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NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME2135E Fluid Mechanics II

TURBOMACHINERY AND POTENTIAL FLOW (PART I)

Dr Lua Kim Boon mpelkb@nus.edu.sg

2013-14

Chapter 1

TURBOMACHINERY
Definition: A turbomachine is a device which adds energy to or extracts energy from the fluid passing through it.

Add Energy :

Pumps Compressors Fans

Extract Energy : Turbines

PUMPS:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction and pump classification Basic energy consideration Elementary pump rotordynamics Pump characteristics and similarity Matching pump and system requirements Cavitation Further topics

REFERENCES:

1.

White, F. M. Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill.

2.

Potter, C. P., Wiggert, D. C., & Ramandan, B. H. Mechanics of Fluids, Cengage Learning Engineering.

3.

Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M. and Swaffield, J. A. Mechanics of Fluid, Taylor & Francis.

4.

Sayers, A. T. Hydraulics and Compressible Flow Turbo machines, McGraw-Hill.

5.

Cengel, Y.A. and Cimbala, J. M. Fluid Mechanics, Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw Hill.

1. Introduction and Pump Classification


The Pump is a common engineering device used to add energy to a fluid. It is employed in all kinds of industries which involve the transport and processing of fluids.

1.1 Terminology Pumping of liquids (essentially incompressible): PUMPS. Pumping of gases/vapours (compressible):

FANS

BLOWERS increasing pressure requirements

COMPRESSORS

We will concentrate on the pumping of liquids in this course.

Pumps for liquids may be divided into two categories: Dynamic Pumps Positive-displacement Pumps.

Basic types:

Dynamic Pump Centrifugal Axial Mixed flow

Positive-displacement Pumps Reciprocating Rotary

1.2 Basic construction - Positive-displacement Pumps

Schematic design of positive-displacement pumps: (a) plunger or reciprocating piston, (b) gear pump, (c) double-screw pump, (d) sliding vane, (e) three-lobe pump, (f) double-circumferential piston, (g) flexible-tube squeegee.
5

The heart is a two-chamber displacement pump.

Basic construction - dynamic Pumps The basic components of a centrifugal pump are: - the impeller - the volute casing - the diffuser ring. (optional)

Cut-away schematic of a typical centrifugal pump.


Stationary diffuser vanes Diffuser Impeller Volute

Impeller

Diffuser

A centrifugal pump with a stationary diffuser ring.

A centrifugal pump impeller (unshrouded).

A centrifugal pump impeller.

Schematic of a typical axial pump.

Axial flow impellers.

A mixed flow fan impeller

General characteristics of Dynamic and Positive-displacement pumps

Dynamic Pumps Positive-displacement Pumps add energy by fast-moving blades or force fluid along by volume changes; vane; no closed changes fluid cavity opens to admit which is then squeezed through an outlet steady discharge of fluid high flow rate low viscosity fluid low to moderately high pressure rise discharge may be pulsatile or periodic low flow rate may be used for very viscous fluid high to very high pressure rise (sturdy construction required) no priming needed for most applications

need priming when filled with air/gas

11

An electrical powered centrifugal pump

12

2. Basic Energy Consideration

The Bernoulli Head, H, at a point is given by

The quantity (gH) is a measure of the energy per unit mass of the fluid. The Steady-State Energy Equation for flow through the pump is given by

= + 2 +

(2-1)

gH0 = gHi + ws - wf
where ws: shaft work per unit mass (energy input), wf : energy lost in the pump between inlet i and outlet o,

(2-2)

which is a statement that the energy at outlet is equal to the energy at inlet plus net gain in energy (ws-wf) (per unit mass).

Equation (2-2) can be written in terms of heads as

H0 = Hi + hs - hf

(2-3)

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where

, ,

gain in head due to added energy,

loss in head due to frictional losses.

Let Q denotes the volume flowrate through the pump. ( Q)


mass- flowrate

Useful Power = Power transmitted to the fluid = where = Hi- Ho is the head transmitted to the fluid. Power input to pump: = = T: w: Torque at the shaft of the pump,

(g), (2-4)

(2-5)

where

Angular velocity of the shaft (radians per second).

The Efficiency of the pump,

()

(2-6)

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3. Elementary Pump Rotordynamics


3.1 Centrifugal impeller We shall consider the case of an idealised flow through a centrifugal impeller: Assumptions: - No viscosity effects - flow enters the impeller tangentially to the blades (no-shock condition). - uniform conditions along the circumferential inlet and outlet of the impeller (as if there are infinitely many blades of zero thickness to guide the flow). - flow leaves the impeller tangentially to the blades.

Vt2 V2

ub2

Vn2 ur2

ur1

V1 V1 n1 V1 = Vn1 Vt1

(a)

ub1

Axis of rotation

(b) Idealised flow through a centrifugal impeller. (a) Impeller control volume; (b) velocity diagrams at control surfaces.
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ub : ur : V: Vt: Vn :

Absolute blade velocity (= rw) ; Flow velocity relative to blade; Absolute flow velocity; Tangential component of V; Normal component of V.

Using a control-volume analysis: Rate of gain of angular momentum by volume = Torque (T) applied to the fluid by the impeller = rate of outflux angular momentum - rate of influx of angular momentum T = ( Q)
mass- flowrate

(r2 Vt2)
ang. mom/ unit-mass

- Qr1Vt1

or

T = Q (r2 Vt2 - r1Vt1)

(3-1)

Power input, P = Tw = Q (r2wVt2 - r1wVt1) or P = Q (ub2 Vt2 - ub1Vt1) (3-2)

Since Power P = ( Q)(gH) , we have :

= =

2 2 1 1

(3-3)

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The head He given by (3-3) is commonly termed the Euler Head. For the ideal or design case, the angle 1 = 90 ; the inflow has zero whirl, Vt1 = 0, Vn1 = V1. This is also known as the zero pre-whirl condition. For the design case : P = Qub2 Vt2
2 2

(3-4)

=
We note from geometry that

(3-5)

2 = 2 (cot2 ) = 2 2 (cot2 ) From volume conservation: (21 1 )1 = (22 2 )2 , so that 1 = , 21 1 22 2

(3-6)

2 =

where b1 and b2 are the blade widths at the inlet and outlet respectively.

16

Applying these to equation (3-5) (the design case) yields


2 2 2 2 2 2 (cot2 ) 2 (cot2 ) 22 2

= =

,
(3-7)

Equation (3-7) gives the Head versus Flowrate relation for the case of an ideal impeller operating at the design case. It can be seen that the relation is determined by the physical characteristics (quantities) of the impeller: 2 = 2 ,

2,

r2

and

b2

These quantities may be explicitly controlled by impeller design.

17

The figure on the left shows the effects of outlet blade angle 2 on the Head (H) versus Flowrate (Q) relationship for an ideal impeller. See figure below.

