Uniwersytet Mikoaja Kopernika Wydzia Filologiczny Katedra Filologii Angielskiej

ukasz Motkowski
Nr albumu: 139873

Praca magisterska na kierunku: filologia angielska

Mechanisms of foreignisation and domestication in translations of science fiction literature

(on the basis of George Lucass Star Wars)
Mechanizmy adaptacji i wyobcowania w tumaczeniach literatury science fiction, na podstawie Gwiezdnych wojen Georgea Lucasa

Praca wykonana pod kierunkiem Dr Ewy Kociakowskiej-Okoskiej Katedra Filologii Angielskiej UMK

Toru 2006

Contents/Spis treci Introduction ............................................................................................................ 4 Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms ................... 6 1.1 Foreignisation and domestication ................................................................ 6 1.1.1 Definitions............................................................................................. 6 1.1.2 Brief history .......................................................................................... 7 1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida........................................... 9 1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation ... 10 1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework........................................................... 11 1.2 Proper names.............................................................................................. 12 1.2.1 Classification of proper names............................................................ 13 1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures........................................ 15 1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures ............................ 15 1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures...................................................... 16 1.3.3 Newmarks procedures ....................................................................... 18 1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names .................. 20 1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by Kwieciski.................................................................................................... 21 Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its representative ........... 25 2.1 Introduction to science-fiction ................................................................... 25 2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction................................ 28 2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known representatives.............................................................................................. 31 2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction......................................... 38 2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars ...................................................................... 39 2.3 Science-fiction in Poland ........................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study................................................. 45 3.1 The research ............................................................................................... 45 2

3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study .................................................. 46 3.1.2 Applied methodology.......................................................................... 48 3.1.3 Projected results .................................................................................. 49 3.1.4 Abbreviations ...................................................................................... 50 3.1.5 Subcategory Locations: ................................................................... 50 3.1.6 Subcategory Characters ................................................................... 54 3.1.7 Subcategory Vehicles and starships ................................................ 57 3.1.8 Subcategory Organisations.............................................................. 62 3.1.9 Subcategory Other ........................................................................... 65 3.2 Research summary ..................................................................................... 68 3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results .................................................... 70 Conclusion............................................................................................................ 72 Bibliography......................................................................................................... 74 Primary sources:............................................................................................... 74 Material sources: .............................................................................................. 75 Streszczenie.......................................................................................................... 77 Appendix A: Campbells Heros Journey and Star Wars ................................ 80 Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items................................ 81 Appendix C: Details concerning the main research............................................. 83 Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among SF readers......... 84 Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa ................................................... 86 Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz......................................... 88 Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymaski.................................................. 91

Introduction

The focus of the present thesis is to explore the notions of foreignisation and domestication and their application through different procedures to translations of contemporary literature. In order to estimate the possible dominance of one of the above strategies over the other, a study will be made on a body of contemporary, science fiction literature. George Lucass Star Wars series was selected as the genres representative, due to its popularity among science fiction (SF) readers and critics today. The notions of foreignisation and domestication, though formulated and defined only recently, have dominated the discipline of translation since its very beginnings. They are respectively connected with the word-for-word and sense-for-sense strategies of translation, which have been in use since the times of ancient Rome. The former term was regarded as means of transferring the source text literally into the target text, thus preserving the original style and introducing alien vocabulary. Sense-for-sense renditions, on the other hand, aim at a fluent and intelligible target text, even at the expense of terminological precision. As a result, the original passages were transformed into the target version rather than translated, often through the deletion or substitution of elements typical for the source culture. The domesticating sense-for-sense strategy was the dominant approach in translation until only recently. The 19th century saw a tendency towards the foreign, expressed mainly through the theories put forward by Friedrich Schleiermacher, who stated that the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). His views were later

revised by Venuti, who regarded foreignisation as a means of combating the dominant, assimilative position of the English-language culture. The results of the main research will allow, first and foremost, to identify the dominant translation strategy in Polish renditions of popular literature. They will also make it possible to measure the degree of tolerance, or resistance, to the foreign element in Polish SF. The present thesis is comprised of three chapters. Chapter 1 introduces relevant theoretical background, essential for further study of the subject matter. It explores the notions of foreignisation and domestication, provides their definitions of them and presents them in a historical context, along with contemporary approaches to the problem. Since the study is to be conducted on proper names, the chapter will also provide their established definitions and classifications. The chapter will conclude with the presentation of popular classifications of translation procedures. Chapter 2 aims at a concise but informative presentation of the science fiction genre. After providing its established definitions, the chapter will present key terminology concerned with SF, as well as its brief historical outline. It will then move on to Star Wars, defining and enumerating its influences and setting it against a general background of the SF genre. Finally, the Chapter will conclude with a brief look on the Polish SF tradition in order to present the rich heritage of Polish SF literature. Chapter 3 will present a detailed account of the materials on which the main study is conducted. It will also provide details concerning the methodology of the study and projected results, based on theories presented in Chapter 2. Following the summary of results of the main study, the chapter will provide details and outcome of the research conducted among a group of SF readers. A comparison of the results of the two studies will conclude the chapter.

Chapter 1: Outline of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms

Chapter 1 aims at providing theoretical background with reference to the subject matter of the present dissertation. Consequently, it will primarily deal with foreignisation and domestication mechanisms, providing definitions, brief history and examples of contemporary approaches to the notions in question. Definition of proper names will be supplied, followed by their classification by Newmark and Vermes. The chapter will conclude with a definition of translation strategies and procedures, and their major categorisations. 1.1 Foreignisation and domestication The terms foreignisation and domestication have been coined by Venuti as means of providing general classification for translation procedures (see 1.3). He defines them in detail in his influential work, titled The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). 1.1.1 Definitions According to Ventui (1995: 19-20), a foreignising strategy consists in acquiring a translation method which does not conform to norms and values prevalent within the target language system. Employing such an approach, which preserves linguistic and cultural differences between the two systems, requires a translation style designed to make the intervention of the translator visible (Munday 2001: 147), resulting in a non-fluent, alienating TT (Baker 1998: 243). This effect is usually achieved through close reconstruction of the ST structure and syntax in the TT and importation of foreign cultural forms. 6

Domesticating translation strategy, as a contrast, entails an appropriation, or reduction (Venuti 1995: 20), of the foreign text into target-language conventions and makes use of stylistic devices, which provide for a transparent and fluent reading, minimizing the foreigness of the TT (Munday 2001: 146). Domestication is also said to involve selecting texts which adhere to domestic literary canons, resulting in a conservative and openly assimilationist approach to the foreign text (Baker 1998: 242), which is to serve domestic publishing trends and political alignments. 1.1.2 Brief history Domestication strategies were in common use since ancient Rome, chiefly as means of conquering the SL (Baker 1998: 241). Latin translators not only deleted culturally specific markers, but also added allusions to Roman culture and deleted resistant passages (Kwieciski 2001: 17), that is to say, lexical elements which required a great deal of study since they could easily by misinterpreted. The largest step for the formulation of domesticating translation theory is considered to be made by St. Jerome, the author of Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible commissioned in 384 CE. Following remarks offered earlier by Cicero, he identified the notion of word-for-word translation, a foreignising strategy, and opposed it with a domesticating alternative, a sense-for-sense strategy, as the correct method to render SL text, thus introducing an important distinction, which shed new light on the study of foreignisation and domestication. The use of exoticisms in translation was advocated by Augustine, due to concerns about the reaction of the Christian community to the unfamiliar features of Jeromes Latin text of the Bible. He does, however, oppose the use of Greek calques should these be incompatible with Latin or resistant.

Bible translation became a key issue, around which different approaches to translation surfaced (Bassnett 1991: 47). The domesticating strategy was employed in the Wycliffite Bible translation, where the sense-for-sense strategy aimed at rending the text in a common language so that the Holy Scripture be accessible to a layman, and not loosing scholarly accuracy at the same time. Renaissance largely contributed to the development of the domesticating theory. The use of contemporary idiom and style was much advocated; in his Circular Letter of Translation (1530), Martin Luter emphasised the necessity to rely on the common language (Kwieciski 2001: 24). He recognised that exoticisms in certain cases cannot and should not be avoided, provided that the translator uses them after careful historical and philological study. The 17th century translation style pushed domestication beyond earlier limits. Abraham Cowleys comments in his Preface to his Pindarique Odes (1656), in which he states that he has taken, left out and added what I please (Bassnett 1991: 56) while translating, are highly symptomatic of the general atmosphere affected by the Counter-Reformation movement. The first systematic approach to the issue of translation strategies was offered in 1791 by A.F. Tyler in his Essay on the Principles of Translation. In it he points to three laws which should govern translation in general: a) the rendering is to be carried out sense-for-sense; b) style and register are to remain invariant; c) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition (Kwieciski 2001: 35). The 19th century saw a turn towards the foreign in thinking on translation. This new tendency, visible in the works of Shelly and Goethe, claimed translation to be a mechanical function, which consists merely of making known a given text or author to the reader (Bassnett 1991: 66). This approach is conveyed in the theories offered by Friedrick Schleiermacher in his lecture ber die verschiedenen Methoden des bersetzens (1813). The document deals with 8

two opposite concepts, the foreginising reader-to-author strategy and the domesticating author-to-reader strategy with no in-between area (Kwieciski 2001: 39). The former option was favoured, through the use of which consciously archaic translations were produced, aimed at a minority of learned readers. Indeed, the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). 1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida A significant shift in translation theory was brought forth by the influential theories of Eugene Nida, who addressed the issue of translation correspondence through the viewpoint of the receptor of the text. It is suggested that audience design has profound impact on the shape of the target text, and therefore different translations will be correct for different readerships (Fawcett 1997: 56). Thus, meaning is to have precedence before style, the TT aiming at being an equivalent of ST rather than its identical representation. This return to Augustinian principles of sense-for-sense translations is exemplified by Nidas formulation of notions of formal and dynamic equivalence. The latter, domesticating strategy was seen as privileged since it aimed at complete naturalness of expression and finding the closest natural equivalent to the SL message (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence acknowledged situations where foreign associations can hardly be avoided, in which case the use of importation combined with intratextual covert glosses was suggested as the proper way of approaching the foreign. Translations in the formal equivalence manner on the other hand, were regarded as cases where semantic accuracy is given priority over naturalness (Kwieciski 2001: 50). Such renderings were seen as acceptable and for certain types of audiences (the aforementioned accuracy is of great importance in legal texts, for instance).

Though Nidas model has been challenged by some theorists, particularly for its departure from the notion of translation as exchange of information towards appropriation of a foreign text for domestic purposes (Kwieciski 2001: 50), the idea of function of a given text with respect to its readership was indeed influential for contemporary theories. 1.1.4 The Skopos and Nords documentary and instrumental translation A domesticating bias in translation theory was also expressed by German scholars under the Skopos theory. The Skopos, here understood as the purpose of translation, is a central notion deciding on the mode of translation a particular task may require. The domesticating nature of this approach is visible through the requirement of intelligibility of the TT, which should be acceptable and consistent first and foremost with the receivers situation. Translation, moreover, is regarded as inherently involving domestication, since a foreign culture can only be perceived by means of comparison with our own culture (Nord 1997: 24). In terms similar to Nidas theories, Nord recognises two general modes of rendering a text, namely documentary and instrumental translation. Similar to Nidas notion of formal equivalence, it is regarded as means of creating a TT, where the SC setting is left unchanged, but where preservation of intelligibility is essential for the translation to be successful. This is contrasted with the notion of instrumental translation, which aims at the effect through which readers are not supposed to be aware that they are reading a translation at all (Nord 1997: 52), an approach which requires extensive use of normalisation and covert cultural substitution.

