values are:
/ Water : max ;
10
100
1000
0.85
0.76
0.52
0.11
Beyond 300
Water
39
Different series of homologous pumps (different geometry) generally have different performance characteristics. For examples
are geometrically different and have very different characteristics. Moreover, within each broad category, the pumps may yet be geometrically very different.
As an engineer, what are the criteria for selecting a pump for an application ?
1. the pump can meet the application requirements in terms of flowrate and head etc.
2. the choice must be optimum in the use of energy ; energy cost is an important consideration when the pump is to be used for many hours a day.
40
Specific speed
A design parameter which is used by engineers in the selection of pumps is a quantity known as the specific speed Ns. B. E. P
the specific speed Ns is obtained by eliminating the size factor D between CQ and CH to give :
1/2 1/2
= = (
CH*
CH
( )3/4
3/4
(4-14)
CQ*
CQ
Moreover, the specific speed Ns is defined at the point of best efficiency (BEP). Ns characterizes the homologous pump series independent of the pump sizes.
For another homologous series of pumps (a different geometrical design), CQ* and CH* are most probably different so that the specific speed Ns will be different. Specific speed Ns versus Optimal pump design
41
The figure below shows the relationship between specific speed Ns (rad.) and optimal pump design.
42
Thus if an application has an estimated Ns of 1.0 and a flowrate of 0.8 m3s-1, a suitable pump would be of the mixed-flow design. Such a pump is likely to have a maximum efficiency (at its BEP) in excess of 90%.
As Ns increases, the optimal pump design changes from one of radial-flow (centrifugal-pump) design to mixed-flow design and to axial-flow design (propeller pump).
When using specific speed Ns data supplied by others, it is important to know what are the units involved in its definition. In the following example, Ns is defined as 1/2 [rpm] [gal/min]1/2 = 3/4 = [ft]3/4
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EXAMPLE: We want a pump to deliver a flowrate of Q = 0.2 m3/s with a head of 1.83 m of water. We have a motor which runs at 800 rpm. What type of pump should we use (for good efficiency)? Estimate the power required.
SOLUTION: 800 2 (0.2)1/2 = 4.29 (0.683 ) = 60 (9.81 1.83)3/4 The Ns versus chart on page 42 indicates that we should use an axial or propeller pump. An efficiency of about 80 per cent is expected. The power given to the water is P = QgH = 1000 x 0.2 x 9.81 x 1.83 = 3.59 kW
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Suction side
Delivery side
Pump
The System refers to that part of the set-up without the Pump.
(1) to meet the static head rise due to increase in elevation: = (2) to overcome frictional losses along the conveying pipes:
2 2 + = 2 2
(5-1)
(5-2)
45
where
fi : Li : di : kj :
friction factor for the flow in pipe i , length of pipe i , diameter of pipe i , loss coefficient of the j-th valve, bend, joint etc.
Since flow velocities Vi , Vj Q (velocity = Q / X-sectional area), the total frictional head losses hf Q2 or hf = KQ2
(5-3)
The head (energy) requirement of the system delivering a flowrate of Q is therefore given by : Hsys = z+KQ2
(5-4)
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In delivering water at the flowrate of Q , the pump must supply this amount of head. At an equilibrium (steady-state) operating point, the head (energy) supplied by the pump must exactly match what the system requires. Thus
The equilibrium operating point is determined by the intersection of the pump and system characteristics curves.
The system characteristics curve can be altered by changing the setting of the valve if one is available. The flowrate Q is changed by the adjustment to the valve.
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5.3 Pumps in parallel If one pump gives sufficient head but too little discharge, two or more of the same or different pumps may be used in parallel.
To determine the Head versus Flowrate curve (H vs Q) for pumps in parallel, we add their flowrates for given head.
48
Check valves (which allows flow in only one direction) are usually employed for pumps operating in parallel to prevent backflow through the other pump when one pump is operating.
49
()
( )
()
()
(5-5) (5-6)
50
5.4 Pumps in Series When the discharge rate of one pump is adequate but the head is too low, pumps can be arranged in series to increase the head. In series arrangement, the delivery side of one pump is connected to the suction (inlet) side of the pump that follows.
