Kill the Indian in the Child

Kill the Indian in the Child: St. Josephs Residential School and its Dark History Troy Moore University of British Columbia

Kill the Indian in the Child Abstract Five short years ago, the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, stood stoically in front of the nation and apologized for the governments involvement in residential schools. For over a century, residential schools existed in Canada at the request of the Federal government and staffed by the various churches across Canada. The main goal of the schools was to

assimilate the indigenous peoples of Canada. As Stephen Harper (2008) stated, some sought, as it was infamously said, to kill the Indian in the child. The politicians of the day were trying to rid themselves of what they called the Indian problem. What would follow is one of the darkest times in Canadian history. The residential schools would become synonymous with mental, physical, and even sexual abuse. The implications are still felt today in many communities. One such community is Williams Lake, British Columbia. It housed the infamous St. Josephs Mission, whose history is marked with sexual abuse, violence, and even death. The survivors are trying to move forward and let the healing begin. This paper will essentially cover three topics: residential school history and reasoning, St. Josephs Mission and the atrocities of it, and the aftermath. What started over 100 years ago still resonates and impacts today.

Kill the Indian in the Child Introduction Five short years ago, the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, stood stoically in front of the nation and apologized for the governments involvement in residential schools. For over a century, residential schools existed in Canada at the request of the Federal government and staffed by the various churches across Canada. The main goal of the schools was to

assimilate the indigenous peoples of Canada. As Stephen Harper (2008) stated, some sought, as it was infamously said, to kill the Indian in the child. The politicians of the day were trying to rid themselves of what they called the Indian problem. What would follow is one of the darkest times in Canadian history. The residential schools would become synonymous with mental, physical, and even sexual abuse. The implications are still felt today in many communities. One such community is Williams Lake, British Columbia. It housed the infamous St. Josephs Mission, whose history is marked with sexual abuse, violence, and even death. The survivors are trying to move forward and let the healing begin. This paper will essentially cover three topics: residential school history and reasoning, St. Josephs Mission and the atrocities of it, and the aftermath. What started over 100 years ago still resonates and impacts today. Residential Schools Reasoning The Indian problem. Although that sounds trite, to the forefathers of Canada it was a real issue. Colonization was alive and well in Canada. The problem the government faced was three-fold, first, the European settlers believed themselves to be far superior, in every way, to the Aboriginal people of Canada. Secondly, as Milloy (1999) points out, many government officials actually believed that Aboriginal peoples would die off without direct intervention. Third, the

Kill the Indian in the Child west needed to be fully settled and the previous problems were hindering that progress. The

Euro-centric government viewed the Aboriginal peoples as child-like savages (Furniss, 1992, pg. 15), moving from place to place. Not exactly the vision the government had in mind. The Canadian government was stuck, it wanted to settle parts of the west, it needed the Aboriginal people, but, in their view, the indigenous peoples were savages set on self-destruction. They needed to change the Aboriginals to make their problem go away. The answer was assimilation. Historic Events Leading to Residential Schools The idea to assimilate the Aboriginal population into Eurocentric citizens did not occur rapidly. In 1828, Military Secretary to the Governor General, H.C. Darling released a civilization program. The idea was to educate the indigenous peoples, Christianize them, and move them to an agrarian lifestyle of farming (Father Theo, 2011). This could, potentially, solve the Indian problem as it would create self-sufficient communities of happy people. Unfortunately, no one asked the Aboriginal population what they wanted. It was the beginning of a National Aboriginal Education policy (Furniss, 1992, pg. 20). The Bagot Commission of 1842, headed by Governor General, Sir Charles Bagot was the first report to actually call for assimilation (Milloy, 1999, pg. 13). The 1844 report (commission started in 1842, finished and reported out 1844) called for the government to take control of Aboriginal reserves and lists. The report suggested in place of treaty payments, training and tools could be given, thereby allowing Aboriginals to adopt a farming lifestyle. It also called for the formation of schools which could teach the European way of life and lad allotment, but have

Kill the Indian in the Child the secondary purpose of cultural assimilation and remove children from the harmful influence of their parents (Father Theo, 2011).