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1.1.5 Hatim and Masons framework The relevance of a translation to audience design and task is of crucial importance in the analytical framework put forward by Hatim and Mason. Their theories concern different text types (e.g. argumentation or instruction) which are to be adjusted by translators skills to be effective and efficient for a given group of recipients (Hatim and Mason 1990: 9). These are points similar to those raised by Nord, what is here unique, however, is that the perspective on domestication is viewed through the prism of the notion of cultural asymmetry (the relative strength or weakness of the TC vis--vis the SC, Kwieciski 2001: 72) and cultural politics:
Whereas textual patterns and conventions are constantly modified when texts in less dominant languages are translated into English, the reverse is not the case. It seems that many of the worlds languages are finding English rhetorical patterns creeping in. The degree of tolerance of foreign structures seems to be proportional to the relative prestige of a language. (Hatim and Mason 1990: 191)

In the revised, 1997 version of their formulation, Hatim and Mason challenge Venutis view of foreignisation as a preferred strategy, a resistancy to the growing tyranny of English language system values occurring worldwide (Munday 2001: 147). This notion of preservation of linguistic and cultural differences through the conscious use of foreignising procedures, Hatim and Mason point out, only holds within a translation situation in which the TL and not the SL is culturally dominant (Kwieciski 2001: 68). This comment is highly relevant for the present thesis, for the study undertaken in Chapter 3 deals indeed with a transfer from a dominant to an inferior language culture. Since the research is conducted on proper names, it is

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essential to explore their classifications in order to be able to ascribe the items studied into fixed categories. 1.2 Proper names Proper names, as defined by Newmark (1988b: 70), refer to persons, objects or processes peculiar to a single ethnic community. They prototypically have singular references, with the exception of trademarks, brand-names and proprietary names (see 2.2.1 below), which refer to categories of objects. According to common theories, proper names do not require translation, since they do not carry any connotations or meanings (Vermes 2003: 90). Considered mere labels, proper names are often recognised as a simple matter of automatic transference in translation. There are, however, less restrictive approaches in circulation. Newmark suggests a given name should not be translated, unless there already is an accepted translation in circulation or the name is used as a metaphor. Vermes (2003: 90) is even less restrictive; quoting Searle (1975) and Strawson (1975) he argues that proper names function not only as mere labels and not only should one translate them, but also one should be aware that there is delicate decisionmaking involved in the process. Vermess study, moreover, provides valuable insight as far as the typical application of translation procedures to various proper names sub-classes is concerned. Vermes claims prototypical proper names, which do not carry a descriptive content, are associated with empty logical entries (e.g. stock names) and are typically transferred (Vermes 2003: 92). Less prototypical instances names which have the logical entry at least partially filled (e.g. pseudonyms) undergo translation in most cases. There have been numerous attempts to account for the multiplicity of disciplines the proper names have come to refer to, by means of classification 12

into fixed categories, governed by individual rules as far as translation in concerned. 1.2.1 Classification of proper names The problem of classification of proper names was discussed in detail by Peter Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a) and Approaches to Translation (1988b). 1.2.1.1 Peoples first and surnames This is by far the largest category identified. Transference is suggested (see 1.3) in most instances as the correct translation procedure, however there are certain exceptions. Translation is generally encouraged in renditions of Christian names, as well as names of historical figures, saints, monarchs and popes (Newmark 1988b: 70). Additionally, naturalisation (see 1.3) may be employed, particularly when translating names of classical writers. What is more, for names appearing in fiction (in comedies, allegories, fairy tales, folk tales and children stories) translation is also preferable, unless nationality expressed in a given item is important, in which case transference is advisable. Where it is essential to retain not only the nationality, but also the connotations a given name carries, Newmark suggests to first translate the word that underlies the SL proper name into the TL, and then to naturalise the translated word back into a new SL proper name (Newmark 1988a: 215). Consulting with previous translations of a given title is advisable, in order to avoid introducing new and possibly unacceptable names. 1.2.1.2 Geographical terms Geographical terms constitute the second largest category of proper names. Included within its boundaries are names of villages, towns, cities, also streets 13

and squares. The translator should respect official labels established by the country in question. It is essential, therefore, to stay up-to-date with current geographical terminology, which also helps avoiding inventing new terms where unnecessary. On the other hand, Newmark observes that some features are sufficiently politically uncontested to remain as they were in English: Belgrade (Beograd), Prague (Praha), Algiers (Al-Djazair), Tunis (Tunus), Tripoli (Trabulus Libya and Lebanon) (Newmark 1988a: 216). 1.2.1.3 Names of objects Within this category trademarks, brands and proprietaries (ie. legally restricted names) are distinguished by the author. Transference is suggested as the prototypical procedure; if a given name is not likely to be identifiable in the TC, a classifier may be added in translation to deal away with any ambiguities. Translation is also acceptable if a given name is used generically (e.g. refrigerator). 1.2.1.4 Other subcategories Forms of address including aristocratic and professional titles, are to be translated if there is a recognised equivalent (Newmark 1988b: 73). Otherwise they are to be either transferred or deleted, with the professional information added, if necessary. Names of firms, private institutions, schools, universities, hospitals etc. are not to be translated due to their strong link with the SC However, Newmark acknowledges exceptions from this rule, particularly in informal texts. Similar approach is suggested for names of newspapers, journals and periodicals, which are to be transcribed without exception. Works of art are commonly referred to by established translated titles, however if a given piece of art is little known transference in suggested. 14

1.2.1.5 Vermess classification of proper names An expansion on the above classification is offered by Vermes (2003: 96). Apart from categories coined by Newmark, he also distinguishes the following subclasses: names of nationalities; events; temporal units and festivals; abstract ideas; animals and species. He does not, however, provide any individual guidelines for translating these sub-categories. Following, is a brief exploration of categorisations of translation procedures, which are applied to proper names in the study conducted in Chapter 3. 1.3 Major categorizations of translation procedures With reference to the study conducted in Chapter 3, it is essential to provide the reader with background information on translation procedures applied to lexical items, which are at the same time relevant to the present subject matter. 1.3.1 Definition of translation strategies and procedures For the sake of further study, it is essential to distinguish between translation strategies and procedures. While both notions are textually manifest, normgoverned and intersubjectively verifiable (Kwieciski 2001: 120), the former represents a global tendency represented in the degree of underlining the sourceculture versus target-culture concepts, norms and conventions. The latter term is applied to individual actions carried out on lexical items undergoing translation. There are several independent systems of translation procedures classification. Taking into consideration the current study, the most relevant theories are presented in the remainder of the chapter.

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1.3.2 Vinay and Darbelnets procedures The earliest classification of translation procedures, coined in 1958 (translated to English in 1995), was put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. By studying the exchange of lexical items between French and English, they have pinpointed seven different mechanisms to take place (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995:31) and subdivided them into direct (literal) and oblique translation procedures. There are three direct translation procedures. Borrowing is regarded as the most straightforward option, by means of which translators are able to bridge gaps (or lacunae) between languages whenever a SL term has no equivalent in TL. Borrowing entails direct transference of a given SL lexical item into TL; some borrowings have entrenched themselves deeply into TL, so that they are currently regarded as part of it (e.g. dj vu, rendez-vous). Calque is similar to borrowing in that it introduces a SL expression into the TL, however, each element of the term borrowed is translated literally into TL. The resulting calque either follows the syntactic structure of the TL and introduces a new mode of expression (a lexical calque), or introduces a completely new construction into the TL (a structural calque). As with borrowings, calques also become part of the target language, up to a point, when they are considered calques no longer. Finally, literal translation, a direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text (Vinay and Darbelnet 1995: 33), is regarded as most commonly used in cases where translation occurs between two languages of the same family. Ideally, the translated passage is fully reversible, i.e. back translation reverts the TT to the original message with very high accuracy. Vinay and Darbelnet provide four oblique translation procedures. Transposition is a strategy, by means of which the translator changes the grammatical category of a given element for the TL rendition, without changing the overall meaning of the message. Vinay and Darbelnet also regard this procedure as applicable within just one language, since it is possible to re-express 16

a message merely by means of grammatical substitution. The authors recognise two types of transposition: obligatory (employed when the TL does not allow the use of direct procedures) and optional. Modulation, the second oblique procedure, involves manipulation of the form of the original message through the change of perspective in its TL version. The authors distinguish cases of fixed (i.e. recognised) and free (ad-hoc) modulation and provide its subtypes: abstract for concrete (an SL item is rendered by its more general TL counterpart), explicative modulation (involves substitution of effect by cause, result by means, and the object by substance), the part for the whole (a SL object is represented by its single feature in the TL), one part for another (a SL item is translated by a related term in TL), reversal of terms, negation of the opposite (a SL passage is rendered by its opposite in TL in terms of positiveness/negativeness), active to passive and vice versa, space for time, exchange of intervals for limits (SL time and space expressions are translated into fixed points in TL) and change of symbol (exchange of images in translating fixed metaphors). Of the remaining oblique procedures, equivalence entails rendering a given text through different stylistic and structural means in the TL. Equivalence is best represented by idioms, clichs and proverbs, the literal translation of which is often impossible. To retain the original sense, the translator must significantly alter the form in accordance with TL conventions, since most equivalences are already established within the TC. Finally, adaptation is reserved for cases, where a given SC concept, represented by a SL item is unknown within the TC/TL; it falls on the translator to create a new message which is as close to an equivalent of the original meaning as possible; the procedure is therefore regarded as a special kind of equivalence, a situational equivalence. The authors strongly advocate the use of adaptations as opposed to calques, which often render the text ambiguous.

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1.3.3 Newmarks procedures A much expanded classification of translation procedures was put forward by Peter Newmark in his A Textbook of Translation (1988a). Literal translation is defined as the most important procedure and a basic means of translation, its application ranging from single words to whole sentences. Since it is regarded to be mechanical, unnatural and not clever (Newmark 1998a: 75), literal translation is often abandoned for other procedures, even if they are not required and justified. Transference, the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure, corresponds to Vinay and Darbelnets borrowing. This procedure is applicable in translation of a wide variety of names and terms, e.g. brand names, geographical and topological names, names of periodicals and newspaper, and so forth. Related to transference is naturalisation, by its means, however, a given word is not only borrowed, but also adapted (both in terms of pronunciation and morphology) into the TL. The use of cultural equivalent procedure involves rendering a given cultural SL item by its TL cultural counterpart. Though such equivalents are often not accurate, they are nonetheless useful as means of disambiguation, where text receivers are ignorant of relevant SC items. Functional equivalent is regarded as a common procedure, applied chiefly to cultural words, involving the use of TL lexical items free of cultural bias. As a result, the SL word is neutralised and generalised. By means of descriptive equivalent procedure, a given SL word is translated through its function and description in the TL. Synonymy is used chiefly where a precise equivalent to a SL word in a context does not exist; the use of synonymy is sanctioned if literal translation is not possible and the word in question is not important enough to be subjected to other, more time consuming procedures. Through-translation refers closely to Vinay and Dabelnets calque; it concerns mostly the literal translation of common collocations, names of organisations and

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some popular phrases. Ideally, through-translation should not be initiated by the translator and should be used only if they are already accepted into the TL. Shifts or transpositions, as defined earlier by Vinay and Darbelnet, involve a change of SL grammar while translating to the TL. The change can concern the number of a given lexical item, the grammatical structure (when the SL structure does not exist in TL) or the natural usage of a given item within the TL (transposition is necessary when literal translation produces an unnatural passage). Under the term modulation Newmark recognises a collection of sub-procedures, as put forward by Vinay and Darbelnet. Rather than a definition, Newmark offers a discussion on validity of terminology used by aforementioned authors, quoting their complete classification of modulations. Recognised translation is a common translation procedure, by means of which mainly SL institutional terms are rendered by their official and generally accepted TL counterparts, possibly accompanied by an explanatory gloss. Translation label is used chiefly with new institutional terms, this procedure allows for introduction of provisional translation, possibly in inverted commas. By means of compensation, the loss of meaning which occurred during translation is compensated elsewhere in the same, or neighbouring sentence. Componential analysis is a rather time-consuming procedure, reserved for vocabulary items of much importance in the text and which do not have a clear one-to-one equivalent in the TL. Componential analysis involves the study of a given word by breaking it down to its sense components which make it possible to identify and produce a valid counterpart. The use of this procedure entails in most cases significant expansion of a given term, thus sacrificing economy for accuracy. Reduction and expansion are common and largely intuitive procedures providing means for rendering a SL term by a greater or lesser amount of TL lexical items. Finally, the use of paraphrase involves extrapolation and

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expansion of an SL passage, the minimal recasting of an ambiguous or obscure sentence, in order to clarify it (Newmark 1998a: 91). Moreover, under the term other procedures Newmark discusses, and ultimately dismisses, two procedures coined by Vinay and Darbelnet, namely equivalence and adaptation. Newmark also recognises that combinations of the above procedures, the so-called couplets, triplets, and quadruplets (involving respectively two, three and four procedures), can be brought down to deal with a single problem. Finally, notes, additions and glosses are discussed briefly and defined as translation extensions frequently accompanying other procedures, used for disambiguation. 1.3.4 Vermess translation operations applied to proper names A separate classification, designed specifically to account for operations on proper names is offered by Albert Pter Vermes in his Proper Names in Translation: An Explanatory Attempt (in Across Languages and Cultures, Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad 2003). Vermes recognises four procedures (translation operations) to take place in translations of proper names. Ttransference refers closely to Newmarks classification; by means of this operation, a given SL proper name is to be borrowed into TL without change of form. Substitution is viewed as applicable to instances of proper names which have a conventional counterpart in the TL, representing a translators first and natural choice (Vermes 2003: 93). It refers to the notion of literal translation, present in classifications offered by Vinay and Darbelnet, and Newmark. Additionally, cases of transliteration are also included under this sub-category. Translation, bearing close resemblance to Newmarks procedure of synonymy, involves rendering a given proper name by a TL expression which gives rise to the same, or approximately the same, analytic implications in the target text as the original name did in the source text 20