For pumps arranged in series, we add the heads delivered by the pumps for given flowrate.
Pumps in Series
51
()
( )
()
()
(5-5) (5-6)
52
6. Cavitation 6.1 The Physical Phenomenon of Cavitation Cavitation is the name given to the physical phenomenon which consists of the formation of tiny bubbles in a liquid as a result of a fall in the absolute pressure within the liquid.
1. reduction in absolute pressure causes air and gases initially dissolved in the liquid to come out of solution.
2. when the absolute pressure is near or below the vapour pressure (pvap) of the liquid at the prevailing temperature, vaporization of the liquid occurs rapidly leading to the formation of vapour bubbles- Boiling.
Process (1) normally precedes process (2) as the pressure is reduced. The bubbles produced are generally very tiny.
In a pumping situation, the point of lowest absolute pressure is normally at the inlet to the pump.
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When the cavitation bubbles move with the liquid to a region of higher absolute pressure, such as inside an impeller, they collapse. The collapse of a vapour bubble (an implosion):
3. sound is produced.
It is interesting to note that the collapsing bubbles have a tendency to be attracted to solid surfaces (Bjerknes effect). Near the end of the collapse, the bubbles may actually develop a tiny liquid jet that impacts the solid surface with great local pressure. The en-mass collapse of cavitation bubbles is accompanied by a distinctive crackling noise.
54
6.2 Consequences The consequences of cavitation are usually adverse: 1. Deterioration of pump performance
2. Damage to pump Cavitation can result in the rapid erosion of the impeller and other parts of a pump - the high pressure (local) produced by bubbles collapsing on or near to a solid surface can cause bits of the surface to be chipped off.
55
Beauty of cavitation: spiral bubble sheets form from the surface of a marine propeller
56
Applying the steady-state energy equation between the pump inlet and a point on the surface of the reservoir: = 2 () + = + + 2 which leads to =
( ) ()
or
2 2
(6-1)
57
may be used a measure of the tendency for cavitation to set in at the pump inlet.
The following quantity is termed the Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH) : 2 () + = = 2 prevent cavitation in their pumps.
(6-3)
To avoid cavitation, the engineer must design his system so that the NPSH at pump inlet is greater than the required NPSH at all times during operation.
58
From (6.3), we can overcome the problem of cavitation by making the suction lift hsuc sufficiently negative (i.e. pump placed below the level of the reservoir).
(6-4)
= , ,
(6-5)
The scaling law for NPSH is ()2 2 2 2 2 = ()1 1 1 as for pump head.
(6-6)
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6.4 Other Cavitation Parameters Other cavitation parameters used in the literature are :
(6-7)
(6-8)
We note that
1/2 = [()]3/4
3/4
(6-9)
(6-10)
60
Chapter 2
Potential Flow
61
References
Karamcheti, K. Principles of ideal-fluid Aerodynamics, John Wiley, New York Fox, R.W. & McDonald, A.T. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley, New York) Green, S. I. Fluid Vortices, Kluwer Academic Publisher Massey, B. S. Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory, Shames, I. H. Mechanics of Fluids, McGraw Hill International Valentine, H. R. Applied Hydrodynamics, Butterworths, London White, F. M. Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill International
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DEFINITIONS:
Inviscid Fluid Inviscid fluid is a (hypothetical) fluid which does not possess VISCOSITY.
Ideal fluid Ideal fluid is an inviscid fluid which is also incompressible. This fluid is also known as perfect fluid.
61
viscosity has
(2) in the other region, constituting the remainder of the flow, viscous
As for compressibility, its effects are negligible, even for the flow of a gas, unless the velocity of the flow is comparable with the speed with which sound is propagated through the fluid, or acceleration are very large. Consequently, relations describing the flow of an ideal fluid may frequently be used to indicate the behaviour of a real fluid away from the boundaries. The results so obtained may be only an approximation to the truth because of the simplifying assumptions made, although in certain instances the theoretical results are
61
surprising close to the actual ones. In any event, they give valuable insight to the actual behaviour of the fluid.
Patching viscous and inviscid flow regions. Potential theory that we are going to study does not apply to the boundary layer regions.