Following the Bagot Commission, the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 was established. This act allowed people of Aboriginal descent to forego their status and acquire the legal status of Europeans in Canada (Milloy, 1999, 23). Simply put, they would be recognized as people. This was dependent on their moral character. It should be noted in the two decades the Gradual Civilization Act existed, only one person took advantage of the Act. A year later, another commission was struck, the Pennefather Commission of 1858. This commission was to figure out the best way to handle Aboriginal land, without impeding on expansion and offering the tribes the best chance of survival. The Commission wanted to consolidate smaller bands into larger reserves and have individual ownership of Indian lands. This would have eliminated community ownership. Also, once the Aboriginals were self-sufficient and civilized, Indian governance could be removed. (Father Theo, 2011; Milloy, 1999, pg 23) The result of the aforementioned actions was the Indian Lands Act of 1860. This gave the Province of Canada control over Aboriginal affairs. It created a Superintendent of Indian Affairs (Makarenko, 2008). Seven short years later, Canada became a country (dominion) under the British North America Act. What the Act also granted was that in addition to the Indian Lands Act, the Federal government now had official control over all Indian affairs, and named all Natives non-citizens (Furniss, 1992, pg. 22). In 1869, the General Enfranchisement Act was created. The Act effectively did three things: it allowed reserves to have self-governance (in a limited role), it forbade the sale of alcohol to Aboriginal people, and most importantly, it created compulsory enfranchisement (Makarenko, 2008). Under the Gradual Civilization Act, status could only be voluntarily taken away. Under the General Enfranchisement Act, status could be

Kill the Indian in the Child taken. Any Aboriginal woman who married a non-Aboriginal man automatically lost status, as did any child born of those parents. It was the idea of forced assimilation. The Indian Act of 1876 came next. Basically, it was a culmination of previous legislation, with some tweaks. It clearly defined Indian, while refusing status to the Metis of Manitoba because they were mixed (Wells, 2010). It gave the government tremendous power over people and lands. Assimilation and civilization were not specifically named, but were underlined in everything the Act stood for and subsequent changes would only strengthen those ideals. An 1885 amendment created a ban on potlatches and ceremony, stripping culture. A 1911 amendment allowed government to use reserve land for public works, creating an identity that reserve land was unimportant. The government had created legislation designed to assimilate and civilize the savages. They were still seeking an end to the Indian problem. In 1879, they thought they found their solution.

In 1879, the Federal government, specifically Sir John A. Macdonald, appointed Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report on the workings of industrial schools in the United States of America and the advisability of placing them in Canada (Milloy, 1999, pg. 7). Davin, a journalist and defeated Tory candidate, penned the Davin Report which many consider the start of residential schools. It was not, as industrial and day schools already existed in Canada, but it certainly furthered the agenda of assimilation by the government. The report convinced the government it needed aggressive civilization (Partridge, 2010, pg. 46). The report was based upon discussions with the Cherokee and a tour of a dormitory school in Minnesota. Davin was even warned by American politicians it could prove fruitless, as schools were scarce of food, creating distrust (Furniss, 1992, pg. 26). Davin was convinced and the government moved