(Vermes 2003: 94). Modification entails the use of a significantly altered TL counterpart to a SL proper name; it is possible to draw comparison between Vermess modification and Vinay and Darbelnets collection of procedures under the modulation sub-category. 1.3.5 Consolidated taxonomy of lexical procedures, as proposed by Kwieciski In his Disturbing Strangeness (2001) Kwieciski attempted at a consolidated classification of translation procedures based on insights from several acknowledged theoretical frameworks. The procedures are arranged from the most foreignising to the most domesticating. Foreignising procedures include seven operations. Transference of images or sound refers to cases where a given SC-specific sound or image is transferred without change in the target version. It is, consequently, reserved for research concerning modern media such as television or radio. Borrowing refers closely to Vinay and Darbelnets notion of borrowing, as well as Newmarks category of transference. It concerns cases where both free (ad hoc) and recently established borrowings are introduced into the TT. Distancing devices may be employed, including the use of inverted commas and qualifiers (the so-called); moreover, the borrowings may be morphologically, phonologically and orthographically adapted into the TT. The definition of calque, coinage or semantic extension (or rather a collection of procedures) is consistent with Vinay and Darbelnets notion of calque, as well as Newmarks through-translation. In a fashion similar to that of the above category, the procedures are clearly subdivided to involve both the cases of ad hoc and recent renderings. This subcategory deals with lexical items formed either on the basis of SL (e.g. Native Americans Rdzenni Amerykanie) or TL structures (e.g. registered partnership spka jawna). The remaining foreignising procedures are combinations of operations. The borrowing + calque/coinage or semantic extension category is consistent 21

with Newmarks notion of couplets: it represents two foreignising procedures, borrowing and calque, brought down to deal with a single problem. By means of the borrowing + normalisation (gloss) combination, a borrowed SL item is accompanied by a normalising, explanatory gloss. In the case of calque/coinage/extension + normalisation (gloss) couplet, the normalising, explanatory gloss accompanies an item calqued into the TT. Other combinations: couplets, triplets, quadruplets, as per Newmarks definition, deal with combinations of two, three of four procedures, including, but not limited to, cases of borrowing, calque and normalisation, borrowing, calque, substitution, and borrowing or calque, normalisation and substitution. The recognised exoticism procedure, which is a borderline case within the spectrum of foreignisation and domestication, entails rendering of a given source-culture (SC) item through the use of already existing and established official target-culture (TC) counterpart. As a result, the rendered item is clearly recognised by TC members as an SC-specific concept, but is nevertheless intelligible as such (e.g. House of Commons Izba Gmin). The category also includes instances of limited normalisation, by means of which a given item is translated by another SC item which is more likely to be recoverable by the TC member. Such items are often considerably expanded when compared to the original passage (e.g. Super Bowl finay futbolu amerykaskiego). Domesticating procedures are chiefly represented by the normalisation category, which is a collection of operations similar to the modulation subclass suggested by Vinay and Darbelnet, dealing with shifts in style and semantics. Normalisation is subdivided into the following sub-procedures: repackaging (diffusion or condensation), which involves rendering a SL item by a significantly expanded (diffusion) or compressed (condensation) TL equivalent, generalisation (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more general TL term), specification (a SL term is translated by a relevant, but more detailed TL term), 22

modification (concerning cases of shifts in style, semantics or syntax an item undergoes during translation) and mutation, by means of which the SL item is rendered in such a way that its original form and meaning is irrecoverable. Deletion is regarded as a domesticating procedure involving complete omission of the SL item or items. Covert cultural substitution or covert acculturation entail rendering of SC culture-specific concepts by their TCspecific equivalents in such a way that the translational manipulation is not visible to the TC receiver; covert acculturation, moreover, involves the use of a TC-specific item to substitute a more generalised, transcultural structure belonging to SL. Overt cultural substitution or overt acculturation, on the other hand, introduce TC-specific items recognised as clearly not representatives of the SC, hence the transparency of translation is compromised. A similarly TCmanifest item is introduced through overt acculturation in substitution of a more generalised, transcultural SL structure. Having provided the necessary theoretical background, the present dissertation, with reference to the subject matter, will offer a brief outline of the science fiction literary genre, along with its definitions and best-known representatives. Chapter 2 will, moreover, present in detail George Lucass Star Wars and conclude with an overview of the Polish science fiction tradition. Since the present thesis aims at the identification of the dominant translation strategy within contemporary literature, it is essential for the study to concentrate on popular and recent titles available. There is little doubt to the fact that science fiction novels are currently among most eagerly read books. The genre itself is relatively young and, therefore, one can expect translations of SF to be characterised by a certain degree of fluency, since conventions governing its renditions are not yet set. Therefore, SF represents an ideal research object in general; through the results of the study on its most popular representative, one

23

could potentially provide data applicable globally to current trends in translations.

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Chapter 2: The science fiction genre and Star Wars as its representative

This chapter aims at presenting the Star Wars novels as enclosed within theoretical boundaries of the science fiction genre. In order to set up a relevant literary background, the chapter will primarily concentrate on the history of science fiction and provide information on most influential writers of the genre. Subsequent subchapters will focus on the science fantasy subgenre and Star Wars as its best known representative. The concluding subchapter will deal with the Polish science fiction literary tradition and the appearance of foreign SF titles on the Polish market. 2.1 Introduction to science-fiction Science fiction is generally regarded as largely successful as a literary genre during the second half of the twentieth century. It is commonly considered to be an American art form, though its origins lie outside the United States (Aldiss 1988: 14). Its rise to prominence was prompted by the marvels of the Industrial Revolution, and thus science fiction has been termed the fiction of a technological age. All attempts at setting the boundaries of science fiction involve generalisations. As Aldiss (1988: 15) puts it, the time never existed when science fiction was a homogeneous commodity. The difficulty in providing a fixed definition of science fiction lies in the uncanny flexibility of the genre, which continuously spawns new designs, therefore making it possible for SF (see 2.1.1.1) literature to be conventional and innovative at one and the same time. 25

It is important to first look at the definitions provided by acknowledged experts in the study of science fiction. James Gunn (1985, 1 [1977, 1]), an established scholar on the subject of SF, offers the following definition:
Science fiction jest gazi literatury, ktra zajmuje si opisem wpywu zmian na ludzi mieszkajcych w wiecie realnym, obserwowanym na tle przeszoci, przyszoci lub te z odlegoci. Czsto opowiada o zmianach zachodzcych w wiecie nauki lub techniki, a zazwyczaj dotyczy spraw, ktrych znaczenie wzgldne jest wiksze ni znaczenie jednostki czy spoeczestwa; niebezpieczestwo czsto tu zagraa cywilizacji lub caej rasie. [Science fiction is a branch of literature, which deals with describing the influence of changes on people living in the real world, observed against a past or future background, or from a distance. It often speaks about changes taking place in the world of science and technology, and it frequently concerns itself with issues, the relative meaning of which is greater than the meaning of an individual or of a society; the danger here befalls often the whole civilization or race.] (Gunn 1985, 1: 9; transl. M)

Brian Aldiss, a science fiction novelist himself, puts forward a well-known definition, stating that science fiction is the search for a definition of mankind and his status in the universe which will stand in our advanced but confused state of knowledge (science), and is characteristically cast in the Gothic or post-Gothic mode. It is essential to note that Aldiss recognises science fiction as a mode of writing, rather than a genre, to account for its wide potential, flexibility and complexity. He also stresses the roots of SF are found in the Gothic (1988: 21), a viewpoint which has only recently received appreciation. Common definitions of science fiction, though varied to a degree, give similar characteristics of the genre. It is agreed that SF explores possible consequences of changes (improbable or even impossible) in basic conditions of 26

human existence. The presence of a technological invention, acting as a trigger for the transformation, is not necessary, however, the reality (biological or physical) is altered profoundly. Hence the popular SF themes of time travel, extraterrestrial invasion, or ecological catastrophe (Baldick 1991: 200). It is the effect of such phenomena on human (or intelligent non-human) beings that is of key importance in SF literature. The influence of changes may be based on scientific facts that exist within the contemporary world or may involve farfetched notions which contradict the principles of science (Britannica Volume 10: 552). The rendition found in A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory dwells heavily upon the multitude of themes science fiction can undertake:
A science fiction story is a narrative (usually in prose) of short story, novella, or novel length. As to what it is about, this is not easily classifiable. Such stories are about an amazing variety of things, topics, ideas. The include trips to other worlds, quests, the exploration of space, visits to other planets and interplanetary warfare. Some SF stories are concerned with utopia and utopist visions, and also with dystopia. Others are set in the future but are not utopian. Still others are set in the past. Many have a contemporary setting which is somehow influenced by the arrival or invasion of alien beings or by some invention which profoundly alters normality. They are also concerned with technological change and development, with scientific experiment, with social, climatic, geological and ecological change. Some are concerned with supernatural forces and agencies. They are often fantastic, though they may be rooted in reality. They stretch the imagination.(Cuddon 1998: 790-800)

The above definition raises the issue of the fantastic within science fiction. Indeed, there have been equally many attempts at drawing a fixed line between fantasy and SF; unfortunately, such separation is impossible in most cases, since 27

it is agreed that both notions are part of fantasy in a general sense (Aldiss 1988: 30). Generally however, it is accepted, for the sake of easier classification, that fantasy as a genre leans more towards the mythical element than towards an assumed realism (Aldiss 1988: 31), whereas SF emphasises the scientific quality as essential for the plot: Plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as Mary Shelleys Gothic novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818) and Robert Louis Stevensons Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas Bram Strokers Dracula (1897) based as it is purely on the supernatural, is not. (Britannica Volume 10: 552) Prior to the presentation of a brief historical background of science fiction, the present chapter will provide definitions of key concepts concerned with SF, which are essential for the present thesis. 2.1.1 Key terminology concerned with science fiction 2.1.1.1 Science fiction, SF, sci-fi, speculative fiction, scientifiction, scientific romance The term science fiction, popularised in the 1930s in Hugo Gernsbacks magazine Science Wonder Stories, sought to replace scientific romance, an already existing name, which originated in the UK and was used to describe mainly the works of H.G. Wells (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1076). This shift in terminology also marked a transition in style: typical scientific romance works are characterized by long evolutionary perspectives; by an absence of much sense of the frontier and a scarcity of the kind of pulp-magazine-derived hero who is designed to penetrate any frontier available; and in general by a tone moderately less hopeful about the future than that typical of genre sf until recent decades (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1076). In the late 1940s, the US SF style became dominant, displacing the preceding term and mode of writing, which 28

sparked accusations of transforming, vulgarising and changing beyond recognition the European SF heritage (Aldiss 1988: 252). What is interesting, prior to coining science fiction, Gernsback used the term scientifiction, a contraction of scientific fiction (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1076). The term never gained popularity and has since achieved a rather derogatory colouring to describe mainly the awkward and technology-oriented stories published by Gernsback. Science fiction adopted the acronym SF which is largely accepted as the only correct abbreviation. An alternative form, sci-fi is generally regarded as a down-market appellation (Aldiss 1988: 23) and is frowned upon by science fiction devotees (Baldick 1999: 200). SF can equally well be said to represent the speculative fiction and science fantasy subgenres (see 1.1.2.4), which acknowledges the fact that many SF titles have much in common with fantasy. 2.1.1.2 Pulp SF Pulp SF is a somewhat derogatory name for the SF published in pulp magazines. Called so because of the poor quality of the paper, the pulps appeared thanks to the magazine-publishing revolution of the 1880s which made it possible to print cheap magazines on low quality paper manufactured from chemically treated wood pulp. The period of the greatest popularity of pulps, and SF pulps in particular, is attributed to the late 1930s (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 979). Magazines such as Amazing Stories quickly attracted devoted readers, who shared opinions and addresses in the letters column, which in turn sparked the beginnings of the fandom movement. 2.1.1.3 Fandom, fanzine and conventions Clute (1999: 403) defines fandom as a collection of people with a common background in sf and a common interest in communication, whether through 29

discussion, chatter, correspondence, or fanzine publishing. Formed, by readers and, later, writers of SF, fandom counted no more than 500 people between the 1920s and 1950s, whereas a decade later, the figure increased to over 10,000 (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 403). Fanzines, amateur magazines produced by SF fans and readers of contemporary professional SF magazines, vary greatly in form and content. Usually photocopied or printed, fanzines contain reviews, discussions, fandomspecific topics, and even amateur fiction (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 414). Established in the early 1930s (The Planet, The Comet), they have since became increasingly popular and contributed largely to cementing the SF community. Gatherings of SF fans, so-called conventions (or cons), are a principle feature of SF fandom. The first formally planned SF convention took place in Leeds, UK, in 1937. A typical SF convention programme features discussions, presentations, even masquerades and banquets (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 261). Of great interest are meetings with established writers and critics, contests, and sessions of storytelling games. The oldest Polish convention, Polcon, has been organised annually since 1985. The Star Wars fandom developed very rapidly. It quickly spread beyond the US borders; Star Wars fan clubs are present in all major countries, including Poland. The Polish Star Wars fandom proper was established in 1997 and its numbers and prominence have been growing ever since. The first Polish convention devoted exclusively to Star Wars (Konkret 98) was organised in 1998 in Warsaw. 2.1.1.4 Subgenres What is most characteristic of science fiction, being at the same time perhaps testament to the statement that SF is more a mode of writing than a genre (Aldiss 1988: 571), is the fact that it can spawn a startling number of themes. The works 30