Backward-curved bladed pumps have a maximum point in their Power versus Flowrate curve. The power requirement (P QH) of Radial- and forward curved bladed pumps on the other hand rises continuously with the flowrate Q. An electric motor driving a radial- or forward-curved runs the risk of being overloaded. Forward-curved pumps may also suffer from unstable operation, an oscillatory condition in which a pump 'hunts' for its equilibrium point. Backwardcurved blade is therefore the generally preferred design.

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3.2 Real flow in a centrifugal pump

Fluid viscosity causes boundary layers to form on the blades or vanes.

The boundary layers may separate due to adverse pressure gradient. Flow may separate due to 'shock' (non-tangential) condition at entry. The formation of boundary layers and separations reduces flow through the impeller. The flow is non-uniform circumferentially at the outlet.

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3.3 Axial Impeller

Elemental ring

ur1 ub1
VV t1 1

11 Vn = Vn1
V1

Section A-A at radius r

V2 Vn2

Vt2

ub2

ur2

Idealized axial-flow impeller We will consider the design case for which the flow has no pre-whirl: 1 = 90 1 = 0, 1 = 1 = =
2 2

(3-8)

Let us examine the contribution from one elemental ring of thickness (r) at radius r. The mass flowrate through the elemental ring is ( ) = (Q) = 2 r(r )Vf (3-9)

20

The torque contribution from the elemental ring, (T), is (T) = (Q) r Vt2 (3-10)

We note from geometry that 2 = 2 (cot2 ) and 2 = 1 = (why?). From these, we have (T) = 2 2 (r)Vf [rw Vf (cot2)]

(3-11)

The total torque, T, summing the contributions from all the elemental rings, is
= , () =

0 2 (cot2 ) = 2

(3-12)

The torque T on the impeller as given by (3-12) may be evaluated when the outlet blade angle 2 is given as a function of radius: 2 = () . A changing 2 with radius r corresponds to a 'twist' in the blades. The theoretical power transmitted to the fluid is then P = Tw (3-13)

A cruder approximation to the torque T and power P for an axial impeller may be obtained by considering only the flow condition at the mean radius = + as an average of the condition over the whole blade:
2

T (rVt2)Rm (Q) = Q (2 )

T = (T) = (Q) (rVt2) ,

(3-14)

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The power and the Euler Head are given respectively by: P = Tw = Q( 2 ) , He =

(3-15)

(3-16)

Note the close similarity of (3-16) with equation (3-5) for centrifugal pumps.

Simplifying Assumptions have been made in the above derivations for axial pumps:

as for centrifugal pumps.

flow remains essentially parallel as it moves from inlet to outlet

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3.4

Losses and Efficiencies

1. 2. Mechanical Efficiency

2. 3. Impeller Efficiency

= =

3. 4. Volumetric Efficiency

4. 5. Casing Efficiency


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Notes:
1. The mechanical losses Lm arise from frictional losses at the bearing and the

seal. The mechanical power available to the impeller is (Ps- Lm).


2. If the flow through the impeller is ideal, the impeller would develop the ideal

(Euler) head He such that (Ps- Lm) = pQi gHe. If hi denotes the fluid losses in a real impeller: then the actual head developed by the impeller would be Hi = He - hi.
3. Owing to the generally higher pressure at the outlet of the impeller, there is a

tendency for some of the outlet flow to circulate back (past the impeller) into the inlet of the impeller. Thus more flow goes through the impeller (Qi) than through the pump (Q). The amount of back-flow is q = Qi - Q.
4. There are also fluid-related frictional losses in the pump casing. If hc denotes

the head loss due to the casing, then the actual head imparted to the fluid is H = Hi- hc.

The Overall Efficiency of the pump is

(3-18)

The Hydraulic Efficiency is given by

The hydraulic efficiency accounts for losses in a pump arising from fluid friction (viscosity). We note that

= =

(3-19)

(3-20)

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4. Pump Characteristics and Similarity


4.1 Performance Characteristics of centrifugal pumps The Fluid Dynamics of pumps is very complex. Until more recent times, pump design is very much an art, derived from experience and trial-and-error. Most manufacturers still determine the performance characteristics of their pumps through extensive experimental testing.

Quantities of interest to someone using a pump are:

Q H Ps

- the flowrate through the pump, - the head the pump develops, - the power to drive the pump, and - the efficiency at which the pump is operating.

As an engineer, you will in general be interested in how the head H, the power Ps and the efficiency change with the flowrate Q delivered by the pump. Typical plots of these relationships for centrifugal pumps are shown below. These relationships are termed collectively as the performance characteristics of the pump. They are dependent upon the speed of the pump N, which is the rotational speed of the impeller.

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B. E. P. (Best Efficiency Point)

Q* Q

F Ps , H Head Power

Backward Radial Forward

Q The performance characteristics of centrifugal pumps The point of maximum efficiency is commonly-termed the Best Efficiency Point (abbrev. B.E.P.). Engineers try to operate their pumps near to their B.E.P.
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4.2 Geometrically-Similar Pumps and Dimensional Parameters Physical Parameters relevant to the performance Geometrically-Similar pumps are: D - Diameter of impeller (a measure of pump size), Q - Flowrate,

H - Head (or gH, the energy per unit mass), Ps - Power input to pump (shaft power), N - Rotational speed of impeller or shaft,

- Density of the fluid being pumped, - Viscosity of the pumped fluid, - Average surface roughness of pump components.
Dimensional Analysis reduces these dimensional parameters to a smaller number of non-dimensional parameters (the - groups). The use of non-dimensional parameters results in more compact representation for the performance data.

Dimensional Analysis carried out on the above set of dimensional parameters yield the relations:

Try to establish these non-dimensional parameters for yourself.

2 = 3 , , 3 5

2 = 3 , , 2 2

(4-1)

(4-2)

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For brevity, we abbreviate these non-dimensional groupings as follows:


= 2 2 = 35 = 3 =

: Head Coefficient

: Power Coefficient

: Flow Coefficient

: Reynolds number

so that relationships (4-1) and (4-2) become

= , , = , ,

(4-3)

(4-4)

Most commercially available pumps operate in the fully-turbulent flow regime; the Reynolds number Re being of the order of 107. At such large Reynolds numbers, the viscous action of the fluid is small. The effects of Re in (4-3) and (4-4) are then fairly weak. If we further assume that the pumps are well made with small relative roughness factor /D (so that the effect of /D is also small), then we can simply write (4-3) and (4-4) as


which are simple two-variable relations.

(4-5) (4-6)

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We may also note that

so that

Thus efficiency is a function of CQ too.

( )

(4-7)

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4.3 Pump Similarity To achieve similarity between two pumps A and B in operation, we need :

Geometry Similarity : the pumps and all its component parts must be scaledup or -down version of one another (same shape). Strict geometrical similarity also requires that

although the effects of /D may be small.

= =

Kinematic Similarity : similarity of velocity diagrams. This is fulfilled when

Note

= 3 =

/2

Dynamic similarity : Similarity of Forces. This condition is satisfied when the dynamic parameter

The effects Re of may be small as mentioned before.