Kill the Indian in the Child forward, following the Davin Report, creating residential schools. It was believed in order to create the type of assimilation necessary, drastic steps needed to be taken. Essentially, at this point, there were two types of residential school industrial schools,

which focused on trades, and dormitory schools, which the student lives on site. The policy was institutionalized assimilation by stripping culture, language, and separating students from their families. The government justified it by stating they were doing it for the good of the student, keeping them away from the bad influences in their lives (Furniss, 1992, pg. 27). There is no question that in order to assimilate the youth, the government felt they needed removal. The lengths to which they went will be discussed later in this paper. Local Issues In addition to historic reasons for the Indian Problem, the Cariboo also had localized reasons for the government wanting to solve the problem. The Gold Rush, small pox, and the Chilcotin War were all reasons a local residential school (St. Josephs Mission) was necessary. In 1859, gold was discovered in the Cariboo. Fearing a loss of control, James Douglas enforced a claim system. The problem was that much of the area was traditional Aboriginal land to both the Carrier and the Tsilhqotin. The government extended a firm hand over the area and Aboriginal rights were largely ignored. Keep in mind, this is prior to Confederation, or the Indian Act. The Gold Rush would spawn two events that greatly influenced government / Aboriginal relations. The first is the small pox epidemic of 1862. Small pox was introduced to the region by 2 travelers from Ft. Victoria. The government, lead by James Douglas, had introduced a law known as the Pre-emption Act (Wipond, 2012). This act allowed anyone to claim an area that

Kill the Indian in the Child was unoccupied, then apply for ownership. The problem with this is that Aboriginal peoples were not only not told about the law; they were not allowed to use it. This created a lot of ill feelings. In the Cariboo, there is a lot of speculation about this act and the fact that smallpox (a disease which could be controlled, somewhat, by that time and had a vaccine) wiped out a great number of indigenous people. Tom Swanky, author of The True Story of Canadas War of

Extermination on the Pacific, alleges a lot more than that. Swanky alleges that Douglas, through his teams, systematically tried to exterminate the Aboriginal population in British Columbia. A former resident of Quesnel, Swanky tracks the disease through BC and documents raids on Aboriginal villages to get rid of the disease not only unnecessary, but done with extreme prejudice (Swanky, 2012). Granted, although some see his book as conspiracy theory, many residents of the Cariboo see it as something more. Swanky provides a great deal of circumstantial evidence to back up his claim, which took over 10 years of research. He was even once quoted as saying about his book, If you want the land, you have to get rid of the Natives on the land. (Wipond, 2012). Therefore, a small pox outbreak, which some believe was directly ordered by the government, coupled with a law giving ownership to any unoccupied land, created extremely high tensions between Aboriginals and the government. Assimilation was needed to curb the Indian problem. Another local event would strain relations between the government and Aboriginal peoples of the Cariboo, furthering a desire for assimilation and civilization. In 1862, Alfred Waddington lobbies for, and receives, to build a road which would connect to the Cariboo Road from the Bute Inlet, shortening the road. After two years and a lot of work, trouble struck. The next part is open to debate. According to the general story, Tim Smith was killed for refusing to share food, which then escalated to a day attack on road workers for plunder (Mosely, 1864).

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No mention of the fact, that Waddingtons road was to be a toll road. According to the Chilcotin, Tim Smith was killed after an alleged rape of Chilcotin women, and a plan to use small pox to wipe out Aboriginal peoples (Ross, n.d.), in addition, it is speculated that on top of the rape, fences were built around Chilcotin springs and that evidence existed which showed road builders were planning on wiping out the Chilcotin. So after Smith was killed, the Chilcotin group (made up of chiefs) attacked a camp the next day, then some road crews. All in all 19 were killed. James Douglas then sent in a group, led by gold commissioner, William Cox, along with militia, to apprehend the chiefs. Cox promised the chiefs immunity, but then promptly arrested them. They were tried in Quesnel, found guilty, and hung. Why this event occurred is open to debate, however, it shows that in the 1860s relations between the people of the Chilcotin and the government was extremely strained. James Douglas, wanted and needed assimilation. Following the small pox outbreak and the Chilcotin War, and after the end of the Gold Rush, settlers stayed. This encroachment on traditional land further deteriorated relations between government and First Nations. The Cariboo region had become ripe for assimilation. St. Josephs Mission Structure and History Many communities, over the years, supported missionary schools, believing they could help the relationship between the government and local First Nation bands. St. Josephs Mission was no different, at first. In 1866, Father McGuckin was sent to the Cariboo to establish the mission. The next year, in 1867, nestled in the San Jose River Valley at the head of Williams Lake, the St. Josephs Mission school was created with help from Oblates of Mary Immaculate (Story, 2005; Furniss, 1992, pg. 43). In 1872, St. Josephs welcomed its first 11 students. It was

Kill the Indian in the Child imperative at the time for schools to look selfless, as the government needed everyone to think they were creating these schools for the good of the people, not to strip them of culture.