of classics, such as Poe, Verne, and Wells, established tendencies in writing SF that later developed into subgenres. Speculative fiction was first defined by R.A. Heinlein, who sought to describe a mode of writing SF that would extrapolate from known science and technology to produce a new situation, a new framework for human action (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1144). The term was later developed by Judith Merril, who applied it to denote a kind of sociological SF which dwells upon the theme of social change without putting any great emphasis on science or technology. Since no generic borderlines have been provided, the term is generally accepted as including fantasy writing as well. Moreover, it is often used as a substitute for science fiction in general, since it is believed to be more respectablesounding and lacking the pulp associations (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1145). The science fantasy subgenre, first coined in the New Worlds magazine, appeared as a direct response to the new wave in science fiction which was developed by Moorcock in UK and Herbert and Zelazny in the US. Typical science fantasy is regarded as a blend of SF and fantasy themes, usually colourful and often bizarre, sometimes with elements of horror although never centrally in the horror genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1061). Science fantasy may contain quasirationalised elements of mythology or magic, though these are not essential for the story, as opposed to the sword and sorcery and heroic fantasy subgenres, which are believed to overlap with science fantasy. Mental (psionic) powers and interplanetary travel and adventure are among the most common science fantasy themes. 2.1.2 Brief historical outline of science-fiction and its best known representatives Science fiction, as defined above, came into existence largely through the influence of the revolutions in science and technology of the eighteenth and 31

nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, along with research on the laws of nature, made it possible for early SF to surface (Gunn 1985, 1: 11), evolving from the Gothic fantasy, the fiction of the age of industry, somewhere between romance and realism, as it was between science and myth (Aldiss 1988: 17). Originally meant as pure entertainment, the Gothic succeeded in establishing itself as a genre, dwelling upon current fears, hopes and obsessions (Aldiss 1988: 17). The Gothic, recognised as an artistic form of reaction to human cognition of changes, explored the theme of mans quest for his own identity, fuelled by a new comprehension of the natural world expressed in Darwins theory of evolution (Gunn 1985, 1: 12). The questions on mankind in general sparked the creation of the key work in the history of science fiction, Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818). Frankenstein is regarded as if not the first science fiction novel, then certainly the first novel to show what science fiction will become (Gunn 1985, 1: 183). Conveying Lockes philosophical arguments and scientific ideas of Darwin, Humphry Davy, Joseph Priestley, and others (Aldiss 1988: 45), Mary Shelley succeeded in creating an innovative and completely original work (Cuddon 1998: 793), dwelling upon the theme of wildness lurking beneath the veneer of civilization (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511). The horrible experiment, the nearly ritualistic creation of the nameless monster is only made possible through research and science surpassing old knowledge of the pre-scientific age. Frankenstein thus represents a successful introduction of the scientific into fiction, a trend which certainly had repercussions in sf which have by no means died away (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 511). The works of Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne are also regarded as influential in the development of science fiction through their attempts at assimilating science and fiction in a manner similar to Shelleys influential novel. Identified by some as the father of SF (Aldiss 1988: 73; Gunn 1985, 1: 221), Poe 32

wrote Mellonta Tauta (1848), which is believed to be the first true tale of the future (Gunn 1985, 1: 223). This story, set a thousand years forward in time, conveys an important message; that the future will be different to such a degree that what is currently present will be forgotten, and that which is not forgotten will be twisted and blurred. Hawthornes The Blithedale Romance (1852), on the other hand, touches upon the notion of evils permanent existence in a society dedicated to the idea of infinite progress (Aldiss 1988: 72), a theme clearly relevant for SF today. It was Poes writings, translated into French by Baudelaire, which had a stimulating effect on the works of Jules Verne, which are considered to have marked the beginning of true modern science fiction (Baldick 1991: 200). Even though Verne was influenced profoundly by preceding writers, and, in consequence, the majority of his works were not truly original, the manner in which he wrote, as well as the subject matter itself, were essential to the evolution and public acceptance of the new literature, devoted to science and technology (Gunn 1985, 1: 257). Combining adventure, exploration and the popularisation of science (Cuddon 1998: 794), Verne became immensely popular through such works as Voyage au centre de la terre [Journey to the Centre of the Earth; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1276] (1864) and Vingt mille lieues sous les mers [Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea; ibid] (1869). His les voyages extraordinaires (extraordinary voyages) established what is now recognised as classic science fiction themes and he himself has been coined the first true SF writer (Gunn 1985, 1: 259). Aldiss (1988: 130) comments that even if Verne did not invent science fiction, he was the first to succeed at it commercially. Mans progress, celebrated so vividly by Verne, spurred further development of SF. By the end of the 1890s science fiction was flourishing, a success attributed chiefly to the works of Herbert George Wells. He was termed the great originator of science fictional ideas (Aldiss 1988: 149), his writings 33

were largely prophetic of the future shape of SF and uncovered many new themes the genre could explore (Cuddon 1998: 795). He is believed to be the first writer to look to the past and to the future through the prism of new theories on evolution. His first book, The Time Machine (1895), an immediate success, speaks of journeys in time on a scale never considered before. His tales, titled The Grisly Folk (1896) and A Story of the Stone Age (1897) are regarded as precursors of the sub-genre of science fantasy (see 1.1.2.4) (Aldiss 1988: 149). His War of the Worlds (1898) introduced the now popular theme of alien invaders, who are exceedingly more powerful than their victims. The novel has set what is now recognised as a classic ground plan for an SF novel (Aldiss 1988: 152). Wells initially presents the reader with a recognisable image of his own times and makes use of modern advances in science (in War of the Worlds, theory on evolution and micro-organisms) as a background for his story. What is more, however, he encourages criticism of the society to emerge from the narrative (Aldiss 1988: 152), raising questions and sparking debates. Wellss scientific romances (a collective name Wells coined for his works) were often set on a par with Vernes works, a tendency which Wells rejected, stating that his tales do not aim at speaking about possible scenarios, but are rather means of exercising the imagination in a completely different field (Gunn 1985, 1: 374). Having surpassed his predecessors, including Verne, Wells was termed the Shakespeare of science fiction (Aldiss 1988: 166) and his works brought popularity and distinctness from other genres to the SF. He witnessed the dropping of an atomic bomb, an event which he had predicted many years earlier. The turn of the century, a time of breakthroughs in science and technology, is marked by a change in human thought. Belief in the necessity of technological development began to shake, affected by the horrors of the First World War (Gunn 1985, 1: 12, Cuddon 1998: 795). The anxieties of these 34

stressful times found reflection in science fiction; themes of Armageddon and the establishment of a new race of human beings appeared and achieved great popularity. Yet it was through the developments in technology that cheap pulp magazines could appear (see 2.1.2.2). Quickly gaining readership, the new periodicals offered affordable literary entertainment and it was not long before they turned their attention to science fiction. Contrary to the scientific romances of H.G. Wells, early American pulp science fiction appealed to simpler audiences (Aldiss 1988: 217). The period between the mid-1920s and the late 1930s was dominated by Hugo Gernsbacks (1894-1967) vision of SF. He is popularly believed (Gunn 1985, 1: 17) to be the founder of the first SF magazine, Amazing Stories (1926), later continued as Science Wonder Stories (1929). Whether this is the case is open to debate; there are examples of European SF magazines published as early as 1886 and continuing to 1921 (Aldiss 1988: 251). Undoubtedly however, Gernsback had a profound influence on the shape of science fiction. It is commonly agreed that Gernsback gave shape to the whole SF magazine industry, introducing the figure of a demanding editor and enforcing fixed criteria for SF stories that were to be published. He was also the first to use the name science fiction (Science Wonder Stories, 1929) to specify the literature he intends to publish (Gunn 1986, 2: 19 [1977, 2]). Aldiss (1988: 791), however, argues that the term itself was first used in 1851, in William Wilsons A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old Subject. Gernsbacks magazine attracted new writers, but it was not until the late 1930s that pulp SF gradually became more intellectual and sophisticated (Cuddon 1998: 797). This tendency is attributed to John W. Campbell, who first edited and later took over, in 1937, the magazine Astounding. A proficient and ambitious editor, Campbell encouraged and supported his writers, suggesting 35

they should develop their ideas where necessary and give them much more thought (Aldiss 1988: 268). A fairly successful writer himself, Campbell is said to have influenced many young writers, Arthur C. Clarke among them. His best known short story, Twilight (1934), imitating to a degree Wellss The Time Machine, brought a refreshing new alternative to SF trash stories published in the pulps (Aldiss 1988: 267; see 1.1.2.2). This experience later enabled him to create a thought-provoking and imagination-stirring (Aldiss 1988: 275) atmosphere and the much needed intellectual revival to magazine SF (Gunn 1986, 2: 22). Campbells influence, and the influence of the writers to whom he passed his ideas, have spurred the coming about of what we today call the Golden Age of science fiction (Gunn 1986, 2: 22). Campbells Astounding, renamed during 1960s to Analog (Aldiss 1988: 282), recruited writers, whose works are now considered unquestionable classics of the genre, Isaac Asimov and Robert A. Heinlein among them. Asimov, the most popular figure within the world of science fiction for nearly fifty years, is best known for his Foundation trilogy, first published in Astounding between May 1942 and January 1950 (Aldiss 1988: 330). Asimovs novels The Caves of Steel (1954) and The Naked Sun (1957) were the first to set ground for future SF detective stories. Famous for quoting his three laws of robotics, Asimov did away with the stereotype of slavering metallic hordes which had been a boringly predominant feature of the magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270) and introduced the new ideas in his stories, later collected in I, Robot (1950):
(1) a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; (2) a robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; (3) a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1018)

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For his novel The Gods Themselves (1972), he received the Science Fiction Achievement Award (the Hugo) (Gunn 1986, 2: 438). Both Asimov and Heinlein brought literary law and order into science fiction magazines (Aldiss 1988: 270). Heinleins intelligent and educated stories were published in Astounding as early as 1941, forming the basis for what he later called Future History stories. His novels were among the first SF titles to be published by the more established publishing houses (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). A fragment of his Rocketship Gallileo (1947), published originally by Scribners, was filmed under the title Destination Moon (1950), a venture which is believed to have sparked the new wave of SF movies of the 1950s (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). His Stranger in a Strange Land (1961) is commonly recognised to be the first SF bestseller, almost immediately achieving popularity far beyond the established circle of SF readers (Gunn 1986, 2: 472). Along with Frank Herberts Dune (1965), Stranger in a Strange Land marked a new turn in American SF literature, which started to evolve beyond the magazine format to achieve recognition and commercial success. This so-called new wave in science fiction was nourished by the influence of Michael Moorcock and the UK SF New Worlds magazine, which Moorcock took over in 1964 (Cuddon 1998: 799). Moorcocks works (The Final Programme, 1965-1966), introducing fantasy and heroism to the SF formula were regarded as a welcome breadth to the genre (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1195). This tendency is seen developed in the works of Roger Zelazny, whose tales (He Who Shapes, 1965) are a blend of science fiction and fantasy (Gunn 1987, 3: 541 [1979, 3]). The fantastic element within SF was further reinforced in the already mentioned Dune by Herbert, who added elements of mythology (sacred religious practices of the Fremen, the coming of Muad'Dib, the Prophet) and provided detailed social and historical background for the plot (Gunn 1988, 4: 145 [1982, 4]). Through the use of such devices, Herbert fostered the creation 37

of what would later be known as the science fantasy and sword and sorcery (see 1.1.2.4) subgenres of the science fiction. Dune inspired George Lucas to create Star Wars (1977), the space opera in the grand manner (Aldiss 1988: 339), one of the most influential and commercially successful titles spawned by the new wave, and the best-known representative of science fantasy. 2.2 Star Wars as a representative of science fiction
Luke Skywalker lives and works on his uncle's farm on the remote planet of Tatooine. Bored beyond belief, he yearns for adventures out among the stars, adventures that would take him beyond the farthest galaxies to distant and alien worlds. But Luke gets more than he bargains for when he intercepts a cryptic message from a beautiful princess held captive by a dark and powerful warlord. Luke doesn't know who she is, but he knows he has to save her - and soon, because time is running out. Armed only with courage and the lightsaber that was his father's, Luke is catapulted into the middle of the most savage space war ever... and heads straight for a desperate encounter on the enemy battle station known as the Death Star. (George Lucas Star Wars, 1976 Sphere Books)

Without a doubt, Star Wars remains one of the most influential and most financially successful SF titles to date. Star Wars is a representative of the new wave in science fiction, which started with Moorecocks New Worlds magazine, and the works of Herbert and Zelazny in the US and the advent of science fantasy. The late 1960s and early 1970s were a period of significant development in SF; SF novels reached the bestseller lists, SF conventions became big business [and] everyone went to SF movies (Aldiss 1988: 339). It was largely the success of 2001 (1968), a movie directed by Stanley Kubrick and based on Arthur C. Clarkes novel, which paved the way for the future SF cinema. 38

Star Wars presents a conflict between the forces of Good and Evil, much in the tradition of pulp SF magazines:
Young Luke Skywalker becomes involved in a mission to rescue a princess from the evil head of a decadent Galactic Empire. The Empires military headquarters is the Death Star, the size of a small moon and capable of destroying whole planets. With the help of an old man who possesses supernatural powers a human mercenary and his alien sidekick Luke rescues the princess and secures information that enables a group of rebel fighters to destroy the Death Star (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 1160)