() =()

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A geometrically-similar series of pumps is also called a homologous series. The diameter of a pump in a series is therefore a good measure of its size. The performance of a homologous series of pumps is governed (and fully specified) by relations of the form and (4-8a,b)

by that of ( ).

when the effects of /D and Re are small. The specification of CP may be replaced

REMARKS: When using dimensionless performance parameters supplied by others, the units of the physical quantities involved must be known. For example:

Q: m3/s, cu.ft./min, gal./min etc.

= 3

N : rad./s, rpm, rps etc.

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EXAMPLE: Given the performance curves for a family of homologous pumps, you know that the BEP occurs at CQ* 0.1, CP* 0.6, CH 2.0. Calculate Q, H, (static pressure across the pump), Ps and for a pump of

impeller diameter D = 0.6 m operating at 1500 rpm at BEP. You may assume Q in m3/s, N in rps, D in m and in kg/m3

SOLUTION: From definitions


= 3 = 0.1

* is the head rise across the pump (inlet to outlet). Assuming that Vi Vo and zi zo , the rise in pressure (static) is

2 2 2.0 1500 2 2 = = (0.6) = 45.87 60

1500 (0.6)3 = 0.543 / 60

The power requirement is

= 0 = 103 9.81 45.87 = 450kPa =


3 5

The efficiency is

1500 3 = 0.6 3 (0.6)5 = 729 60


2

103 0.54 9.81 45.87 = = = 0.333 729 103

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EXAMPLE: Given the performance curve (graph) CH = fh (CQ) for a family of homologous pumps, describe how you can estimate the Q vs H (flowrate versus head) curve for a given pump, say of size D, from the family. Assume that the pump is to operate at speed N.

Q SOLUTION: 1. Decide on the range of flowrate Q of interest to you.

2. Choose a value of Q from the range, and calculate the corresponding value of CQ = Q / (ND3 ) (N and D are known). 3. Find the value of CH from the series' performance curve CH = fh (CQ).
2 2

4. Now calculate the head using =

Thus for a given flowrate Q ,we can find the corresponding head H.

5. Repeating steps 1 to 4, work through the selected range of Q to determine the Q versus H curve for the pump, of size D running at speed N.

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The efficiency versus Q and power Ps versus Q curves for the pump may also be estimated from the series' performance curves (graphs) = fh (CQ) and CP = fp (CQ) respectively following the above procedures.

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4.4 Similarity Rules for Pumps in a Homologous Series Pump characteristics for a homologous series: CH

Seris H CQ H

DA, NA Q

DB, NB Q

Consider the characteristics of two pumps A and B from the same homologous series. The above figure shows that for every point on the pump characteristics of pump A, there is a corresponding point on the characteristics of pump B with the same CQ . The two corresponding points will also have the same CH, Cp and because these are functions of CQ. In particular, for corresponding points we have:

= ( ) = ( ) ( ) = ( )

3
2 2

3 5

( )

3
2

( ) )

3 5

( )

2 2

(4-10)

(4-11)

3 5

(4-12)
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(4-13)

Using equations (4-10) to (4-13), we can predict (estimate) the performance of one pump, say B, from the known performance curves (data) of another pump, say A, from the same homologous series.

Since a pump is always homologous to itself, the performance of the pump at one speed, say N2, may be predicted (estimated) from its performance data at another speed, say N1 .

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Limitations to Pump Similarity Laws : Pump Similarity Laws are direct results of the relations :

, ( )
They are therefore truly valid only if 1. 2. there is complete geometric similarity. Reynolds number effects are completely negligible.

In practice : 1. Larger pumps in commercially available series tend to have smaller roughness ratio / D (relatively smoother). smaller casing-impeller clearance to diameter D ratio (relatively smaller leakage losses).

2.

Reynolds number / viscosity-related effects are not completely negligible. Larger pumps tend to be generally more efficient.

An empirical correlation between pump size and maximum pump efficiency max was given by Moody:

1 2 1 1/4 1 1 2

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Another empirical relation obtained by Anderson from thousands of tests: 0.94 2 1 0.32 0.94 1 2 These formulae assume equal value of surface roughness for both pumps. 0.94 instead of l.0 was assumed by Anderson to be the maximum efficiency a pump can attain regardless of size.

Centrifugal pumps have often been used to pump oils and some rather viscous liquids. Typical centrifugal pump performance curves are:

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The maximum efficiency tend to decline with the viscosity . Typical values are:

/ Water : max ;

10

100

1000

0.85

0.76

0.52

0.11

Beyond 300

Water

, the loss of efficiency is so great that positive

displacement pumps are to be preferred.

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4.5 Specific Speed Ns and Pump Selection

Different series of homologous pumps (different geometry) generally have different performance characteristics. For examples

Centrifugal pumps ; Mixed-flow pumps ; Axial pumps

are geometrically different and have very different characteristics. Moreover, within each broad category, the pumps may yet be geometrically very different.

As an engineer, what are the criteria for selecting a pump for an application ?

1. the pump can meet the application requirements in terms of flowrate and head etc.

2. the choice must be optimum in the use of energy ; energy cost is an important consideration when the pump is to be used for many hours a day.

3. the cost of the pump; which is a one-off cost.

We will look at the second criterion here.

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Specific speed

A design parameter which is used by engineers in the selection of pumps is a quantity known as the specific speed Ns. B. E. P

For a given series of homologous pumps

the specific speed Ns is obtained by eliminating the size factor D between CQ and CH to give :
1/2 1/2

= = (

CH*

CH

( )3/4

3/4

(4-14)

CQ*

CQ

Moreover, the specific speed Ns is defined at the point of best efficiency (BEP). Ns characterizes the homologous pump series independent of the pump sizes.

For another homologous series of pumps (a different geometrical design), CQ* and CH* are most probably different so that the specific speed Ns will be different. Specific speed Ns versus Optimal pump design

41

The figure below shows the relationship between specific speed Ns (rad.) and optimal pump design.

Dimensionless specific speed, Ns (rad)

Variation of hydraulic pump impeller design

42

Thus if an application has an estimated Ns of 1.0 and a flowrate of 0.8 m3s-1, a suitable pump would be of the mixed-flow design. Such a pump is likely to have a maximum efficiency (at its BEP) in excess of 90%.

As Ns increases, the optimal pump design changes from one of radial-flow (centrifugal-pump) design to mixed-flow design and to axial-flow design (propeller pump).

When using specific speed Ns data supplied by others, it is important to know what are the units involved in its definition. In the following example, Ns is defined as 1/2 [rpm] [gal/min]1/2 = 3/4 = [ft]3/4

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EXAMPLE: We want a pump to deliver a flowrate of Q = 0.2 m3/s with a head of 1.83 m of water. We have a motor which runs at 800 rpm. What type of pump should we use (for good efficiency)? Estimate the power required.