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St. Josephs Mission, like many of its counterparts of the time was a boarding school. St. Josephs Mission (here on after referred to as St. Josephs) drew from a large geographic area including: Kluskus, Nazko, Red Bluff, Alexandria, Soda Creek, Williams Lake (Sugar Cane), Canim Lake, Toosey, Stone, Tsilhqotin, Alexis Creek, Ulkatcho, Xeni Gwetin, Canoe Creek, and Esketemc (Sellars, 2013). In 1886, St. Josephs switched from a mission school to a residential school. (Story, 2005). Residential schools followed a certain structure. First, is that the traditional way of Aboriginal learning, through experience, is wrong and book learning is superior. Second, the priests and sisters that run the schools (in conjunction with the Department of Indian Affairs) are never wrong. Strict discipline, regimented behaviour, and corporal punishment were the Oblates way (Furniss, 1992, pg. 49). In addition, residential schools should be as self-sufficient as possible. Much of the work done by students was used to subsidize the school. Skills were as important (and probably more so) as learning. Boys were instructed in carpentry, blacksmithing, agriculture, shoe or bootmaking, and printing. Girls were instructed in sewing, shirtmaking, knitting, cooking, baking, laundering, dairy, ironing, and gardening (Milloy, 1999, pg. 35). The idea was to give the savages skills which could extend beyond the school. They would take these skills home and further their parents education as well (Partridge, 2010). Everything seemed good, a half day of learning, a half day of work. Unfortunately, the reason for these schools was assimilation and cultural decimation, so nothing was going to be good. In 1894, there were 45 residential schools in Canada, by 1923, there were 72 (Furniss, 1992, pg. 29).

Kill the Indian in the Child Atrocities of Residential Schools

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Until the 1980s, not much had come out about the mistreatment at St. Josephs and other residential schools. However, at St. Josephs, the stories which have come out are horrific. A few will be discussed, as will the treatment in the school. There are two incidents from St. Josephs that caused investigation. During the second year of its existence, St. Josephs refused to release its students for vacation. Schools were funded by days in school, so if students were released they were released for free. St. Josephs refused this and, in fact, to supplement its income began selling agriculture. This angered many local business people, furthering anger towards Aboriginal peoples. In 1899, A.W. Vowell, Superintendent of British Columbian Indians, received anonymous complaints the school was cheap labour and the kids were being mistreated. A surprise inspection was planned. No misdoings were found (Furniss, 1992, 57). In 1902, following an increase in runaways, nine boys escaped in February. Eight of the boys were caught that day. The other, Duncan Sticks, died 13 kilometres from the school. An investigation ensued, led by Indian Agent Bell who discovered abuse. He found the boys were being whipped, but chalked it up to wildness (Milloy, 1999, pg. 143). Bishop Dentenwill furthered that by stating, Indians have a holy horror of anything which smacks [of] system and order (Furniss, 1992, pg. 64). The incident seemed to go away until Mr. Carew-Gibson and former teacher Mr. Brophy asked for an inquest. Although Carew-Gibson was a business man, constantly undercut by the school and Brophy had been fired for being drunk, an investigation ensued. It began February 28th, and lasted five days (Furniss, 1992, pg. 66). What they found was horrifying. Two witnesses, Christine Haines and Ellen Charlie, complained of abuse, including being forced to eat rotten meat, being stripped and beaten, and locked in dark rooms for days on end (Milloy, 1999, pg. 143). One of the other