The movie script was the basis for the book adaptation of Star Wars. Clute (1999: 1160) argues that the novel version attributed officially to George Lucas, was actually written by Alan Dean Foster. Aldiss agrees on the subject (1988: 468), adding that Fosters name is found on the covers of adaptations of other SF movies of that time (Dark Star, 1974; Alien, 1979; The Black Hole, 1979). Sequels to Star Wars (retitled A New Hope in 1981), are The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1984), adopted for the book format by Donald F. Glut and James Kahn respectively. George Lucas has also written and directed the so-called prequels to the original trilogy, which describe events prior to the plot of A New Hope: The Phantom Menace (1999), Attack of the Clones (2002), and Revenge of the Sith (2005). 2.2.1 Influences on Star Wars Witold Jaboski, novelist and critic, commented on the subject of George Lucass Star Wars in an interview with Dawid Brykalski:
[George Lucas] Uczyni rzecz bez precedensu: posugujc si stylistyk SF przesyci j klasycznymi, archetypicznymi motywami, takimi jak dzielny prostaczek, uwiziona ksiniczka, czarny rycerz, tajemniczy pustelnik, czy te

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rozbjnik o zotym sercu. Stworzy ponadczasow ba, w ktrej nie brak cakiem aktualnych odniesie...[What George Lucas did was without precedence: making use of SF stylistics, he enriched it with classical, archetypal motifs, such as a brave, straightforward youngster, a princess held prisoner, a black knight, a mysterious hermit, or the kind-hearted rogue. He created a timeless fairy-tale, which is not without up-to-date references...](Jestem z natury poganinem; http://www.ksiazka.net.pl; transl. M)

Similarly, Clute (1999: 1160) points out that Lucas draws upon comics strips, old serials, Westerns, James Bond stories, The Wizard of Oz, Snow White, Errol Flynn swashbucklers and movies about WWII. Lucas is believed to have been inspired by E.E. Smiths Gray Lensman, Harry Harrisons Deathworld and Frank Herberts Dune, works which influenced heavily the shape of Star Wars (Aldiss 1988: 341). Moreover, Oliver Denken in his Gwiezdne wojny jak powstawaa kosmiczna trylogia (1997: 50 [Star Wars Die Film 1996]) observes that Alex Raymonds Flash Gordon stories and Edgar Rice Burroughs SF novels (John Carter of Mars) had a profound impact on Lucass vision of Star Wars. In an interview for the DVD edition (2004) of the classic Star Wars trilogy, Lucas sheds new light on the subject of inspirations for his work. Beside acknowledging some of the aforementioned works, he also points to an early SF movie Metropolis (1926) as influential in creating his humanoid robot C3PO. More importantly, however, he quotes Joseph Campbells analysis of archetypes (The Hero with a Thousand Faces) as critical in the development of character and plot elements of Star Wars. Campbell made use of the idea of archetypes, coined by Carl Jung, as the basis for analysing the underlying structure behind religion and myth. In his The Hero of a Thousand Faces, he argues that common stories from cultures all over the world share the same pattern, which he called the Hero's Journey. In the aforementioned interview, Lucas agreed that the Hero's Journey heavily

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influenced his Star Wars script and in turn the novel adaptation by Alan Dean Foster (see Appendix A for a table comparing Heros Journey with Star Wars). Therefore, Star Wars is said to have developed from what was an already established genre on paper (Aldiss 1988: 342). Though some critics claim that the various elements do not interact together as seamlessly as they should, Lucass creation does provide an enjoyable, even nostalgic entertainment (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1160). Successful and influential, Star Wars has been translated into over 30 languages, including Polish. 2.3 Science-fiction in Poland Although critics (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990) point to Micha Dymitri Krajewski and his Wojciech Zdarzyski ycie i przypadki swoje opisujcy [Wojciech Zdarzyski Describing his Life and Adventures; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944] (1785) as the earliest example of Polish literature conveying science and the fantastic, it is in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century that the real roots for Polish science fiction are found (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 17). Early examples include the novels by Wadysaw Umiski (Balonem do bieguna [To the pole by baloon], 1894; Samolotem dookoa wiata [Around the world by airplane], 1911), inspired largely by Vernes voyages extraordinaires, and popularizing current scientific achievements. However, it is Umiskis contemporary, Jerzy uawski, who is believed to be the father of Polish science fiction. His lunar trilogy (Na srebrnym globie [On Silver Globe; Clute and Nicholls 1999: 1370], 1903; Zwycizca [The Victor; ibid], 1910; Stara Ziemia [Old Earth; ibid], 1911) was immensely popular and profoundly influenced the shape of future Polish SF works (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990). uawski, poet and essayist, touched upon the most crucial theme for twentieth century science fiction (Niewiadomski 1987: 11). He shows

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that knowledge can be destructive if gained for its own sake, and that science is ultimately powerless against the forces of nature. Written in the tradition of Wellss scientific romances (Niewiadomski 1987: 12), uawskis lunar trilogy spurred a further expansion of Polish SF. The inter-war period, dominated by themes of wonderful invention and catastrophe, saw the appearance of popular and influential novels, such as Mieczysaw Smolarskis Miasto wiatoci [The city of light] (1924), Jan Karczewskis Rok przestpny [Leap year] (1931) and Antoni Sonimskis Dwa koce wiata [Two ends of the world] (1937) (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 21). Moreover, at that time there also appeared first pulp stories (Kapitan Mors [Captain Mors]), the satirical SF works by Bruno Winawer (Promienie FF [FF rays], 1921), and Stefan Grabiskis weird fiction, influenced largely by Poe (Niewiadomski 1987: 14). The post-war period in Polish SF is without doubt dominated by Stanisaw Lem, who debuted as a SF novelist with his Astronauci [The Astronauts; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711] (1951). Lems works remain to this day among the most eagerly translated novels in modern Polish literature (Niewiadomski 1987: 15). One of the most significant SF writers of our century and a distinctive voice in world literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711), Lem wrote a wide range of fiction. His early works (Obok Magellana [The Magellan Nebula; ibid], 1955) deal with themes of global destruction brought about by military action, whereas his Solaris (1961) or Opowieci o pilocie Pirxie [Tales of Pirx the Pilot; ibid] (1968) dwell upon the subject of humanitys limitations and strengths (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711). Lems other works include Doskonaa prnia [Perfect Vacuum; ibid] (1971), Kongres futorologiczny [The Futurological Congress; ibid] (1971), and Fiasko [Fiasco; ibid] (1986), the awkward but ferocious assault upon human cognitive pretensions (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 711).

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The mid 1950s was also when some of Lems peers made their debuts, most notably Krzysztof Boru and Andrzej Trzepka, authors of a popular SF trilogy Zagubiona przyszo [The Lost Future; Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944] (1954), Proxima (1956) and Kosmiczni bracia [Space brothers] (1959), and Adam Hollanek with his SF detective novel Zbrodnia wielkiego czowieka [Big mans crime] (1960). A great breakthrough in Polish SF is attributed to Zbigniew Przyrowski, who introduced SF stories to a poplar youth magazine Mody Technik [Young technician]. On the pages of Mody Technik appeared the first stories by Janusz A. Zajdel, who achieved popularity as a political SF writer (Niewiadomski 1987: 16). The mid 1970s, a significant period in the history of Polish SF, saw increased interest in SF themes, resulting in the creation of the first clubs and fanzines (Niewiadomski & Smuszkiewicz 1990: 26). By far the most influential SF magazine, Fantastyka, was founded in 1982 and was edited by Hollanek. Piotr Krywak, in his article on SF and fantasy Fantasy i science fiction, czyli znw o materii mieszaniu [Fantasy and science fiction, or the mixing of the subject matter yet again] published in Konspekt (2005), observes a crisis in Polish SF literature, which started in the late 1970s. Science-fiction, in his opinion, has since then been slowly superseded by the fantasy genre. Similarly, Wojciech Kajtoch, in his introduction to Solaris (ycie Literackie 1983), points out that Polish SF lacks ambition and is likely to fall into second place to its rival. This tendency is largely attributed to fantasy being more marketable (Clute and Nicholls 1999: 944), but also stresses the fact that gradual disappearance of censorship caused political SF writing (a dominating mode since the 1960s) to dissolve. The resulting gaping hole in the Polish SF is currently being filled by means of mass importation of science fiction literature (Clute & Nicholls 1999: 944). The Polish market is open mainly to western popular fiction (W krainie 43

dreszczowcw; in: Konspekt 2/2005), which achieved great popularity chiefly through the efforts of private publishers. Star Wars is found among these titles, initially being published by InterArt, and later by Amber, an independent publishing house. The present thesis has thus far explored the theoretical and historical background of the foreignisation and domestication phenomena, as well as provided classifications of translation procedures and proper names, with respect to the subject of the empirical study. Chapter 2 provided a brief outline of science fiction, including recognised definitions, key terminology and history of the genre. Following background information on George Lucass Star Wars, novel adaptations of which serving as the object of empirical study, Chapter 2 concluded with brief outline of the Polish science fiction tradition. Having provided theoretical background for all components of the empirical study, the thesis will now focus on the research itself.

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Chapter 3: Source materials and empirical study

The present chapter will provide details as far as materials for empirical study are concerned, as well as supply information on the research itself. Following is the study proper. The chapter will conclude with general observations and conclusions. 3.1 The research The study of foreignisation and domestication mechanisms provide valuable insight as far as modern translation tendencies are concerned within a given language. The relative weakness or strength of a given target culture versus source culture can be identified to a significant degree through research into dominant translation strategies, as per the notion of cultural asymmetry (see 1.1.5). Therefore, the study represents an interesting and worthwhile challenge. In order to identify present tendencies in language treatment, it is essential to research the literature being currently published, since that is where the translation tendencies are most transparent. To account for recent changes in the mechanisms, the science fiction genre has been taken into consideration, as a fairly new and not yet set genre. Demanding on the part of translator, who often needs extensive knowledge of specific vocabulary, the SF can potentially be regarded as a rich area of interest. Finally, the selection of Star Wars as a representative of the genre is justified through extreme popularity of the title, especially in view of the recent screening of Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. Book adaptations of classic Star Wars episodes (IV-VI) have been translated four times (taking into consideration unofficial and illegal translations), therefore additionally one could 45

potentially be able to trace changes in the translation tendencies spanning over 20 years. 3.1.1 Source materials for empirical study The thesis will concentrate on the treatment of proper names in subsequent translations of book adaptations of the classic Star Wars trilogy: Star Wars 1977 (Episode IV; renamed to A New Hope in 1981); The Empire Strikes Back 1980 (Episode V); Return of the Jedi 1983 (Episode VI). Episodes IV, V and VI have been published collectively in Great Britain as Star Wars Trilogy. The present thesis will use the 2005 version of this collected edition. To provide sufficient material for the empirical study, several translations (sets) of the source text will be taken into consideration. Set 1 features unofficial translations of episodes IV, V and VI carried out by fan-clubs in Warszawa and d in the 1980s. These are considered extremely rare and their precise origin or date of publication is unknown: Wojny gwiazd [Star Wars](translated by Andrzej Wroblewski); Imperium kontratakuje [The Empire Strikes Back](translator unknown); Powrt Jedi [Return of the Jedi](translated by W. Wojtasiewicz). Set 2 is comprised of unofficial translations of episodes IV and V appearing in Fikcje, a fanzine (see Chapter 2.1.1) published by lski Klub Fantastyki between 1970-1985. Issues of Fikcje are believed to be very rare and generally unavailable: Gwiezdne wojny (in: Fikcje 19861988, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa);

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 Imperium kontratakuje (in: Fikcje 1988, translated by Agnieszka Sylwanowicz). Novels collected in set 3 were published by InterArt in the 1990s. They are regarded as uncommon, available exclusively through antiquary bookshops. These were the first official translations of the original Star Wars trilogy: Gwiezdne wojny (InterArt 1990, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa); Imperium Sylwanowicz); Powrt Jedi (InterArt 1992, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa). Set 4 features novels published by Amber between 1998 and 1999 (two editions). These are the most common translations of the classic Star Wars trilogy available today: Nowa nadzieja [A New Hope] (Amber 1998, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa); Imperium Sylwanowicz); Powrt Jedi (Amber 1999, translated by Piotr W. Cholewa). Since there have been no attempts at re-publishing the original trilogy presently, set 5 consists of recent titles from the Star Wars book series published in Poland by Amber: Zemsta Sithw [Revenge of the Sith] (Amber 2005, translated by Maciej Szymaski); Ryzyko Wedgea [Wedges Gamble] (Amber 2002, translated by Katarzyna Laszkiewicz); kontratakuje (Amber 1999, translated by Agnieszka kontratakuje (InterArt 1991, translated by Agnieszka

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 Jednoczca Moc [The Unifying Force] (Amber 2006, translated by Andrzej Syrzycki); Atak klonw [Attack of the Clones] (Amber 2002, translated by Maciej Szymaski); X-Wingi: Eskadra otrw [X-Wing: Rogue Squadron] (Amber 2001, translated by Maciej Szymaski). 3.1.2 Applied methodology Based on theories concerning the classification of proper names (see Chapter 1), the present thesis will provide its own division into the following subcategories: 1) locations this category includes all proper names taken under study, which refer to geographical locations (cities, planets, etc.); 2) characters collected under this term are selected names of characters,including representatives of artificial intelligence (droids); 3) vehicles and starships this category includes names of selected vehicles and starships; the names refer to either individual machines or classes of machines; 4) institutions and organisations included under this term are names which refer to different institutions and organisations, present in the world of Star Wars; 5) other this category accounts for names which do not fall into any above categories. Original lexical items were compared with five sets of Star Wars literature translated into Polish, since early 1980s until most recent, 2006 titles (see 3.1.1). In most cases this results in five renditions of a given word; in some instances however, providing the counterpart was not possible. This is especially true for 48