61
Flow
Wall
Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below
Flow
Wall
66
Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below
67
Hele-Shaw flow past a circle. Dye shows the streamlines in water flowing at 1mm per second between glass-plates spaced 1 mm apart. It is at first sight paradoxical that the best way of producing the unseparated pattern of plane potential flow past a bluff object, which would be spoiled by separation in a real fluid of even the slightest viscosity, is to go to the opposite extreme of creeping flow in a narrow gap, which is dominated by viscous forces.
Circular cylinder at R = 10,000. The drag coefficient consequently remains almost constant and drops later when the boundary layer becomes turbulent at separation.
68
If we have a more streamlined looking body (aerofoil), the wake would be much smaller
Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below
Hence in many cases, classical hydrodynamics gives GOOD APPROXIMATION to flow in REAL FLUIDS. We will now develop a number of concepts which will be used in potential flow. Attention will be confined almost entirely to STEADY TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW.
69
Hele-Shaw flow past an inclined airfoil. Dye in oil shows the streamlines of plane potential flow past an NACA 64AOI5 airfoil at 13 angle of attack. However, because the Hele-Shaw flow cannot show circulation, the Kutta condition is not enforced at the trailing edge. Hence infinite velocities are represented there. The model is between glass plates 1 mm apart.
Symmetric plane flow past an airfoil. An NACA 64A015 profile is at zero incidence in a water tunnel. The Reynolds number is 7000 based on the chord length. Streamlines are shown by colored fluid introduced upstream. The flow is evidently laminar and appears to be unseparated, though one might anticipate a small separated region near the trailing edge.
70
CONTINUITY EQUATION:
Consider a small rectangular element, x y in size, through which the fluid flows. The average velocities across each face of the element are as shown. For an incompressible fluid, volume flow rate into the element equals volume flow rate out; thus for unit thickness perpendicular to the diagram
Vol. flow rate into the element = uyl + vxl Vol. flow rate out of the element = u + Continuity states that: Vol. flow rate into the element = Vol. flow rate out of the element uyl + vxl = u + u v x y 1 + v + y x 1 x y
71
u v x y 1 + v + y x 1 x y
u v + =0 x y
(1)
u v w + + =0 x y z
(2)
72
= sin d
A
Similarly, if we integrate velocity along line AB, line integral of velocity is given by
= sin d
A
(3)
73
Now, in terms of the velocity components (u, v) in the Cartesian coordinates, it can be shown that
udx + vdy
= = = = =
(V cos )(ds cos ) + (V sin )(ds sin ) V ds (cos cos + sin sin ) V ds cos ( - ) V ds cos (90 - ) V ds sin ()
Therefore sin d = d + d
A A B B
(4)
74
Circulation
The circulation denoted by (Greek capital letter 'gamma') is defined as a line integral of velocity taken around a closed loop, i.e.
= sin d = d + d
For example, circulation around an elemental area is
(5)
= d + + =
= dd
dd
d d +
dd d
75
Where
= VORTICITY
(6)
= d + d =
(7)
76
IMPORTANT NOTES:
(a) The concept of vorticity may be utilised for distinguishing a flow as either IRROTATIONAL or ROTATIONAL. If the vorticity is zero at all points in a flow region (except at certain special points known as 'singular points' where the velocity or acceleration is zero or infinite), the flow in that region is known as IRROTATIONAL.
(b) If the vorticity is non-zero, the flow is known is ROTATIONAL FLOW (c) Vorticity is a vector quantity whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the small circuit round which circulation is measured.
= V (curl of velocity)
77
As you go once around the in the carousel, you rotate once about your axis
78
Example: Determine the circulation around a rectangle defined by x = l, y = l, x=5 and y = 4 for the velocity field u = 2x+3y and v = -2y.
y
y=4
= d =
5 1
( d + d)
4 1
5 4 2 1 + [ 2 ]1 + [ 2 + 12]1 = [ 2 + 3]1 5 + [ ]4
= 36 - 72 = -36 units.
The result can be checked by employing the fact that circulation equals vorticity times the area = 0 3 = 3
Vorticity =
Example: The steady plane flow in the figure has the polar velocity components v = r and vr = 0. Determine the circulation around the path shown.