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runaways, Francois reported being denied food and whipped often. The parents of the children were quoted as saying when the children ran away, they were scared to speak up (Furniss, 1992, pg. 70). Father Boening (the Principal) testified that students were whipped, but it was never excessive. He also stated he was not notified of the runaway for three hours, after which he went in the direction of Canim Lake because he thought Duncan would return to the school. Neither the Chief nor Duncans father was told of the runaway until a day later, when the body was discovered (Furniss, 1992, pg. 77). In addition, Charlies and Haines testimony was discounted due to their character. Vowells inquest wrapped up and blamed the students and stated the school had the best interests at heart. In spite of the good interests of the school, runaways became so common at St. Josephs by 1910 boys were not able to work in the fields unsupervised. The second incident which brought attention to St. Josephs was in 1920. Nine boys made a suicide pact and ate water hemlock. Augustine Allan died, but the other eight survived (Furniss, 1992, pg. 92). No inquest was ordered. Sam Basil wrote a letter asking his son to be let out of school due to excessive beatings. Paul Stanislaus (Augustine Allans father) also wrote a letter asking his second son be released from school. His letter reached Indian Agent O Daunt, who was informed of the suicide pact and told Stanislaus had not even been informed of the death prior to burial. O Daunt did not believe in the pact, but was afraid the idea could catch on, so he asked J.D. McLean (Secretary of the Department of Indian Affairs) permission to send in a surprise medical exam (Furniss, 1992, pg. 93). McLean responded by writing the principal asking for a report. Father Maillard (Principal) sent in a report stating if there were complaints, then replace him. McLean then contacted the Inspector of Indian Schools in Vancouver to visit St. Josephs, who submitted a report without ever visiting the school (Furniss, 1992, pg. 97).

Kill the Indian in the Child Another death brushed aside. Recent work by the Indian Residential School Resources (2013)

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has discovered grave sites north of the school grounds and under a tunnel like structure. It begets the questionwere those the only two documented deaths or were there others? In addition to the two documented deaths, students at St. Josephs faced hardships that have only recently come to light. Former chief Bev Sellars discusses these hardships in her book, They Called me Number One. Sellars, a St. Josephs survivor along with her grandmother, Sarah (Baptiste) Sam, offer insight into the real St. Josephs. By 1920, attendance was mandatory at school so few escaped its reach. Sellars went at age 7, three weeks after spending 20 months in the hospital. The law required all Indian, Inuit, and Metis children attend school from 7 until 16. Every year the school would come around in cattle trucks to pick up the indigenous students. The church was paid per student, so getting them was crucial to the school. In addition, parents who refused to allow their children to go to residential school were put in jail (Sellars, 2013, pg. 31). There was a routine central to residential schools in an effort to assimilate students by stripping them of culture and, according to Sellars (2013), St. Josephs followed that routine. All personal belongings were taken away, so a student would not identify with their culture. The student would then be supplied with clothing, usually non-descript, which further eliminated personality and culture. Their hair would then be cut and treated for lice. Sellars states St. Josephs used DDT (a pesticide) which end up banned in Canada because it was so bad for peoples health (37). This allegation is seconded by Maureen Boyd in Nekehkohinkez Mechaikoh huba Nekua natsuwhulnuk. Students would then be given a number, instead of a name. This furthered the culture strip by not allowing them to use their native names. Students were also segregated from their siblings so as to have anything that reminded them of home.