SOLUTION: 800 2 (0.2)1/2 = 4.29 (0.683 ) = 60 (9.81 1.83)3/4 The Ns versus chart on page 42 indicates that we should use an axial or propeller pump. An efficiency of about 80 per cent is expected. The power given to the water is P = QgH = 1000 x 0.2 x 9.81 x 1.83 = 3.59 kW

The shaft power is 3.59 = 4.49 0.8

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5. Matching of Pump and System Requirements


5.1 System Head Curve

Suction side

Delivery side

Pump

The System refers to that part of the set-up without the Pump.

To transport water from reservoir A to reservoir B, we need to supply energy

(1) to meet the static head rise due to increase in elevation: = (2) to overcome frictional losses along the conveying pipes:
2 2 + = 2 2

(5-1)

(5-2)

45

where

fi : Li : di : kj :

friction factor for the flow in pipe i , length of pipe i , diameter of pipe i , loss coefficient of the j-th valve, bend, joint etc.

Since flow velocities Vi , Vj Q (velocity = Q / X-sectional area), the total frictional head losses hf Q2 or hf = KQ2

(5-3)

The head (energy) requirement of the system delivering a flowrate of Q is therefore given by : Hsys = z+KQ2

(5-4)

which is a quadratic curve in the H versus Q plot.

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5.2 Equilibrium Operating Point

In delivering water at the flowrate of Q , the pump must supply this amount of head. At an equilibrium (steady-state) operating point, the head (energy) supplied by the pump must exactly match what the system requires. Thus

The equilibrium operating point is determined by the intersection of the pump and system characteristics curves.

The system characteristics curve can be altered by changing the setting of the valve if one is available. The flowrate Q is changed by the adjustment to the valve.

47

5.3 Pumps in parallel If one pump gives sufficient head but too little discharge, two or more of the same or different pumps may be used in parallel.

To determine the Head versus Flowrate curve (H vs Q) for pumps in parallel, we add their flowrates for given head.

Two identical pumps in parallel

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Two non-identical pumps in parallel

Check valves (which allows flow in only one direction) are usually employed for pumps operating in parallel to prevent backflow through the other pump when one pump is operating.

49

Power requirement for pumps in parallel:


() ()

()

( )

()

()

(5-5) (5-6)

50

5.4 Pumps in Series When the discharge rate of one pump is adequate but the head is too low, pumps can be arranged in series to increase the head. In series arrangement, the delivery side of one pump is connected to the suction (inlet) side of the pump that follows.

For pumps arranged in series, we add the heads delivered by the pumps for given flowrate.

Pumps in Series

51

Power requirement for pumps in series:


() ()

()

( )

()

()

(5-5) (5-6)

52

6. Cavitation 6.1 The Physical Phenomenon of Cavitation Cavitation is the name given to the physical phenomenon which consists of the formation of tiny bubbles in a liquid as a result of a fall in the absolute pressure within the liquid.

At least two physical processes are known to be responsible:

1. reduction in absolute pressure causes air and gases initially dissolved in the liquid to come out of solution.

2. when the absolute pressure is near or below the vapour pressure (pvap) of the liquid at the prevailing temperature, vaporization of the liquid occurs rapidly leading to the formation of vapour bubbles- Boiling.

Process (1) normally precedes process (2) as the pressure is reduced. The bubbles produced are generally very tiny.

Cavitation usually begins at the point of lowest absolute pressure in a system.

In a pumping situation, the point of lowest absolute pressure is normally at the inlet to the pump.

53

When the cavitation bubbles move with the liquid to a region of higher absolute pressure, such as inside an impeller, they collapse. The collapse of a vapour bubble (an implosion):

1. may produce locally very high pressure (up to 1000 atmosphere).

2. may produce locally very high temperature (up to 800 K).

3. sound is produced.

4. light may be emitted (sono-luminescence).

It is interesting to note that the collapsing bubbles have a tendency to be attracted to solid surfaces (Bjerknes effect). Near the end of the collapse, the bubbles may actually develop a tiny liquid jet that impacts the solid surface with great local pressure. The en-mass collapse of cavitation bubbles is accompanied by a distinctive crackling noise.

54

6.2 Consequences The consequences of cavitation are usually adverse: 1. Deterioration of pump performance

loss of head and loss of flowrate.

2. Damage to pump Cavitation can result in the rapid erosion of the impeller and other parts of a pump - the high pressure (local) produced by bubbles collapsing on or near to a solid surface can cause bits of the surface to be chipped off.

Cavitation is an important cause of erosion for marine propellers.

3. Noisy operation In serious cases, cavitation may result in pump vibration.

55

Beauty of cavitation: spiral bubble sheets form from the surface of a marine propeller

Ugliness of cavitation: Collapsing bubbles erode a propeller surface

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6.3 Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Applying the steady-state energy equation between the pump inlet and a point on the surface of the reservoir: = 2 () + = + + 2 which leads to =
( ) ()

or

where hsuc = zi - zr, is termed the static suction lift.

2 2

(6-1)

We require the pump inlet pressure pi >Pvap to avoid cavitation.

57

The following quantity, which has the dimension of head, 2 () = 2 (6-2)

may be used a measure of the tendency for cavitation to set in at the pump inlet.

The following quantity is termed the Nett Positive Suction Head (NPSH) : 2 () + = = 2 prevent cavitation in their pumps.

(6-3)

Pump manufacturers frequently supply data on the required NPSH necessary to

To avoid cavitation, the engineer must design his system so that the NPSH at pump inlet is greater than the required NPSH at all times during operation.

58

From (6.3), we can overcome the problem of cavitation by making the suction lift hsuc sufficiently negative (i.e. pump placed below the level of the reservoir).

We can also apply Dimensional Analysis to obtain a new dimensional parameter () 2 2

(6-4)

= , ,

(6-5)

The scaling law for NPSH is ()2 2 2 2 2 = ()1 1 1 as for pump head.

(6-6)

59

6.4 Other Cavitation Parameters Other cavitation parameters used in the literature are :

1. The cavitation index 1 2 2

= 2. The Thoma cavitation coefficient

(6-7)

= 3. The Suction Specific Speed

(6-8)

We note that

1/2 = [()]3/4
3/4

(6-9)

(6-10)

60

Chapter 2

Potential Flow

61

References
Karamcheti, K. Principles of ideal-fluid Aerodynamics, John Wiley, New York Fox, R.W. & McDonald, A.T. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley, New York) Green, S. I. Fluid Vortices, Kluwer Academic Publisher Massey, B. S. Mechanics of Fluids, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory, Shames, I. H. Mechanics of Fluids, McGraw Hill International Valentine, H. R. Applied Hydrodynamics, Butterworths, London White, F. M. Fluid Mechanics, McGraw Hill International

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DEFINITIONS:

Viscous Fluid Viscous fluid is a real fluid which possesses VISCOSITY.

