Fingerprints

What are fingerprints?

Friction ridges are found on the skin of:
palms of hands palmar aspect of fingers soles of feet solar aspect of toes

Designed by nature for firmer grip and resistance to slippage

Skin Surface
Outer, surface layer of skin is the epidermis The inner layer of skin is the dermis Between these two are the dermal papillae Papillary pattern determines the form and pattern of the friction ridges on skin surface

Skin Structure
Each skin ridge is populated by a single row of pores that are openings for ducts leading from the sweat glands. Perspiration is discharged and deposited on the surface of the skin through these pores. If a finger touches a surface, perspiration and oils from the body hairy parts are transferred onto the surface leaving an impression of the fingers ridge patterns. This is what is known as a fingerprint

History
1880: Henry Fauld
thought skin ridge patterns were an infallible proof of identification.

1883: Bertillon
system of identification involved body measurements.

1892: Francis Galton

textbook Finger Prints caused Government to adopt system as a supplement to the Bertillon system.

First Principle:

Finger Prints are Unique

Millions of prints taken over 90 years No two fingers have yet been found to have identical ridge characteristics (minutiae) Identical (monozygous) twins
have same DNA have different fingerprints

Identifying Fingerprints
Individuality of a fingerprint is determined by a careful study of its ridge characteristics (minutiae)
ridge endings, bifurcations, enclosures etc.

For two prints to be identical, they must have the same characteristics (minutiae) at the same relative location

Basic and composite ridge characteristics (minutiae)

Minutiae Example Minutiae Example

ridge ending

bridge

bifurcation

double bifurcation

dot

trifurcation

island (short ridge)

opposed bifurcations

lake (enclosure)

ridge crossing

hook (spur)

opposed bifurcation/ridge ending

Minutiae

Incipient Ridges

How Many?
Up to 150 individual ridge characteristics on the average fingerprint At crime scenes only partial prints are usually recovered Only a small number of ridge characteristics can usually be compared 16 matching characteristics have been suggested to establish uniqueness of a print

Second Principle:

Fingerprints Remain Unchanged

Friction ridge pattern of skin develops at 10.5 weeks gestation Pattern remains unchanged throughout life

Can a fingerprint be changed?

Impossible to do, but there has never been a lack of trying
John Dillinger

To change the pattern requires obliteration of the dermal papillae (1- 2 mm deep) Attempts to destroy pattern causes disruption, irreversibly adding more detail!

Left Middle Finger

This permanent scar irreversibly changes the fingerprint.

It starts near the core of the loop and passes to the right of the screen.

Third Principle

General Patterns enable Systematic Classification

The 3 basic fingerprint patterns
loops (60-65% of population) arches (5%) whorls (30-35%)

Each finger can have a different classification

What makes a loop a loop?

Must have one or more ridges enter from one side of the print, curve and leave from the same side. The pattern area of the loop is surrounded by two diverging ridges known as type lines. The ridge point nearest the type line divergence is known as the delta. The approximate centre is called the core.

Loops
65% of population have loops All loops must have one delta. If the loop opens toward the little finger then it is a ulnar loop. If the loop opens towards the thumb then it is a radial loop.

Right Loop Enters & Exits from Right

Left Loop Enters & exits from Left

Left Middle Fingerprint

This is an ulnar loop

What makes an arch an arch?

They are divided into two distinct groups:
plain arches tented arches

Ridges enter from one side of the print and exit on the opposite side Arches do not have type lines, deltas, or cores.

Arches
Arches tend to rise in the centre of the pattern forming a wavelike pattern. Plain arch has only a gentle rise. Tented arch has a sharp rise in the centre, similar to a spike. The ridges meet at an angle that is less than 90 degrees and looks similar to a loop, but the ridge exits on the opposite side to where it entered.

Plain Arch

Tented Arch

What makes a whorl a whorl?

They are divided into four distinct groups:
plain central pocket loop double loop accidental

All whorl patterns must have type lines and at least two deltas

Whorls
The double loop whorl is made up of two loops combined into one fingerprint. An accidental pattern contains two or more patterns, but not the plain arch, and is not covered by other categories. It may consist of a combination loop and plain whorl or loop and tented arch.