Set Two (Return of the Jedi was not translated in Fikcje) and Set Five (not all original vocabulary items were found within the titles researched). Where a rendering was not available, it is signalled through the abbreviation n/a. On the whole, the study was conducted on a total of 50 lexical items, grouped into aforementioned categories. However, due to space constraints, the study of only 25 items will be presented in detail, while a complete list is available in Appendix B. Each rendition is accompanied by an identification of a translation procedure employed, based on Kwieciskis consolidated taxonomy (see 1.3.5). Through the exploration of the degree of exoticism or assimilation the study of procedures allow, an overall measurement in terms of foreignisation and domestication will be supplied, followed by commentary where applicable. Authors comments will also be provided at the end of each category; furthermore, a general summary shall conclude the study. 3.1.3 Projected results It is possible to predict certain mechanisms to take place within the study. As per the notion of cultural symmetry in translation (see 1.1.5), one can assume that a significant number of exoticisms will occur, since the research deals with transfer from a superior culture to the inferior. A study carried out by Kwieciski confirms the above within the researched body of press articles and TV comedies, highly exoticising procedures (borrowings and calques) constituted the majority (54,59% for press and 51,7% for comedies) of cases studied. Similar results are observed in Vermess study of Kurt Vonneguts Slaughterhouse Five and its translation into Hungarian. Again, this is an example of transfer from a superior to the inferior language system and, consequently, results of the study reflect the difference in status of SL versus TL 43% of

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procedures employed are instances of transference (see 1.3), followed by cases of substitution (see 1.3), which constitute 31% of all procedures studied. Vermess study, moreover, also introduces the notion of proper names carrying associations with empty or filled logical entries. In the former (prototypical) case, Vermes argues, SL proper names are usually transferred into TL, whereas in the latter option, they tend to be translated (possibly by means of literal translation). In view of the above, one can form the following hypothesis: encountered procedures will largely be of foreignising nature, since the research deals with transfer from a source language system which is of higher status than the target system. Additionally, one may hope to encounter all proper names with at least partially filled logical entry to be translated, rather than transferred. 3.1.4 Abbreviations The study makes use of the following abbreviations to indicate references to a specific book: SWT Star Wars Trilogy (A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi), TPM The Phantom Menace, AOTC Attack of the Clones, ROTS Revenge of the Sith, WG Wedges Gamble, XW X-Wing Rogue Squadron, TUF The Unifying Force. 3.1.5 Subcategory Locations: a) Source text item: The Jundland Wastes Context: The Jundland Wastes are not to be travelled lightly (SWT: 46) Renderings: set 1: Jundland (procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging, condensation) set 2: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque) set 3: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque) 50

 set 4: pustkowia Jundlandu (procedure: calque) set 5: jundlandzkie pustkowia (ROTS; procedure: calque) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: set 1: of the original phrase, only Jundland, a borrowed item, remained in the Polish rendition, hence borrowing; it is also the only word standing for the original phrase, hence the classification into a procedure; set 2-5: these are all instances of calque, despite variations in grammatical category of renderings of Jundland (both versions are acceptable). b) Source text item: Dagobah system Context: Were going to the Dagobah system (SWT: 252) Renderings: set 1: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 2: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 3: system Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 4: ukad Dagobah (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: foreignising Comment: set 1-3: since the word system also functions in Polish, the rendition represents only a partial calque; set 4: ukad is the established Polish term for a system o planets, hence semantic extension in sets 1-3. condensation

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c) Source text item: Anchorhead Context: aimed the craft toward the distant town of Anchorhead (SWT: 17) Renderings: set 1: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 3: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 4: Anchorhead (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 5: Anchorhead (WG; procedure: borrowing/importation) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is transferred rather than calqued. d) Source text item: Cloud City Context: they could clearly see the Cloud City of Bespin through the cockpit window (SWT: 301) Renderings: set 1: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 2: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 3: Miasto Chmur (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 4: Miasto w Chmurach (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-semantic) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: domesticating 52

Comments: all available sets modify the grammatical category of cloud (sets 13 change the number to plural, set 4 changes the grammatical category into adverb), hence the classification as normalisation. e) Source text item: Sanctuary Moon Context: the stolen shuttle moved smoothly toward the green Sanctuary Moon (SWT: 420) Renderings: set 1: ksiyc (procedure: normalisation/repackaging, condensation) set 2: n/a (procedure: n/a) set 3: ksiyc-sanktuarium (procedure: calque) set 4: ksiyc-sanktuarium (procedure: calque) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: domesticating foreignising Comments: set 1: ksiyc remains the only word to stand for the original phrase, hence its classification as a condensation procedure; set 3-4: both original items are literally translated, hence calque. 3.1.5.1 Subcategory summary Translations of this subcategory are dominated by a foreignising bias. Only one instance (Cloud City) remained of domesticating nature throughout all the sets. Moreover, Sanctuary Moon is an instance of a shift in bias, as the earliest rendition represented a domesticating approach and the latest available translations make use of foreignising procedures.

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3.1.6 Subcategory Characters a) Source text item: Artoo Detoo Context: but it certainly didnt feel distant to Artoo Detoo or See Threepio (SWT: 6) Renderings: set 1: Artoo Detoo (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: Erdwa Dedwa (procedure: calque) set 3: Erdwa Dedwa (procedure: calque) set 4: R2 D2 (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 5: R2-D2 (TUF; procedure: normalisation/mutation) Overall bias: foreignising domesticating Comments: set 1: original items are transferred without change, hence borrowing; set 2-3: original items are a phonetic representation of the droids designation composed of letters and numbers; the Polish version mimics this representation by means of literal translation; it is therefore a calque; set 4-5: possibly to avoid awkward form, the Polish rendition reverts to the letters-and-numbers designation; the form changes dramatically, hence mutation, as the original is irrecoverable. b) Source text item: See Threepio Context: but it certainly didnt feel distant to Artoo Detoo or See Threepio (SWT: 6) Renderings: set 1: See Threepio (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: Ce Trzypeo (procedure: calque) set 3: Ce Trzypeo (procedure: calque) 54

 set 4: C 3PO (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 5: See-Threepio (ROTS; procedure: borrowing/importation) Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising Comment: set 1: original items are transferred without change, hence borrowing; set 2-3: original items are a phonetic representation of the droids designation composed of letters and numbers; the Polish version mimics this representation by means of literal translation; it is therefore a calque; set 4: possibly to avoid awkward form, the Polish rendition reverts to the letters-and-numbers designation; the form changes dramatically, hence mutation, as the original is irrecoverable; set 5: this set represents a return to the procedure used in the earliest rendition. c) Source text item: Luke Skywalker Context: Luke Skywalker was twice the age of the ten-year-old vaporator (SWT: 16) Renderings: set 1: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 3: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 4: Luke Skywalker (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 5: Luke Skywalker (WG; procedure: borrowing/importation) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is transferred rather than calqued. 55

d) Source text item: Too-Onebee Context: perhaps the Wampa Ice Creature had struck him more seriously than Too-Onebee had diagnosed? (SWT: 252) Renderings: set 1: Too-Onebee (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 3: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 4: 2-1B (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 5: robot medyczny Too-Onebee (WG; procedure: borrowing + normalisation, gloss) Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising Comment: set 1: original items are transferred without change; set 2-4: the Polish rendition reverts to the letters-and-numbers designation of the character; the form changes dramatically, hence mutation, as the original is irrecoverable; set 5: transferred items are accompanied by a naturalising, explanatory gloss. e) Source text item: Sith Lord Context: Luke began to back away from the advancing Sith Lord. (SWT: 332) Renderings: set 1: Wadca Sith (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 2: Lord Sithu (procedure: calque) set 3: Lord Sith (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 4: Lord Sithw (procedure: calque) 56

 set 5: Lord Sithw (ROTS; procedure: calque) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: set 1: since Sith is transferred and Wadca is not a direct equivalent of Lord, this has been classified as a partially calqued semantic extension; set 2: since Sith is a neologism, it is not immediately recoverable in terms of meaning, there are different possibilities for rendition; Sithu is a valid form, hence calque; set 3: since the word Lord also functions in Polish, this has been classified as a partially calqued coinage; set 4-5: since Sith is a neologism, it is not immediately recoverable in terms of meaning, there are different possibilities for rendition; Sithw is a valid form, hence calque. 3.1.6.1 Subcategory summary Only one out of five items in this subcategory, Artoo Detoo, is rendered by means of a domesticating procedure. It is interesting to note that the earliest translations carried a foreignising bias, hence this is a rare example of a shift from foreignisation to domestication. Moreover, the strategies employed in See Threepio and Too-Onebee changed twice, the foreignising version being of the latest set. 3.1.7 Subcategory Vehicles and starships a) Source text item: Rand Ecliptic Context: Signed to serve aboard the freighter Rand Ecliptic just last week. (SWT: 19) Renderings: 57

 set 1: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 2: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 3: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 4: Rand Ecliptic (procedure: borrowing/importation) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: despite a filled logical entry (see Chapter 1), this proper name is transferred rather than calqued. b) Source text item: Millennium Falcon Context: Im Han Solo. Captain of the Millennium Falcon. (SWT: 90) Renderings: set 1: Millenium Falcon (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 2: Sok Millenium (procedure: calque) set 3: Sok Millenium (procedure: calque) set 4: Sok Tysiclecia (procedure: calque) set 5: Sok Millenium (TUF; procedure: calque) Overall bias: foreignising Comment: set 1: according to Sownik wyrazw obcych (Wydawnictwo Europa, 2001), millenium is accepted as a correct spelling in Polish, hence it cannot be regarded as a case of transference with possible misspelling; since Falcon is transferred on the other hand, set 1 is classified as an instance of a partially calqued coinage; set 2-3: in light of the above comment, these two sets are regarded as instances of calque; 58

 set 4: original items are transferred literally, hence calque; set 5: in light of the above comment, this set is regarded as an instance of calque. c) Source text item: TIE fighter Context: Its the short-range TIE fighter (SWT: 111) Renderings: set 1: cigacz klasy T (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 2: myliwiec klasa T (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 3: myliwiec klasa T (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 4: myliwiec typu TIE (procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging, diffusion) set 5: myliwiec TIE (WG; procedure: partially calqued coinage) Overall bias: domesticating foreiginising Comments: set 1: it is impossible to recover the original from the translated items, hence mutation; set 2-3: despite correct translation of fighter by myliwiec, the original passage is nevertheless irrecoverable, hence mutation; set 4: the translation of fighter and the transference of TIE is accompanied by an enhancing item typu, the use of which makes this set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure; set 5: since TIE is transferred intact, this set is classified as an instance of a partially calqued coinage. d) Source text item: X-Wing fighter

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Context: Theres not much difference control-wise between an X-wing fighter (SWT: 162) Renderings: set 1: X-skrzydowy myliwiec (procedure: calque) set 2: X-skrzydowy myliwiec (procedure: calque) set 3: X-skrzydowy myliwiec (procedure: calque) set 4: myliwiec typu X (procedure: normalisation/repackaging, diffusion) set 5: X-Wing (WG; procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging, condensation) Overall bias: foreignising domesticating foreignising Comments: set 1-3: original items are transferred literally, hence calque; set 4: the translation is accompanied by an enhancing item typu, the use of which is makes this set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure; since the reference of X in the Polish rendition is recoverable, this is not classified as an instance of mutation procedure; set 5: of the original phrase, only X-Wing remained in Polish rendition, hence borrowing; it is also the only word standing for the original phrase, hence the classification into a condensation procedure. e) Source text item: The Imperial Walker Context: The Imperial Walker docked at the opposite end of the deck (SWT: 456) Renderings: set 1: maszyna (procedure: normalisation/generalisation) set 2: n/a (procedure: n/a) set 3: azik (procedure: normalisation/generalisation) 60

 set 4: robot (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 5: maszyna kroczca AT-AT (XW; procedure: recognised exoticism/limited normalisation) Overall bias: domesticating foreignising/domesticating Comments: set 1: maszyna is an instance of a generalising procedure, since The Imperial Walker was indeed a machine; set 3: azik roughly refers back to the Walker item within the original passage; it is also a reference to a military vehicle popular in the 1970s; it can therefore be regarded as an instance of a generalising procedure, although it is extremely close to mutation; set 4: The Imperial Walker was certainly not a robot, therefore the original connotation cannot be recovered from the rendition, hence its classification as a mutation; set 5: the latest set offers a rendition through the use of another, more recognisable SC-specific term, accompanied by a classifying gloss; this makes the set an instance of a limited normalisation procedure. 3.1.7.1 Subcategory summary This subcategory is almost exclusively dominated by foreignising procedures. There are three instances, namely TIE fighter, X-Wing fighter and The Imperial Walker, where, at one point, a domesticating strategy was employed. They all, however, acquired a foreignising counterpart in the latest set, with the exception of The Imperial Walker, which is a borderline case, resulting from the limited normalisation procedure.