Inviscid Fluid Inviscid fluid is a (hypothetical) fluid which does not possess VISCOSITY.

Ideal fluid Ideal fluid is an inviscid fluid which is also incompressible. This fluid is also known as perfect fluid.

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CLASSICAL HYDRODYNAMICS:::POTENTIAL FLOW


Classical Hydrodynamics is the study of perfect or ideal fluids. The study originated from eighteen century mathematicians who sought to specify the motion of fluids by mathematical relations. These relations however, could be developed only if the fluid itself was 'ideal', that is it had no viscosity and was incompressible. All real fluids do possess viscosity, and are, in some degree, compressible. Nevertheless there are many instances in which the behaviour of real fluids quite closely approaches that of the hypothetical ideal fluid. The flow of a real fluid may frequently be regarded as occurring in two regions:
(1) adjacent to the solid boundaries of the flow is a thin layer in which

viscosity has

considerable effect. This layer of fluid is called the

BOUNDARY LAYER or in the wake.

(2) in the other region, constituting the remainder of the flow, viscous

effects are negligible.

As for compressibility, its effects are negligible, even for the flow of a gas, unless the velocity of the flow is comparable with the speed with which sound is propagated through the fluid, or acceleration are very large. Consequently, relations describing the flow of an ideal fluid may frequently be used to indicate the behaviour of a real fluid away from the boundaries. The results so obtained may be only an approximation to the truth because of the simplifying assumptions made, although in certain instances the theoretical results are

61

surprising close to the actual ones. In any event, they give valuable insight to the actual behaviour of the fluid.

Patching viscous and inviscid flow regions. Potential theory that we are going to study does not apply to the boundary layer regions.

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For Example: (a) Consider flow over a flat plate

Flow

Wall

Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below

Flow

Wall

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(b) Flow around a circular cylinder.

Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below

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Hele-Shaw flow past a circle. Dye shows the streamlines in water flowing at 1mm per second between glass-plates spaced 1 mm apart. It is at first sight paradoxical that the best way of producing the unseparated pattern of plane potential flow past a bluff object, which would be spoiled by separation in a real fluid of even the slightest viscosity, is to go to the opposite extreme of creeping flow in a narrow gap, which is dominated by viscous forces.

Circular cylinder at R = 10,000. The drag coefficient consequently remains almost constant and drops later when the boundary layer becomes turbulent at separation.

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If we have a more streamlined looking body (aerofoil), the wake would be much smaller

Assuming potential flow, the flow pattern would look as shown below

Hence in many cases, classical hydrodynamics gives GOOD APPROXIMATION to flow in REAL FLUIDS. We will now develop a number of concepts which will be used in potential flow. Attention will be confined almost entirely to STEADY TWO DIMENSIONAL FLOW.

69

Hele-Shaw flow past an inclined airfoil. Dye in oil shows the streamlines of plane potential flow past an NACA 64AOI5 airfoil at 13 angle of attack. However, because the Hele-Shaw flow cannot show circulation, the Kutta condition is not enforced at the trailing edge. Hence infinite velocities are represented there. The model is between glass plates 1 mm apart.

Symmetric plane flow past an airfoil. An NACA 64A015 profile is at zero incidence in a water tunnel. The Reynolds number is 7000 based on the chord length. Streamlines are shown by colored fluid introduced upstream. The flow is evidently laminar and appears to be unseparated, though one might anticipate a small separated region near the trailing edge.

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CONTINUITY EQUATION:
Consider a small rectangular element, x y in size, through which the fluid flows. The average velocities across each face of the element are as shown. For an incompressible fluid, volume flow rate into the element equals volume flow rate out; thus for unit thickness perpendicular to the diagram

Vol. flow rate into the element = uyl + vxl Vol. flow rate out of the element = u + Continuity states that: Vol. flow rate into the element = Vol. flow rate out of the element uyl + vxl = u + u v x y 1 + v + y x 1 x y
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u v x y 1 + v + y x 1 x y

u v + =0 x y

Continuity Equation for 2-D

(1)

For three-dimensional flow, it can be shown that continuity equation is given by

u v w + + =0 x y z

(2)

72

Line Integral of Velocity


From your earlier lecture, you have learned that work done is by a force F going from A to B is given by

= sin d
A

Similarly, if we integrate velocity along line AB, line integral of velocity is given by

= sin d
A

(3)

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Now, in terms of the velocity components (u, v) in the Cartesian coordinates, it can be shown that

V sin ds = udx + vdy

udx + vdy

= = = = =

(V cos )(ds cos ) + (V sin )(ds sin ) V ds (cos cos + sin sin ) V ds cos ( - ) V ds cos (90 - ) V ds sin ()

Therefore sin d = d + d
A A B B

(4)

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Circulation
The circulation denoted by (Greek capital letter 'gamma') is defined as a line integral of velocity taken around a closed loop, i.e.

= sin d = d + d
For example, circulation around an elemental area is

(5)

= d + + =

= dd

dd

d d +

dd d

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Where

(Greek letter xi) =


In other words, Circulation = Vorticity area

= VORTICITY

(6)

(for an elemental area)

What is the circulation around a finite area?


Consider a closed curve ABCD within the fluid medium. The circulation around such a curve is defined as the summation of the circulations round component small circuit.

Circulation around a Closed Contour

In other words Total circulation = circulation around small area or mathematically, dd

= d + d =

For finite area

(7)

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IMPORTANT NOTES:
(a) The concept of vorticity may be utilised for distinguishing a flow as either IRROTATIONAL or ROTATIONAL. If the vorticity is zero at all points in a flow region (except at certain special points known as 'singular points' where the velocity or acceleration is zero or infinite), the flow in that region is known as IRROTATIONAL.

(b) If the vorticity is non-zero, the flow is known is ROTATIONAL FLOW (c) Vorticity is a vector quantity whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of the small circuit round which circulation is measured.

(d) In vector form, vorticity is defined as

= V (curl of velocity)
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As you go once around the in the carousel, you rotate once about your axis

Or solid body rotation

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Example: Determine the circulation around a rectangle defined by x = l, y = l, x=5 and y = 4 for the velocity field u = 2x+3y and v = -2y.
y

y=4

y=1 y=1 y=5 x

= d =
5 1

( d + d)
4 1

= (2 + 3) + (2) + (2 + 3) + (2) = (2 + 3) + (2) + (2 + 12) + (2)


1 1 5 4 5 4 1 5 1 4

5 4 2 1 + [ 2 ]1 + [ 2 + 12]1 = [ 2 + 3]1 5 + [ ]4

= 36 - 72 = -36 units.

The result can be checked by employing the fact that circulation equals vorticity times the area = 0 3 = 3

Vorticity =

Area of rectangle = (5 -1) x (4-1) = 12 units Therefore circulation = -3 x 12 = -36 units

Example: The steady plane flow in the figure has the polar velocity components v = r and vr = 0. Determine the circulation around the path shown.