Solution: Start at the inside right corner, point A, and go around the complete path:
= d = 0(2 1 ) + 2 (2 ) + 0(1 2 ) + 1 (1 )
2 2 = (2 1 )
Comparing the above two equations show that this new function must be defined such that = =
2 2 or + =0
Note: Stream function is a scalar quantity and is considered positive according to sign convention.
1. Convention (a) anticlockwise is positive (b) clockwise is negative 2. The direction of normal goes from left to right when facing the positive direction
Geometric Interpretation of It can be shown that lines of constant are streamlines. Consider a streamline as shown below.
or
Thus the change of is zero along a streamline, or = There is also a physical interpretation which relates to volume flow. From the figure below, we can compute the volume dQ through an element ds of the control surface of unit depth.
83
dQ
but
= dQ =
y
=
x
therefore
In other words the change in across the element is numerically equal to the volume flow through the element. Conversely, the volume flow between any two points in the flow is equal to the change in stream function between those points.
= d
dy +
dx
Q12 = 2 1
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The difference in between two points = volume flux cross any line joining the two points.
Further, the direction of the flow can be ascertained by noting whether increases or decreases. i.e.
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SUMMARY:
Therefore, we get in Cartesian coordinates, y
=
In polar coordinates,
It can be shown that
(8)
(9)
u x
= 1 =
(10)
v'
u'
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Example:
In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by u = x - 4y and v = -y - 4x. Determine the stream function of the flow as well as vorticity.
We know that
= 4 y
Integrating the above gives
u=
or
= xy 2y 2 + f(x)
= ( 4)
Similarly
v=
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= ( 4 ) x
= ( 4 )
= xy + 2x 2 + g(y)
= xy + 2x 2 2y 2 v u = x y
Therefore
v u = 4 and = 4 x y
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Example: A two-dimensional flow field is described by = x - y2 . Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of velocity and an expression for velocity of flow at any point in flow field. State whether the flow is rotational or irrotational, and determine the volume flow rate between (x1, y1) = (1, 2) and (x2, y2) = (1, 3). Sketch the streamlines for = 0, l and 2.
But
u= y
v=
u = -2y
v = -l
V = u2 + v 2 = (2y)2 + (1)2 = 1 + 4y 2
The vorticity is given by
=
given by
Since the vorticity is not zero, the flow is rotational. Volume flow rate (Q) is Q = 2 - 1 = (1 - 32) - (1 - 22) = -5 units
v u = 0 (2) = 2 x y
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From the earlier part of the lecture, the VORTICITY EQUATION was shown to be
=
we get
v u x y
(6)
v u 2 2 = = 2 + 2 x y x y 2 2 2 + 2 = 0 x y
u 2 = = 2 y y y y
v 2 = = 2 x x x x
Or
The above equation shows that for an irrotational flow, the stream function must also satisfied the Laplace Equation. Conversely, fluid-flow problems which do not satisfy Laplace equation in are ROTATIONAL.
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IMPORTANT NOTE:
One very important property of Laplace's equation is that it is LINEAR. This means that if we have a series of simple solutions, 1, 2, 3, .. etc, then the more complex solution can be obtained by (x, y) = 1(x, y) + 2(x, y) + 3(x, y) + .
Let us now study some simple solutions. More complex solutions can be obtained from sum of simple solutions.
PARALLEL FLOW
From equation
= v x
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=u y
Hence
= Uy + 2 (x) = 1 (y)
where 1 and 2 are functions of integration. These equations are compatible only if 2(x) = k (constant)
=v=0 x
=u y
Therefore,
= Uy + k
The value of k is arbitrary and is usually set to 0 for y = 0. Hence = Uy for flow parallel to the x-axis
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Similarly, it can be shown that for uniform flow going from right to left.