How do you tell them apart?

A plain whorl and a central pocket whorl have a least one ridge that makes a complete circuit. Draw an imaginary line between the two deltas contained within these two patterns. If the line touches any one of the spiral ridges, the pattern is a plain whorl. If no ridge is touched, it is a central pocket whorl.

Whorl

Central Pocket Loop

The Accidental

Classification
Once fingerprints are recorded, a system is required to describe and place them in logical order Different classification systems English-speaking countries use system created by Sir Edward Richard Henry

Henry System of Classification

Fingers arranged in pairs:
R Index & R Thumb R Ring & R Middle L Thumb & R Little L Middle & L Index L Little & L Ring

Whorl pattern on either finger of pair, scored as

16 8 4 2 1

Expressed as fraction. 1 added to numerator & denominator e.g. Whorls on R Index & R Middle fingers
16 0 + + 0 8 + + 0 0 + + 0 0 + + 0 0 + + 1 = 17 1 9

25% population are 1/1 (no whorls)

Impression vs. Print

Impression
3-D in soft surface often visible

Print
2-D transfer of skin perspiration/oils foreign substance usually latent

Terminology
Three types of print:
1. Patent: visible to the naked eye 2. Plastic: a 3-D fingerprint 3. Latent: hidden or invisible

Latent Fingerprints
Made by natural body secretions of the hands and fingers (perspiration & grease) Invisible to naked eye On porous & non-porous surfaces Require enhancement to make visible
powders Chemicals fluorescence

Powder Techniques
Used on non-absorbent surfaces Tipped or softly brushed on Various types
Black powder (carbon) Grey powder (Aluminum dust) Magnetic-Sensitive Powder (Magnabrush) Fluorescent Powder (seen in UV light)

Powder Application & Removal

Powder is brushed on carefully Excess is removed Print lifted with broad adhesive tape/pad Transferred by sticking tape onto card

Chemical Techniques for Latent Prints

Iodine Fuming Ninhydrin Super Glue Fuming

Iodine Fuming
Oldest technique for latent prints Iodine crystal sublimes in Fuming Cabinet Iodine reacts with fatty oils or perspiration Print fades rapidly Fixed by spraying with 1% starch solution (blue) Slightly toxic

Ninhydrin
Ninhydrin (triketohydrindene hydrate) For latent prints on paper & porous surfaces Easy to use & sensitive Sprayed on reacts with amino acids in perspiration Prints appear 1-2 hours
weak prints up to 48 hours, hastened by heat

Super Glue Fuming

Cyanoacrylate ester (Super Glue) Fuming by heat or NaOH in cabinet Fuming wand for use at scene (inside a car) Non-porous surfaces
metal, tape, leather, plastic

White prints appear in a few hours Very toxic

Fluorescence Techniques
Argon-ion Lasers Alternate Light Sources Coloured filters & goggles required

Natural fluorescence by components of perspiration and blood Fluorescent powders Fluorescent dyes
ninhydrin + ZnCl Superglue + Rhodamine

Alternate Light Source

Patent (Visible) Fingerprints

Less common than latent prints Made by fingers coated in foreign substances e.g. blood, grease and ink Found mostly on non-porous surfaces Blood prints indicate association to a serious crime

Visible Print

Plastic Fingerprints
Also called Plastic Impressions 3-D impressions Made in pliable surfaces
Butter Candles wet putty Blu-tac

Preservation of Developed Prints

Once latent print visualized, it must be perfectly preserved for future comparison and possible use in court as evidence.
1. Photograph taken before other attempts at preservation (scale 1:1) 2. Small objects wrapped in cellophane 3. Large objects lifting a. Broad adhesive tape laid over print b. Tape then placed on labeled card that provides good background contrast

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

Prints are digitized by computer scanning Sent to Central computer for comparison with database of records held Computer generates a hitlist Possible matches then checked by expert
new original prints obtained for checking