Solution: Start at the inside right corner, point A, and go around the complete path:

= d = 0(2 1 ) + 2 (2 ) + 0(1 2 ) + 1 (1 )
2 2 = (2 1 )

The Concept of Stream Function ()


The concept of stream function (Greek letter psi) is based on the principle of continuity and properties of a streamline. It is applicable to two dimensional flow cases. For incompressible two-dimensional flow, continuity equation gives + =0 This equation is satisfied if a function (x,y) is defined such that the above equation is defined as + = 0

Comparing the above two equations show that this new function must be defined such that = =

2 2 or + =0

Note: Stream function is a scalar quantity and is considered positive according to sign convention.

1. Convention (a) anticlockwise is positive (b) clockwise is negative 2. The direction of normal goes from left to right when facing the positive direction

Geometric Interpretation of It can be shown that lines of constant are streamlines. Consider a streamline as shown below.

or

udy vdx = 0 streamline

Introducing the stream function from above, we have + = 0 =

Thus the change of is zero along a streamline, or = There is also a physical interpretation which relates to volume flow. From the figure below, we can compute the volume dQ through an element ds of the control surface of unit depth.

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Volume flow rate through an element ds of unit thickness is given by

dQ

= Vds = (udy - vdx)

but

= dQ =
y

=
x

therefore

In other words the change in across the element is numerically equal to the volume flow through the element. Conversely, the volume flow between any two points in the flow is equal to the change in stream function between those points.

= d

dy +

dx

Q12 = 2 1

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The difference in between two points = volume flux cross any line joining the two points.

Further, the direction of the flow can be ascertained by noting whether increases or decreases. i.e.

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SUMMARY:
Therefore, we get in Cartesian coordinates, y

=
In polar coordinates,
It can be shown that

(8)

(9)

u x

= 1 =

(10)

v'

u'

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Example:
In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the fluid velocity components are given by u = x - 4y and v = -y - 4x. Determine the stream function of the flow as well as vorticity.

We know that

= 4 y
Integrating the above gives

u=

or

= xy 2y 2 + f(x)

= ( 4)

Similarly

v=

87

= ( 4 ) x

= ( 4 )

The above two equations are compatible only if

= xy + 2x 2 + g(y)

The vorticity is given by

= xy + 2x 2 2y 2 v u = x y

Therefore

= 4 (4) = 0 (irrotational flow)

v u = 4 and = 4 x y

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Example: A two-dimensional flow field is described by = x - y2 . Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of velocity and an expression for velocity of flow at any point in flow field. State whether the flow is rotational or irrotational, and determine the volume flow rate between (x1, y1) = (1, 2) and (x2, y2) = (1, 3). Sketch the streamlines for = 0, l and 2.

The horizontal and vertical components of velocity are given by

But

= x y2, and hence

u= y

v=

u = -2y

v = -l

The resultant velocity is

V = u2 + v 2 = (2y)2 + (1)2 = 1 + 4y 2
The vorticity is given by

=
given by

Since the vorticity is not zero, the flow is rotational. Volume flow rate (Q) is Q = 2 - 1 = (1 - 32) - (1 - 22) = -5 units

v u = 0 (2) = 2 x y

89

90

From the earlier part of the lecture, the VORTICITY EQUATION was shown to be

=
we get

v u x y

(6)

Substituting equations (8) and (9) into the above equation.

If the flow is IRROTATIONAL, Vorticity () = 0

v u 2 2 = = 2 + 2 x y x y 2 2 2 + 2 = 0 x y

u 2 = = 2 y y y y

v 2 = = 2 x x x x

Or

:. 2 = 0 (which is a Laplace's Equation)

The above equation shows that for an irrotational flow, the stream function must also satisfied the Laplace Equation. Conversely, fluid-flow problems which do not satisfy Laplace equation in are ROTATIONAL.

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IMPORTANT NOTE:
One very important property of Laplace's equation is that it is LINEAR. This means that if we have a series of simple solutions, 1, 2, 3, .. etc, then the more complex solution can be obtained by (x, y) = 1(x, y) + 2(x, y) + 3(x, y) + .

Let us now study some simple solutions. More complex solutions can be obtained from sum of simple solutions.

PARALLEL FLOW

From equation

= v x
92

=u y

Hence

= Uy + 2 (x) = 1 (y)
where 1 and 2 are functions of integration. These equations are compatible only if 2(x) = k (constant)

=v=0 x

=u y

Therefore,

= Uy + k

The value of k is arbitrary and is usually set to 0 for y = 0. Hence = Uy for flow parallel to the x-axis

93

Similarly, it can be shown that for uniform flow going from right to left.

For a uniform oblique flow, the stream function is

94

SOURCE Consider point source

For steady flow, u'(2r)l = Q = volumetric flow/unit length


assume unit length

u =
From equations (10)

v = 0

(11a) (11b)

1 =

= r

95

Substituting 11(a) and 11(b) into above equations, we get

1 = 2 =

=0 r

= 1 ()

+ 2 (r) 2

These equations are compatible only if

2 (r) = k =

Usual to put k = 0 when = 0

+ 2

or

in Polar Coordinates

(12)

Artan 2

in cartesian coordinates (12a)

Note: Artan is the same as tan inverse.

95

SINK

Similarly it can be shown that the stream function for a sink is given by

= 2 =

in Polar Coordinates

(13)

Artan 2

in Cartesian Coordinates

(13a)

96

POINT VORTEX (or POTENTIAL VORTEX)

Also known as irrotational vortex or free vortex.

From equation (5), circulation is defined as

= sin d
For a potential vortex:

or v = v = = r 2

= 2rv 2

u = 0

Integration of the above equations gives

1 =0
(14)

lnr + c 2

97

IMPORTANT NOTE:

The reason why a potential vortex is also called an irrotational vortex is because the circulation around any contour not surrounding the origin is zero

Proof:

98

Circulation around a potential vortex (excluding the origin)

The velocity (v') at A and D =

2r

The velocity (v') at Band C =

2(r + dr)

Note: there is no u' component Segment AD = rd Segment BC = (r + dr)d

Therefore circulation around ABCDA =

99

In real life, because of viscosity, the velocity at the centre of the vortex cannot be infinite, instead

This is called A Rankine Vortex

100

Forced Vortex (or Rotational vortex):

101

Circulation around a forced vortex:

The velocity (v') at A and D = Kr

The velocity (v') at B and C = K(r+dr)

Note: There is no u' component Segment AD = rd Segment BC = (r + dr)d

Therefore circulation around ABCDA =

102

(d) A vortex

Tornado

Waterspout

103

104

Helmholtz Theorem: The circulation around a vortex filament is constant.


(for proof of the theorem, see Fluid Vortices, edited by S.L Green)

In other words, if a vortex filament comes to a waist, where the filament crosssectional area is minimal, the average vorticity over that cross-section must be maximal, and conversely for a broadening of the tube. A related observation is that vortex tube cannot terminate in a fluid because constancy of circulation would not be achieved. Vortex tubes are thus constrained to forming loops entirely within a fluid, or terminating at a solid boundary.