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u =
From equations (10)
v = 0
(11a) (11b)
1 =
= r
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1 = 2 =
=0 r
= 1 ()
+ 2 (r) 2
2 (r) = k =
+ 2
or
in Polar Coordinates
(12)
Artan 2
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SINK
Similarly it can be shown that the stream function for a sink is given by
= 2 =
in Polar Coordinates
(13)
Artan 2
in Cartesian Coordinates
(13a)
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= sin d
For a potential vortex:
or v = v = = r 2
= 2rv 2
u = 0
1 =0
(14)
lnr + c 2
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IMPORTANT NOTE:
The reason why a potential vortex is also called an irrotational vortex is because the circulation around any contour not surrounding the origin is zero
Proof:
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2r
2(r + dr)
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In real life, because of viscosity, the velocity at the centre of the vortex cannot be infinite, instead
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(d) A vortex
Tornado
Waterspout
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In other words, if a vortex filament comes to a waist, where the filament crosssectional area is minimal, the average vorticity over that cross-section must be maximal, and conversely for a broadening of the tube. A related observation is that vortex tube cannot terminate in a fluid because constancy of circulation would not be achieved. Vortex tubes are thus constrained to forming loops entirely within a fluid, or terminating at a solid boundary.
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(for proof of this theorem, see Fluid Vortices, edited by S.I. Green)
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COMPLEX FLOWS:
For source
New flow
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u=
Q 1 1 = U + y 2 1 + y 2 x x2 u = U + Qx 2(x 2 + y 2 )
(16)
Similarly
v= =
=
From equation (I7)
Q 1 y 2 1 + y 2 x2 x2 Qy 2(x 2 + y 2 )
(17)
y0 = 0 since v = 0 at y = 0
x0 =
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Here we note that the solution has two branches one is when: 2Uy Q
x = ycot
()
y R
x = lim
2yU sec 2 Q Q
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y=
2Uy Q y
Q 2
Since no fluid can cross a streamline, now any streamline may be replaced by a solid boundary.
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Hence, we could say that we have solved for flow about a body whose shape is given by x=y cot2Uy Q
(18)
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For source:
For sink:
B =
A =
QA 2
Q B 2
= A + B =
or
Q where = (A B ) 2
Q ( B ) 2 A (19)
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For the above diagram, we can determine the centre and radius of the circle. For the radius
From (19),
r = s cosec () = 2 Q
sin =
s r
(19a)
Substituting into equation (19a), we get r = s cosec ( For the centre s 2 Since tan = , b = s cot = s cot b Q Therefore, circle has center 0, s cot 2 ) Q
2 Q
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In rectangular coordinates
tanB = y x+s
tanA =
tan(A B ) =
y xs
Hence,
=
x2
2sy + y 2 s2
Q Q 2sy = tan1 2 2 2 x + y 2 s2
(20)
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Source-sink pair:
A =
B = Uy =
Q ( B ) 2 A
= A + B
Let = (A B )
Q ( B ) Uy 2 A
()
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0 when y = 0 if
y y Q x x + = Uy + Artan 2 y 2 1+ 2 x 2
y y = Artan x x2+ y 1+ 2 x 2
or
x 2 2 + y 2 = 2sy cot
2y 2Uy = tan x 2 2 + y 2 Q
x2 y2 y Us + 1 = 2 cot 2 2 2 Q
2Uy Q
(22)
This is an equation of an OVAL shaped curve whose shape depends on parameter (Uy/Q) and it "scales" with s, i.e. if you double s, you double all other dimensions.
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As before, we can replace oval shaped curve streamline with a solid body
(23)
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DOUBLET
A source-sink pair in which the distance of separation 2s 0, and Q such that their product 2sQ = constant = (where is the strength of the doublet).
= =
Q ( B ) 2 A Q 2sin 2 r sin 2 r Q 2
where = 2Q
For = constant,
or
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For a doublet:
A =
or
y 2 x 2 + y 2 Qs y x2 + y2
Combined flow
Q y x2 + y2
B = Uy
(24)
y=0
Q where a = U
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= 1
(25)
Stream function of a cylinder placed in a free stream going from right to left
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2 = sin 1 + 2 =
and
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i.e.
Pressure coefficient
Therefore sin = 0 CP = 1
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(ii)
At =
Therefore, CP = 0
Therefore, if holes are drilled at = 30 and 150, they can be used to measure free stream static pressure. (iii) At = 3 (. . 90) and ( . . 270) 2 2 CP = -3
sin = l
Therefore
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It can be shown that for a potential flow past a circular cylinder that Lift = 0 Drag = 0
Drag = cos
0
Lift = sin
0 2
The above results, which is based on ideal-flow analysis, show that a cylinder placed in a free stream experiences no drag force. In fact, it can be shown from the above theory that any SYMMETRICAL BODY placed in a free stream along the axis of symmetry should experience no drag force.