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3.1.8 Subcategory Organisations a) Source text item: Old Republic Context: The Old Republic was the Republic of legend (SWT: 3) Renderings: set 1: Stara Republika (procedure: calque) set 2: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque) set 3: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque) set 4: Dawna Republika (procedure: calque) set 5: Stara Republika (WG; procedure: calque) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: all sets are instances of calque, since both original items are translated literally into Polish. b) Source text item: Jedi Knights Context: under the wise rule of the Senate and the protection of the Jedi Knights (SWT: 3) Renderings: set 1: rycerze zwani Jedi (procedure: borrowing + normalisation/repackaging, diffusion) set 2: Rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 3: Rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 4: rycerze Jedi (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 5: rycerze Jedi (WG; procedure: partially calqued coinage) Overall bias: foreignising Comments:

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 set 1: the translation of Knights and the transference of Jedi is accompanied by an enhancing item zwani, the use of which makes this set an instance of repackaging, diffusion procedure; set 2-4: since only the Knights item is translated, these sets are instances of a partially calqued coinage. c) Source text item: Rebel Alliance Context: Luke as well as his fellow members of the Rebel Alliance (SWT: 195) Renderings: set 1: Zwizek Rebeliantw (procedure: calque, semantic extension) set 2: rebelianckie Przymierze (procedure: calque) set 3: rebelianckie Przymierze (procedure: calque) set 4: rebeliancki Sojusz (procedure: calque) set 5: Sojusz Rebeliantw (WG; procedure: calque) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: all sets are instances of calque; additionally, set 1 features a case of semantic extension, since Zwizek is not typically considered an equivalent of Alliance. d) Source text item: Imperial Senate Context: Well, the Imperial Senate will not sit still for this. (SWT: 21) Renderings: set 1: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 2: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) 63

 set 3: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 4: Senat Imperium (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) set 5: Imperialny Senat (WG; procedure: calque) Overall bias: domesticating foreignising Comments: set 1-4: since the grammatical category of Imperial (adjective) is changed in the Polish rendition (noun), these sets are instances of the syntactic-semantic modification procedure; set 5: both original items are literally translated, hence calque. e) Source text item: sandpeople Context: Im not too concerned about the jawas, but sandpeople (SWT: 54) Renderings: set 1: ludzie pustyni (procedure: calque/semantic extension) set 2: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque) set 3: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque) set 4: ludzie piasku (procedure: calque) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: set 1: since the item pustyni is not a typical equivalent of the original component sand, but a vague reference can be traced, it is an instance of a semantic extension;

64

 set 2-4: the original item is translated literally and adapted into Polish, hence calque. 3.1.8.1 Subcategory summary With the exception of Imperial Senate, the Organisation subcategory is exclusively dominated by foreignising procedures, in all its sets. 3.1.9 Subcategory Other a) Source text item: Journal of the Whillis Context: Journal of the Whillis (SWT: 4) Renderings: set 1: Dziennik Whillisa (procedure: normalisation/modification, syntactic-semantic) set 2: Dziennik Whillis (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 3: Dziennik Whillis (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 4: Dziennik Whillis (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: domesticating foreignising Comments: set 1: within the fictional world of Star Wars, the Whillis were an ancient order dedicated to the study of metaphysics; since the Polish rendition shifted the reference to singular, it is classified as a case of syntacticsemantic modification; set 2-4: since only the Journal item is translated, these sets are instances of a partially calqued coinage. b) Source text item: krayt dragon 65

Context: Thats a krayt dragon call! (SWT: 65) Renderings: set 1: skrzydlaty w (procedure: normalisation/mutation) set 2: krayt-smok (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 3: krayt-smok (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 4: smok krayt (procedure: partially calqued coinage) set 5: smok krayt (ROTS; procedure: partially calqued coinage) Overall bias: domesticating foreignising Comments: set 1: though fluent and coherent, the Polish rendition does not allow for recovery of the original phrase; it is an extreme case of mutation, since even the vaguest connotation with the original items cannot be found; set 2-5: though varied in form, these sets are all instances of a partially calqued coinage, as only one original item is translated. c) Source text item: sand-flies Context: Sand-flies buzzed lazily (SWT: 18) Renderings: set 1: pustynne muchy (procedure: calque/semantic extension) set 2: piasko-muchy (procedure: calque) set 3: piaskomuchy (procedure: calque) set 4: piaskomuchy (procedure: calque) set 5: n/a (procedure: n/a) Overall bias: foreignising Comments:

66

 set 1: since the item pustynne is not a typical equivalent of the original component sand, but a vague reference can be traced, it is an instance of a semantic extension; set 2-4: though varied in form, these sets are all instances of a partially calqued coinage, as only one original item is translated. d) Source text item: Corellians Context: Corellians pirates, most likely. (SWT: 84) Renderings: set 1: Korelianie (procedure: calque) set 2: Korelianie (procedure: calque) set 3: Korelianie (procedure: calque) set 4: Korelianie (procedure: calque) set 5: z Korelii (WG; procedure: normalisation/modification, syntacticsemantic) Overall bias: foreignising domesticating Comments: set 1-4: these sets are all instances of a phonologically adopted calque (initial C changes to K); set 5: this latest set features a shift in grammatical category from noun to adverb and is therefore classified as an instance of syntactic-semantic modification. e) Source text item: Gimer Stick Context: Yoda chewed on his Gimer Stick (SWT: 282) Renderings:

67

 set

1:

cienka

gazka

(procedure:

semantic

extension

normalisation/mutation) set 2: gazka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 3: gazka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 4: gazka gimer (procedure: partially calqued semantic extension) set 5: laska (ROTS; procedure: semantic extension + normalisation/repackaging, condensation) Overall bias: foreignising Comments: set 1: since gazka is not a typical equivalent of stick and the original neologism is lost and replaced by an adjective cienka, this set is regarded as a mixture of semantic extension and a mutation procedure; set 2-4: since only one original item is translated by a vague equivalent, these sets are classified as instances of a partially calqued semantic extension; set 5: since laska can be vaguely traced back to stick, it is classified as a semantic extension; however, since it stands alone for the whole original phrase, it is therefore a case of a repackaging, condensation procedure. 3.1.9.1 Subcategory summary Only one item in this subcategory, namely Corellians, is rendered using a domesticated procedure in the latest set. Other items are either foreignised since the earliest sets or have adopted a foreignising rendition recently. 3.2 Research summary There were potentially 125 different renditions to consider (five items in each of the five categories). Set 2, however, lacked two Polish counterparts and there 68

were also seven renditions not available in set 5 (items were not found in the selected literature). Therefore, the study features 116 complete renditions, described in terms of applied procedure. Research results confirm the initial hypothesis: based on the study of procedures employed in translations of SL items taken under study, one is able to form the conclusion that the dominant strategy in translating proper names in science fiction literature, as visible in the instance of Star Wars, is by far foreignising. Of the total body of 116 renditions, 65 (56%) were instances of calque; there were 25 normalisation procedures (22%) identified, along with 19 cases of borrowing (16%), 6 combinations of procedures (5%) and 1 instance of recognised exoticism, limited normalisation procedure (1%). It stems from the above that extremely foreignising procedures constitute 72% of all translations taken into consideration in the study. Breakdown of procedures from the viewpoint of individual sets reveals that calque has been the dominant procedure since the earliest translations. The highest percentage of this procedure is recorded in set 2 (70%), followed closely by set 3 (68%). Domesticating procedures were at their highest within sets 1 and 4 (28%). Set 5 represents a rapid turn towards foreignisation, showing a rise in the number of borrowing procedures (22%, as compared to 12% in set 4) and decrease in the number of instances of normalisation (11%, as compared to 28% in set 4). Instances of both covert and overt cultural substitution/acculturation were not found, possibly due to the lack of lexical items with strong cultural bias. Moreover, no cases of deletion were found within the procedures studied. It is interesting to note that nearly all names of locations are translated, save for one ("Anchorhead") which is transferred. Despite a filled logical entry borrowing was applied in this instance, which stands in contrast to the theories put forward by Vermes. 69

Names of characters are largely translated, due to their peculiar form (phonetic representation of letters-and-numbers designation). One exception, namely "Luke Skywalker" is borrowed into the Polish version, despite, again, a filled logical entry. Starship names are both translated ("Millennium Falcon" Sok Millenium) and transferred ("Rand Ecliptic"). Names of classes of starships are largely translated. All lexical items under the "Organisations" and "Other" subcategories are translated, with some extreme cases of creativity present ("krayt dragon" "skrzydlaty w"). Details concerning the research are presented in Appendix C.

3.2.1 Brief survey; comparison of results It is interesting to compare the above results with a survey carried out among members of the SF fandom in Poland. Using internet forums as means of gathering response, a group of 50 readers of SF literature were offered a questionnaire, in which fourteen SL lexical items were presented, along with three different renditions, of which the most natural and appropriate variant was to be selected. The items, as well as their Polish counterparts, were taken from the above study, with the exception of two items (Imperial Senate Senat, and Old Republic Republika), which have been provided by the present author. The results of the survey are to a great extent similar to the outcome of the study proper. Out of a total of 699 selections made, 378 (52%) pointed to calqued renditions and 189 (26%) choices concerned TL items created through the use of naturalising procedures. Items formed through combinations of translation procedures were picked 101 times (14%), whereas instances of borrowing were 70

selected 59 times (8%), which is the reverse of what was gathered from the study proper. Analysis of the survey identified items present in set 4 to be most eagerly selected by readers (30% of total choices made), followed closely by items taken from set 5 (26% of total choices made). Details concerning the survey are presented in Appendix D.

71

Conclusion

The present dissertation first focused on the theories concerning foreignisation and domestication mechanisms. There followed a definition and classification of proper names according to Newmark and Vermes; the chapter concluded with presentation of established classifications of translation procedures. Chapter 2 went on to give a brief outline of the science fiction genre, including its definitions and a brief history. George Lucass Star Wars was presented as a representative of SF and the object of study. The chapter concluded with an exploration of the Polish SF tradition. Having provided all necessary theoretical background, the present thesis then moved on to the main study in Chapter 3. Its results, compared to that of the survey, turned out to confirm the initial hypothesis, stated in 3.1.3. Results of the main study show beyond doubt that translations of contemporary SF literature are essentially foreignising. What is striking is that although domesticating procedures have significantly declined in recent renditions, as compared to previous versions, it is nevertheless clear that they have never constituted a majority of applied procedures. This essentially demonstrates the hypothesis concerning the dominance of foreignisation in the transfer from culturally dominant SL to the inferior TL. It is clear, therefore, that Venutis comments on foreignisation as means of combating the Englishlanguage culture system, are certainly not applicable to cases where the aforementioned model of transfer takes place, which confirms Hatim and Masons comments on the subject. The boundaries of the study present in Chapter 3 are of necessity rather strict. It would no doubt be interesting to extend the research to other popular 72

science fiction titles. Should similar results be found, the formulations expressed by the present author would indeed acquire more reliability.

73

Bibliography

Primary sources:
Lucas, George, Donald F. Glut, James Kahn 2005. Star Wars Trilogy. London: Orbit. Lucas, George. Wojny gwiazd [Star Wars].Trans. Andrzej Wrblewski.1 Lucas, George. Gwiezdne wojny [Star Wars]. In: Fikcje 0206,1012/1986, 1012/1987, 1 4/1988. Trans. Piotr W. Cholewa. Katowice: lski Klub Fantastyki. Lucas, George 1990. Gwiezdne wojny. Trans. Piotr W. Cholewa. Warszawa: Agencja Praw Autorskich i Wydawnictwo InterArt. Lucas, George 1998. Nowa nadzieja [A New Hope]. Trans. Piotr W. Cholewa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Glut, Donald F. Imperium kontratakuje [The Empire Strikes Back].2 Glut, Donald F. Imperium kontratakuje In: Fikcje 4/1988. Trans. Agnieszka Sylwanowicz. Katowice: lski Klub Fantastyki. Glut, Donald F. 1991. Imperium kontratakuje. Trans. Agnieszka Sylwanowicz. Warszawa: Agencja Praw Autorskich i Wydawnictwo InterArt. Glut, Donald F. 1999. Imperium kontratakuje. Trans. Agnieszka Sylwanowicz. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Kahn, James. Powrt Jedi [Return of the Jedi]. Trans. W. Wojtasiewicz. 1 Kahn, James 1992. Powrt Jedi. Trans. Piotr W. Cholewa. Warszawa: Agencja Praw Autorskich i Wydawnictwo InterArt. Kahn, James 1999. Powrt Jedi. Trans. Piotr W. Cholewa. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Luceno, James 2006. Jednoczca Moc [The Unifying Force]. Trans. Andrzej Syrzycki. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber.

1 2

Information concerning the date of publication and the publisher are unavailable. Information concerning the translator, the date of publication and the publisher are

unavailable.

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Salvatore, R. A. 2002. Atak klonw [Attack of the Clones]. Trans. Maciej Szymaski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Stackpole, Michael A. 2002. Ryzyko Wedgea [Wedges Gamble]. Trans. Katarzyna Laszkiewicz. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Stackpole, Michael A. 2001. X-Wingi: Eskadra otrw [X-Wing: Rogue Squadron]. Trans. Maciej Szymaski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber. Stover, Matthew 2005. Zemsta Sithw [Revenge of the Sith]. Trans. Maciej Szymaski. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Amber.