105

Kelvin's Theorem: states that the circulation around a material loop is


time-independent, provided the fluid is inviscid, only subject to potential body forces, and its pressure is a function of density alone, i.e. D =0 Dt

(for proof of this theorem, see Fluid Vortices, edited by S.I. Green)

106

COMPLEX FLOWS:

SOURCE AND UNIFORM FLOW

For uniform flow

1 = -Uy 2 = Q Q y or Artan 2 2 x = 1 + 2 = Uy + Artan 2


(15)

For source

New flow

We now look at the velocity components, this gives d(Artan q) 1 dq = ) ds 1 + q2 ds

(keeping in mmd that

106

u=

Q 1 1 = U + y 2 1 + y 2 x x2 u = U + Qx 2(x 2 + y 2 )
(16)

Similarly

v= =

=
From equation (I7)

Q 1 y 2 1 + y 2 x2 x2 Qy 2(x 2 + y 2 )
(17)

Stagnation Point is defined as a place where u = v = 0 and is located at x0, y0 .

y0 = 0 since v = 0 at y = 0

Therefore stagnation point lies on x-axis

From equation (16) Q (this is obtained by putting y = 0 and 2U solve for x) Q , 0 2U

x0 =

Therefore, Stagnation point is located at

110

Let us now locate streamline where = 0 = 0 = Uy + Q y Artan 2 x y=0

Here we note that the solution has two branches one is when: 2Uy Q

The other is when

x = ycot

()

This is a curve which looks like

y R

For : x is indeterminate since x = y 2yU =0 tan Q


=0 2U

0 0 we need to use LHospitals rule to find x x = lim

x = lim

2yU sec 2 Q Q
111

Q (see x0 from before) 2U

HENCE the curve passes through stagnation point.

For the coordinates of R: Put x = 0 in equation (17a), we get 2Uy = 2 Q When x , Q 4U

y=

2Uy Q y

Q 2

Since no fluid can cross a streamline, now any streamline may be replaced by a solid boundary.

112

Hence, we could say that we have solved for flow about a body whose shape is given by x=y cot2Uy Q

(18)

and is in a uniform flow field U.

113

SOURCE - SINK PAIR

For source:

For sink:

B =

A =

QA 2

Therefore, combine flow

Q B 2

= A + B =

or

Therefore if is constant then = constant.

Q where = (A B ) 2

Q ( B ) 2 A (19)

From geometry P must lie on a circle passing through A and B

114

For the above diagram, we can determine the centre and radius of the circle. For the radius

From (19),

r = s cosec () = 2 Q

sin =

s r

(19a)

Substituting into equation (19a), we get r = s cosec ( For the centre s 2 Since tan = , b = s cot = s cot b Q Therefore, circle has center 0, s cot 2 ) Q

2 Q
115

In rectangular coordinates
tanB = y x+s

tanA =

tan(A B ) =

y xs

Hence,
=

x2

2sy + y 2 s2

Q Q 2sy = tan1 2 2 2 x + y 2 s2

(20)

116

A SOURCE-SINK PAIR IN UNIFORM FLOW

Source-sink pair:

Uniform flow (from right to left): Combined flow:

A =

B = Uy =

Q ( B ) 2 A

= A + B

Let = (A B )

Q ( B ) Uy 2 A

()

Express in Cartesian coordinates


tan = tanA tanB 1 + tanA tanB

tanA tanB = Artan 1 + tanA tanB

117

0 when y = 0 if

y y Q x x + = Uy + Artan 2 y 2 1+ 2 x 2

y y = Artan x x2+ y 1+ 2 x 2

or

y y 2Uy x x2+ s = tan y Q 1+ 2 2 x

x 2 2 + y 2 = 2sy cot

2y 2Uy = tan x 2 2 + y 2 Q

x2 y2 y Us + 1 = 2 cot 2 2 2 Q

2Uy Q

(22)

This is an equation of an OVAL shaped curve whose shape depends on parameter (Uy/Q) and it "scales" with s, i.e. if you double s, you double all other dimensions.

118

As before, we can replace oval shaped curve streamline with a solid body

Therefore, we have solved the problem of flow about a body given by


x2 y2 y Us y + 2 1 = 2 cot 2 2 Q

(23)

This is called FULL RANKINE BODY

119

DOUBLET
A source-sink pair in which the distance of separation 2s 0, and Q such that their product 2sQ = constant = (where is the strength of the doublet).

= =

Q ( B ) 2 A Q 2sin 2 r sin 2 r Q 2

where = 2Q

For = constant,

or

sin = C1 r r = C2 sin This is a circle with centre on y-axis.


120

In Cartesian coordinates = y 2 x 2 + y 2 (doublet)

121

A DOUBLET IN UNIFORM FLOW: Flow past a circular cylinder

For a doublet:

A =

or

y 2 x 2 + y 2 Qs y x2 + y2

For uniform flow (right to left): = Uy +

Combined flow

Q y x2 + y2

B = Uy

(24)

The streamline = 0 is given by or x 2 + y 2 = Q = a2 U

y=0

(equation of a circle with radius a)

Q where a = U
122

Hence we have a circular boundary

Rewriting equation (24) in term of a and polar coordinates 2 2

= 1

(25)

Stream function of a cylinder placed in a free stream going from right to left

123

Pressure Distribution on cylinder:

From equation (25) 1 2 = = cos 1 2

2 = sin 1 + 2 =

on the surface of the body, i.e. r = a


u = 0

and

v'= 2U sin (which is maximum at = 90 and 270)

124

Applying Bernoulli's equation


1 1 + 2 = + (2 + 2 ) 2 2
static pressure at cylinder
1 2 1 2

free stream static pressure

i.e.

+ 2 = + (0 + 4 2 sin2 ) 1 = + (1 4 2 sin2 ) 2 = = (1 4sin2 ) 1 2 2

Pressure coefficient

In other words, is a function of only. Note: (i) At S, = 0 or 180,

Therefore sin = 0 CP = 1

125

(ii)

At =

Therefore, CP = 0

5 (. . 30) (. . 150) 6 6 1 1 sin = sin2 = 2 4 i.e. P = P

Therefore, if holes are drilled at = 30 and 150, they can be used to measure free stream static pressure. (iii) At = 3 (. . 90) and ( . . 270) 2 2 CP = -3

sin = l

Therefore

126

It can be shown that for a potential flow past a circular cylinder that Lift = 0 Drag = 0

Drag = cos
0

Lift = sin
0 2

The above results, which is based on ideal-flow analysis, show that a cylinder placed in a free stream experiences no drag force. In fact, it can be shown from the above theory that any SYMMETRICAL BODY placed in a free stream along the axis of symmetry should experience no drag force.