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This was systematic assimilation, actions designed to strip culture. Moreover, sermons from the priests would often include how barbaric their old culture was, forcing shame on the students. Punishments and Way of Life In addition to the delousing and segregation, the staff at St. Josephs was also known for its punishment. If a persons home language was spoken it could result in anything from a beating (Sellars, 2013, pg. 44) to having needles shoved into the tongue (First Nation Study Programs, 2009). The purpose for this was deliberate, not only did it devalue the native language, but it wold create communication problems at home (Partridge, 2010, pg. 50). All elements were designed to belittle, ridicule, and eliminate culture. Punishment could come for anything and often came in two forms at St. Josephs, beatings and kneelings. Beating involved a leather strap usually an inch and a half to two inches wide and up to a foot long. The student would be struck with the strap, even in the face region (Sellars, 2013, 47; Fontaine, 2010, pg. 100). Kneelings would involve being forced in the kneeling position, sometimes overnight (Sellars, 2013, pg. 59). The student would kneel in silence and be forced to reflect on their dirtiness and savagery. The strap was usually preferred. One common thread through all stories about residential schools is food and St. Josephs is no exception. The food was horrible, and many times both Sellars and Sam (2013) had what was known as yellow jaundice, which they would later discover was food poisoning. Although most Aboriginal students could live off the land, the Nuns had done such a good job at discrediting their abilities, they were scared to eat traditional food. St. Josephs had two separate food programs, one for staff and one for students. Students were often forced to eat rotten meat. If the meat was not eaten, it became soup. If it still was not eaten it became that nights supper

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and so on. In fact, Sellars (2013) remembers rotten macaroni being served and one girl who had scraped her plate being forced to eat out of the garbage (58). All of these elements were calculated. They were done in such a way as to make the students feel themselves and their culture was inferior. However, perhaps the most heinous action to occur at residential schools was the sexual abuse. Sellars (2013), acknowledges being physically, mentally, and sexually abused. The abuse from St. Josephs finally came out in the 1980s. Aftermath The aftermath from St. Josephs is numerous. This paper starts out five years ago and Stephen Harpers apology. He apologizes for the atrocities faced at residential schools. It is an apology that is too little, too late for many residential school survivors (Sellars, 2013; Fontaine, 2010; Wells, 2010). However, one thing the apology did was validate the claim of how bad residential schools were for Aboriginal students. The allegations from St. Josephs began to come to light in the 1980s and it was worse than most people feared. Shortly after it shut down in 1981, St. Josephs became synonymous with sexual abuse and assault. Investigations started and in June of 1989, Father McIntee was given two years in jail and three years probation for the sexual assault of 17 boys in the 1950s and 60s (Sellars, 2013; Furniss, 1992; National Womens Association of Canada, 1992). In 1990, Brother Doughty was charged with 5 counts of gross indecency and indecent assault (Sellars, 2013; National Womens Association of Canada, 1992). The worst was yet to come. In 1996, after five years, Bishop Hubert OConnor was charged with one count of rape and one count of indecent assault (Brunet, 1997), making him the highest catholic to be charged with a sex crime.

Kill the Indian in the Child He later tried to say that the sex he had was consensual (Rape or mere abuse?, 1996), yet

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according to Bev Sellars, OConnor raped numerous girls at Expo 1967, but in residential school tradition it was covered up (Sellars, 2013, pg. 91). Sexual abuse was rampant at St. Josephs. A study by Roland Chrisjohn in 1991 surveyed 187 St. Joseph survivors and found 89 of them were abused, 38 said no abuse, and 60 refused to answer (Robertson, 2006, pg. 6). That means a potential 149 cases of abuse out of 187 students. Following the convictions, lawsuits started. In 1997, more than 300 Alkali Lake survivors planned a lawsuit (Brunet, 1997). Moreover, just prior to going to court, 10 men from St. Josephs settled with the church in 1998 (Malcolm, 1998). Lawsuits will not repair the damage done to people, but may offer some form of restitution or closure for some. In 2013, the resiliency of St. Josephs survivors was front and center as a commemoration was planned in May. Two memorials were created, one for a Williams Lake Park, and the other on the school site to honour the survivors (CBC News, 2013). In addition, in September 2013, a day of orange will be planned to honour all those survived St. Josephs and all residential schools. Conclusion Residential schools are a black eye in Canadas history. The systematic destruction of Aboriginal culture still resonates today. Many tribes struggled to find their identity today. Abuse, psychological, mental, and sexual became commonplace in many of the church run schools. The government, in conjunction with the church, saw a way to assimilate the Aboriginal people of Canada. A way to end what they described as the Indian problem. A way

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to establish their dominance over what they viewed as an inferior, savage culture. They created the schools to civilize the uncivilized, and no amount of apology will make up for that.