D'Alembert Paradox: Even though the above analysis shows that a cylinder or any symmetrical body placed in a free stream experiences no drag force, however, in real life (viscous fluid), the body does experience a drag. This paradoxical behaviour is referred to as D'Alembert Paradox
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As discussed earlier, flow past a circular cylinder generates no lift. In order to get lift, we need to introduce circulation to the cylinder. This can be achieved by using point vortex.
Point vortex
For flow past a circular cylinder: (note: the flow is from right to left)
2 = 1 2 = ln 2
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Combined flow:
2 = sin 1 2 ln 2 1 2 u = = cos 1 2
= A + B
()
2 1 v = = sin 1 + 2 + 2
2sin0 +
=0 2
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or
sin0 =
()
130
|| <
Anti-clockwise rotation
Clockwise rotation
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|| =
132
For || >
If r a, cos = 0 or sin = 1.In other words, stagnation point lies on y-axis, but why on y-axis?? v' = 0 2 sin 1 + 2 + =0 2 2 1 + 2 + =0 2 2 1 2 + =0 2 2 + 2 = 0 2
For sin = -1
where b =
, = 1, = 2 2
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Let P be the static pressure at some point P(a, ) Applying Bernoulli's equation along the streamline = 0, 1 1 + 2 = + 2 = H (total pressure) 2 2 1 = 2 2 1 2 = 2sin + 2 2
1 2sin 2 2 2 = 4 sin + + 2 2 2 4
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= sin
0
1 = 2 2 Therefore
1 2 []0 = 2
(28)
(a) (b)
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(c)
L is independent of the radius "a" of the cylinder. Therefore a line vortex of strength , moves with velocity U will also experience a lateral force (perpendicular to U) of U /unit length of vortex.
(d)
Real life examples of Magnus Effect are spinning of a golf ball, or table tennis ball or lawn tennis ball.
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or
From vector algebra x V = 0 where is a scalar function. Compare this equation with the one above show that V =
d = ; d
d = ; d
d = d
2 = 2
2 = 2
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or
(1) (2)
It is linear Complex solutions can be obtained from the addition of simple solutions.
Note: (1) By definition, the existence of potential function implies that the flow is irrotational, i.e. vorticity = 0. (2) and are given by Cartesian Co-ordinates: (30)
(31)
(33)
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Relationship between stream function () and potential function () In the previous section, it was learned that lines of constant formed a set of streamlines. We are now going to show that lines of constant or potential lines, form a family of curves which intersect the streamlines at right angle.
dx + dy = 0 x y
d =
dx + dy x y
Therefore lines of constant is perpendicular to lines of constant . The two sets of curves hence form an ORTHOGONAL GRID SYSTEM or FLOW NETS
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Sink
Point vortex
144
Doublet
145
SUMMARY OF FLOWS
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147
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Method of Images
The previous solutions have all been for unbounded flows, such as a circular cylinder immersed in a broad expanse of uniformly streaming fluid. However, many practical problems involve a nearby rigid boundary constraining the flow. For example, (1) an aerofoil near the ground, simulating landing or take off, or (2) a cylinder mounted in a wind tunnel with narrow walls. In such cases the basic unbounded-potential-flow solutions can be modified for wall effects by the method of images.
Consider a line source placed a distance from a wall as shown below. To create the desired wall, an image source of identical strength is placed the same distance below the wall. By symmetry the two sources create a plane-surface streamline between them, which is taken to be the wall.
149
tan 1 =
tan 2 =
y h rsin h = x rcos
y + h rsin + h = x rcos
150
It can be shown velocity at any point along the wall due to source 1 is given by
u1 = Q 21
It can be shown that in term of h, the above equation becomes 1 Q2 Pw = P 2 2 sin2 cos 2 2 h For the force on the wall, F = Pw ()dx
1 Q cos Q cos 2 Pw = P + 2 2 r1 2 r2
Similarly,
F = Pw ()
0
h d sin2
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The pressure distribution, due to the vortex, along the wall can be determined in a similar fashion as the one shown above.
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