D'Alembert Paradox: Even though the above analysis shows that a cylinder or any symmetrical body placed in a free stream experiences no drag force, however, in real life (viscous fluid), the body does experience a drag. This paradoxical behaviour is referred to as D'Alembert Paradox

127

FLOW WITH CIRCULATION ROUND A CIRCULAR CYLINDER IN UNIFORM FLOW

As discussed earlier, flow past a circular cylinder generates no lift. In order to get lift, we need to introduce circulation to the cylinder. This can be achieved by using point vortex.

Flow past a cylinder

Point vortex

Flow past rotating cylinder

For flow past a circular cylinder: (note: the flow is from right to left)

2 = 1 2 = ln 2

For a point vortex (anticlockwise):

128

Combined flow:

2 = sin 1 2 ln 2 1 2 u = = cos 1 2

= A + B

()

2 1 v = = sin 1 + 2 + 2

On the surface of cylinder, r = a

u' = 0 v = 2sin + Put = 0 2

At stagnation point u' = v' = 0

2sin0 +

=0 2
129

or

sin0 =

()

130

|| <

Anti-clockwise rotation

Clockwise rotation

131

|| =

132

No real solution exist on r = a,

For || >

:. we need to go somewhere else for stagnation point 2 At stagnation point, u = 0 = 1 2 cos

If r a, cos = 0 or sin = 1.In other words, stagnation point lies on y-axis, but why on y-axis?? v' = 0 2 sin 1 + 2 + =0 2 2 1 + 2 + =0 2 2 1 2 + =0 2 2 + 2 = 0 2

For sin = -1

b b 2 4 = 2 This has real roots if > 4Ua

where b =

, = 1, = 2 2

133

For sin = 1, no real roots (exercise: show this)

134

Pressure Distribution Around A Rotating Cylinder

Let P be the static pressure at some point P(a, ) Applying Bernoulli's equation along the streamline = 0, 1 1 + 2 = + 2 = H (total pressure) 2 2 1 = 2 2 1 2 = 2sin + 2 2

1 2sin 2 2 2 = 4 sin + + 2 2 2 4

Let us now determine the lift developed Let L = Lift

135

1 2sin2 2 2 3 + 2 2 sin d sin + 4 sin + 2 4

= sin
0

1 = 2 2 Therefore

1 2 []0 = 2

1 2 2 (1 cos2) + 2 2 sin d sin + (3sin sin3) + 2 4

L = U (lift per unit length)

Hence for finite span b L = U b Note: L = U (lift per unit length)

(28)

(a) (b)

L generated by circulation here is called Magnus Effect. L is perpendicular to U.

136

(c)

L is independent of the radius "a" of the cylinder. Therefore a line vortex of strength , moves with velocity U will also experience a lateral force (perpendicular to U) of U /unit length of vortex.

(d)

Real life examples of Magnus Effect are spinning of a golf ball, or table tennis ball or lawn tennis ball.

137

The experimental Flettner rotor sailboat at the University of Rhode Island.

138

THE CONCEPT OF VELOCITY POTENTIAL


The velocity potential is represented by (Greek letter phi) and is defined by the following expression

d = sind Then = sind


or

d = sin (in streamline coordinate) d

In Cartesian coordinate, it can be shown that d = ; d irrotationality. d = ; d d = d

Alternatively, the velocity potential can be defined from the condition of


139

If the flow is irrotational, the vorticity () = 0 but = x V = 0 (curl of velocity) where =


From vector algebra x V = 0 where is a scalar function. Compare this equation with the one above show that V =

d = ; d

d = ; d

d = d

Hence is the potential function of velocity


Question: What equation does obey? From the continuity equation + =0 Since u = Therefore and and =

2 = 2

2 = 2

substituting these into the continuity equation, we get

140

or

Hence like , follows LAPLACE'S EQUATION.


Same rules apply, i.e

(1) (2)

It is linear Complex solutions can be obtained from the addition of simple solutions.

Note: (1) By definition, the existence of potential function implies that the flow is irrotational, i.e. vorticity = 0. (2) and are given by Cartesian Co-ordinates: (30)

(31)

Polar Co-ordinates: (32)

(33)

141

Relationship between stream function () and potential function () In the previous section, it was learned that lines of constant formed a set of streamlines. We are now going to show that lines of constant or potential lines, form a family of curves which intersect the streamlines at right angle.

From calculus, it can be shown that, d = dx + dy x y

For a line of constant , d =0.

dx + dy = 0 x y

Solving for the slope, we get dy u = x = dx constant v y

Similarly, for stream function

d =

dx + dy x y

For the line of constant (streamline), we get dx + dy = 0 x y


142

dy v = x = u dx constant y Hence dy 1 = dy dx constant dx constant

Therefore lines of constant is perpendicular to lines of constant . The two sets of curves hence form an ORTHOGONAL GRID SYSTEM or FLOW NETS

143

Examples: In a uniform flow field

Sink

Point vortex

144

Doublet

145

SUMMARY OF FLOWS

146

147

148

Method of Images
The previous solutions have all been for unbounded flows, such as a circular cylinder immersed in a broad expanse of uniformly streaming fluid. However, many practical problems involve a nearby rigid boundary constraining the flow. For example, (1) an aerofoil near the ground, simulating landing or take off, or (2) a cylinder mounted in a wind tunnel with narrow walls. In such cases the basic unbounded-potential-flow solutions can be modified for wall effects by the method of images.

Consider a line source placed a distance from a wall as shown below. To create the desired wall, an image source of identical strength is placed the same distance below the wall. By symmetry the two sources create a plane-surface streamline between them, which is taken to be the wall.

149

Determination of forces acting on the wall

Therefore, the combined flow field is given by


= 1 + 2 = where Q ( + 2 ) 2 1

tan 1 =

tan 2 =

y h rsin h = x rcos

y + h rsin + h = x rcos
150

It can be shown velocity at any point along the wall due to source 1 is given by
u1 = Q 21

Similarly the velocity at the wall due to source 2 is u2 = Q 22

Therefore horizontal component of the total velocity is U= Q 1 1 + cos 2 r1 r2

If the pressure at the wall is Pw, therefore from Bernoulli's equation 1 1 2 P + 2 = P U 2 2

It can be shown that in term of h, the above equation becomes 1 Q2 Pw = P 2 2 sin2 cos 2 2 h For the force on the wall, F = Pw ()dx

1 Q cos Q cos 2 Pw = P + 2 2 r1 2 r2

Similarly,

F = Pw ()
0

h d sin2

151

A Point Vortex Near A Wall


For a vortex near a wall, an image vortex of the opposite rotation must be located the same distance below the wall. But of course the pattern could also be interpreted as the flow near a vortex pair in an unbounded fluid.

The pressure distribution, due to the vortex, along the wall can be determined in a similar fashion as the one shown above.

A Point Sink Near A Wall

152

A Source Trapped In A Corner


The number of image vortices required to simulate the flow is as shown below.

A Point Vortex Trapped In A Corner

153

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