Kill the Indian in the Child References

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Brunet, R. (1997). Abuse becomes a growth industry: Alkali Lake natives prepare a massive suit over an RC mission school. BC Report, 8 (35), 24. Carrier Nation Elders & Storytellers. (2013). Nekehkohinkez Nechaikoh huba Nekua natsuwhulnuk. Quesnel, BC: Big Country Printers. CBC News. (2013, April 25). Residential school survivors gather at Williams Lake site. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2013/04/24/bcst-josepho-memorial.html Father Theo (2011, February 28). Chronicle of Canadian Aboriginal Policy. [blog]. Retrieved from http://fathertheo.wordpress.com/2011/02/28/chronicle-of-canadian-aboriginalpolicy-1828-to-1876/ First Nations Study Programs (2009). The Residential School System. Retrieved from http://www.indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-residentialschool-system.html Fontaine, T. (2010). Broken Circle: The dark legacy of Indian residential school: A memoir. Victoria, Vancouver, BC: Heritage House. Furniss, E. (1992). Victims of Benevolence: The dark legacy of Williams Lake residential school. Vancouver, BC: Arsenal Pulp Press.

Kill the Indian in the Child Harper, S. (2008). Statement of apology: to former students of Indian residential schools. Retrieved from http://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100015644/11001000015649

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Indian Residential School Resources (2013). St. Josephs Mission Williams Lake. Retrieved from http://irsr.ca/williams-lake-indian-residential-school. Makarenko, J. (2008). Early Foundations of the Indian Act. Retrieved from http://www.mapleleafweb.com/features/the-indian-act-historical-overview#assimilation Malcolm, T. (1998). Government, church, Indians settle school abuse case. National Catholic Reporter, 35 (5), 9. Milloy, J.S. (1999). A National Crime: The Canadian government and the residential school system, 1879 to 1986. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press. Mosely, E. (1864, May 12). A survivors account. Daily Chronicle. National Womens Association of Canada. (1992). Institutional Abuse and Public Response: A discussion paper. Retrieved from http://nwac.ca/files/reports/InstitutionalAbusePublicResponse.pdf Partridge, C. (2010). Residential schools: The intergenerational impacts on Aboriginal peoples. Native Social Work Journal, 7, 33-62. Rape or mere abuse of authority? Ex-bishop OConnors conviction could redefine sexual assault. (1996, Aug 12). Western Report, 11 (30), 32-33. Robertson, L.H. (2006). The residential school experience: syndrome or historic trauma? Pimatisiwin, 4(1).

Kill the Indian in the Child Ross, R.S. (n.d.). The Tsilhqot'in War, 1864. Retrieved from http://itsmysite.com/cgibin/itsmy/go.exe?page=10&domain=1&webdir=bchistory

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Sellars, B. (2013). They Called me Number One: Secrets and survival at an Indian residential school. Vancouver, BC: Talon Books. Story, W. (2005). St. Josephs Timeline. Retrieved from http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/ ~bccaribo/StJoseph.html. Swanky, T. (2012). The True Story of Canada's War of Extermination on the Pacific, plus the Tsilhqotin and other First Nations resistance. Burnaby, BC: Dragon Heart Enterprises. Wells, R.P. (2010). Wawahte: The northern lights are spirit angels that lift us to our feet when our wongs have trouble remembering how to fly. Victoria, BC: Trafford Publishing. Wipond, R. (2012). Infected at Birth. FocusOnline. Retrieved from http://www.focusonline.ca/?q=node/413.