Material sources:
Aldiss, Brian 1988. Trillion Year Spree. London: Paladin Books. Baker, Mona 1998. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Baldick, Ch. 1991. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bassnett, Susan 1991. Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Brennan, Kristen 1999. Star Wars Origins: How did George Lucas create Star Wars? Jitterbug Fantasia. In: http://www.jitterbug.com/origins/index.html. ED January 14, 2006. Brykalski, Dawid 2006. Jestem z natury poganinem; In: http://www.ksiazka.net.pl. ED January 23, 2006. Clute, John, Peter Nicholls 1999. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. London: Orbit. Cuddon J.A. 1998. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. Denken, Oliver 1997. Gwiezdne wojny jak powstawaa kosmiczna trylogia [1996. Star Wars Die Film]. Pozna: Wydawnictwo In Rock. Fawcett, Peter 1997. Translation and Language. Linguistic Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Gunn, James 1985. Droga do Science Fiction. Od Gilgamesza do Wellsa [1977. The Road to Science Fiction: From Gilgamesh to Wells]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Alfa. Gunn, James 1986. Droga do Science Fiction. Od Wellsa do Heinleina [1977. The Road to Science Fiction: From Wells to Heinlein]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Alfa. Gunn, James 1987. Droga do Science Fiction. Od Heinleina do dzisiaj. [1979. The Road to Science Fiction: From Heinlein to Here]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Alfa.

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Gunn, James 1988. Droga do Science Fiction. Od dzisiaj do wiecznoci. [1982. The Road to Science Fiction: From Here to Eternity]. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Alfa. Hatim, B. and Mason, I. 1990. Discourse and the Translator. London and New York: Longman. Kajtoch, Wojciech 1983. Wstp do Solaris. In: ycie Literackie 1983/48. Krywak, Piotr 2005. Fantasy i science fiction, czyli znw o materii mieszaniu. In: Konspekt 1/2005. Krakw: Akademia Pedagogiczna Krakw. Krywak, Piotr 2005. W krainie dreszczowcw; In: Konspekt 2/2005. Krakw: Akademia Pedagogiczna Krakw. Kwieciski, Piotr 2001. Disturbing Strangeness. Foreignisation and Domestication in Translation Procedures in the Context of Cultural Assymetry. Toru: Wydawnictwo EDYTOR. Lucas, George 2004. Star Wars Trilogy. Lucasfilm Ltd. Munday, Jeremy 2001. Introducing Translation Studies. Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge. Newmark, Peter 1988a. A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International. Newmark, Peter 1988b. Approaches to Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International. Nida, Eugene 1964. Toward a Science of Translating. New York and London: Prentice Hall. Niewiadomski, Andrzej 1987. Polska Fantastyka Naukowa przewodnik. Warszawa: Iskry. Niewiadomski, Andrzej, Antoni Smuszkiewicz 1990. Leksykon Polskiej literatury fantastycznonaukowej. Pozna: Wydawnictwo Poznaskie. Nord, Ch. 1997. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Functionalist Approaches Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Venuti, Lawrence 1995. The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation. London and New York: Routledge. Vermes, Albert Pter 2003. Proper names in translation: an explanatory attempt. In: Across Languages and Cultures 4 (1), pp. 89-108. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad. Vinay, Jean-Paul and Darbelnet, Jean 1995. Comparative Stylistics of French and English: a Methodology for Translation. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

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Mechanizmy wyobcowania i adaptacji w tumaczeniach literatury science fiction, na przykadzie Gwiezdnych wojen" George'a Lucasa

Streszczenie
Celem niniejszej pracy jest zbadanie poj wyobcowania i adaptacji oraz czstotliwoci ich zastosowania, poprzez rne procedury, w tumaczeniach wspczesnej literatury science fiction. By mc zidentyfikowa dominacj jednej ze wspomnianych strategii tumaczeniowych, w niniejszej pracy zawarto badanie na piciu zestawach (setach) polskich wersji adaptacji ksikowych zagadnienia "Gwiezdnych wojen" (Epizody IV-VI) George'a Lucasa. Rozdzia pierwszy pracy przyblia czytelnikowi wyobcowania i adaptacji podajc ich definicje, a take przedstawiajc je w kontekcie historycznym. Jako, e w opinii autora poszczeglne procedury tumaczeniowe s najbardziej widoczne w tumaczeniach nazw wasnych, rozdzia ten podaje take ich szczegow klasyfikacj, na podstawie ktrej sformuowane zostan kategorie badanego sownictwa w rozdziale trzecim. Rozdzia pierwszy koczy si przedstawieniem czterech klasyfikacji procedur tumaczeniowych; zawarte w rozdziale trzecim badanie korzysta bdzie z klasyfikacji zaproponowanej przez Piotra Kwieciskiego. Rozdzia drugi przedstawia zagadnienia zwizane z science fiction jako gatunkiem literackim. Rozdzia zawiera najpopularniejsze definicje SF, oraz przyblia najwaniejsze pojcia zwizane z gatunkiem. Po przedstawieniu krtkiego rysu historycznego SF, rozdzia skupia si na Gwiezdnych wojnach George'a Lucasa jako na najpopularniejszym obecnie przedstawicielu science fiction; przytoczone zostay m.in. opinie badaczy, a take samego autora, na 77

temat elementw, ktre wpyny na ksztat tak powieci, jak i filmu. Rozdzia zamyka krtkie przedstawienie polskiej tradycji literatury fantastyczno-naukowej oraz przyblienie sylwetek najwaniejszych pisarzy i dzie z ni zwizanych. Rozdzia trzeci zawiera szczegowe zestawienie rde, na podstawie ktrych przeprowadzone zostao waciwe badanie. Wyszczeglnione zostaj zarwno oryginalne tytuy angielskie, jak i ich polskie odpowiedniki, ktre zebrano w pi zestaww. Najwczeniejszy zestaw tumacze pochodzi z pocztkw lat 80-tych; przekady te dokonane zostay nieoficjalnie przez fankluby w Warszawie i odzi. Najnowszy za zestaw tworzy sownictwo pochodzce z tytuw wydanych w cigu ostatnich trzech lat, dziki czemu tendencje tumaczeniowe zaobserwowa mona z perspektywy ponad dwudziestu lat. Po przedstawieniu waciwego badania, jego wyniki zestawione zostay z wywiadem dokonanym w grupie stu czytelnikw literatury science fiction. Przedstawiono im list czternastu oryginalnych nazw wasnych, zestawionych z trzema moliwymi wersjami polskimi, zaczerpnitymi z opisanych wczeniej zestaww i poproszono o wybranie najbardziej naturalnie brzmicego polskiego odpowiednika. Wyniki obu bada wykazuj zdecydowanie dominujc obecno strategii wyobcowania. Procedury wywoujce ten wanie efekt stanowiy ponad poow (56%) wszystkich zaobserwowanych procedur. Potwierdza to teori wysokiej tolerancji obcego sownictwa w docelowych systemach jzykowych, charakteryzujcych si niszym od rdowego systemu prestiem. Tendencj t potwierdzaj wyniki wywiadu wrd czytelnikw: ponad poowa wszystkich dokonanych wyborw (52%) wskazywaa na odpowiedniki polskie oryginalnego sownictwa, sformuowane za pomoc wyobcowujcych procedur. Szczegowe przedstawienie wynikw, wraz z opisem procentowym, wieczy rozdzia trzeci.

78

Badanie dostarcza cennych wskazwek odnonie panujcych obecnie tendencji w tumaczeniach literatury popularnej. Rozszerzenie badania na inne popularne tytuy science fiction pomogoby uwiarygodni wyniki zawarte w niniejszej pracy, a take pozwoli na daleko idce wnioski dotyczce wpywu kultury angielskojzycznej na jzyk polski.

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Appendix A: Campbells Heros Journey and Star Wars

Below is a table containing Campbell's prototypical elements of a story compared to Star Wars plot elements:
Table 1. Campbells Heros Journey and Star Wars. Brennan, Kristen. In: Jitterbug Fantasia. http://www.jitterbug.com/origins/myth.html. ED January 14, 2006.
Campbells Heros Journey I. Departure Princess Leias message Must help with the harvest Obi-Wan rescues Luke from the Sandpeople Escaping Tatooine Trash compactor II. Initiation The road of trials Lightsabre practice The meeting with the goddess Princess Leia Temptation away from the true path Luke is tempted by the Dark Side Atonement with the Father Darth Vader and Luke reconcile Apotheosis (becoming god-like) Luke becomes a Jedi The ultimate boon Death Star destroyed III. Return Refusal of the return Luke wants to stay and avenge Obi-Wan The magic flight Millennium Falcon Rescue from without Han saves Luke from Darth Vader Millennium Falcon destroys pursuing TIE Crossing the return threshold fighters Master of the two worlds Victory ceremony Freedom to live Rebellion is victorious over the Empire The call to adventure Refusal of the call Supernatural aid Crossing the first threshold The belly of the whale Star Wars

80

Appendix B: Complete list of researched vocabulary items

Table 2.
ST item

Complete list of researched vocabulary items (continued on next page).

TT item/equivalent set 2 Tatooine Anchorhead Zachodnie Morze Wydm pustkowia Jundlandu Kosmoport Mos Eisley posterunek Echo system Dagobah Miasto Chmur n/a n/a Erdwa Dedwa Ce Trzypeo Czarny Lord Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter 2-1B Lord Sithu n/a n/a n/a Rand Ecliptis piaskoczog Sok Millenium myliwiec ... klasa T X-skrzydowy myliwiec imperialny robot sondujcy gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium terenowe opancerzone transportowce gwiezdny krownik Rebelii n/a n/a n/a n/a Dawna Republika Rycerze Jedi Imperium Senat Imperium rebelianckie Przymierze ludzie piasku Jedcy Tusken Galaktyczne Imperium "Dziennik Whillis" piasko-muchy krayt-smok Moc Korelianie gazka gimer n/a n/a n/a

Tatooine Anchorhead Western Dune Sea The Jundland Wastes Mos Eisley Spaceport Echo Station Dagobah system Cloud City Great Pit of Carkoon Sanctuary Moon Artoo Detoo See Threepio Dark Lord of the Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter Too-Onebee Sith Lord Salacious Crumb Eve-Ninedenine Goldenrod Rand Ecliptic sandcrawler Millennium Falcon TIE fighter X-Wing fighter Imperial Probe Droid Imperial Star Destroyer All Terrain Armored Transports Rebel Star Cruiser Super Star Destroyer A-Wing fighters The Imperial Walker Home-One Old Republic Jedi Knights Empire Imperial Senate Rebel Alliance sandpeople Tusken Raiders Galactic Empire Journal of the Whillis Sand-flies krayt dragon The Force Corellians Gimer Stick Chief of Cyborg Operations Galactic Civil War Leafbrothers

set 1 Tatooine Anchorhead Zachodnia Pustynia Piaszczysta Judland port kosmiczny Mos Eisley Echo-Stacja system Dagobah Miasto Chmur wielki D Carkoon ksiyc Artoo Detoo See Threepio Lord Ciemnoci ... z planety Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter Too-Onebee Wadca Sith Lubieny Okruch Eve-Ninedenine zota paka Rand Ecliptic pojazd gsienicowy Millenium Falcon cigacz klasy T X-skrzydowy myliwiec imperialny robot-sonda gwiezdny niszczyciel opancerzone transportery terenowe gwiezdny krownik Super Niszczyciel Gwiezdny myliwce A-skrzydowe maszyna Baza Stara Republika rycerze zwani Jedi Imperium Senat Imperium Zwizek Rebeliantw ludzie pustyni Tusken Raiders Dziennik Whillisa pustynne muchy skrzydlaty w "Sia" Korelianie cienka gazka szef operacji na cyborgach Galaktyczna Wojna Domowa bracia poprzez licie

set 3 Tatooine Anchorhead Zachodnie Morze Wydm pustkowia Jundlandu Kosmoport Mos Eisley posterunek Echo system Dagobah Miasto Chmur Wielka jama Carkoon ksiyc-sanktuarium Erdwa Dedwa Ce Trzypeo Czarny Lord Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter 2-1B Lord Sith Lubieny Okruch Eva Dziewidedziewi Zota Sztaba Rand Ecliptis piaskoczog Sok Millenium myliwiec ... klasa T X-skrzydowy myliwiec imperialny robot sondujcy gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium terenowe opancerzone transportowce gwiezdny krownik Rebelii Gwiezdny Superniszczyciel A-skrzydowe myliwce azik Baza Jeden Dawna Republika Rycerze Jedi Imperium Senat Imperium rebelianckie Przymierze ludzie piasku Jedcy Tusken Galaktyczne Imperium "Dziennik Whillis" piaskomuchy krayt-smok Moc Korelianie gazka gimer szef dziaa cyborgw Galaktyczna Wojna Domowa bracia-licie

OTHER

ORGANISATIONS

VEHICLES & STARSHIPS

CHARACTERS

LOCATIONS

81

ST item Tatooine Anchorhead Western Dune Sea The Jundland Wastes Mos Eisley Spaceport Echo Station Dagobah system Cloud City Great Pit of Carkoon Sanctuary Moon Artoo Detoo See Threepio Dark Lord of the Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter Too-Onebee Sith Lord Salacious Crumb Eve-Ninedenine Goldenrod Rand Ecliptic sandcrawler Millennium Falcon TIE fighter X-Wing fighter Imperial Probe Droid Imperial Star Destroyer All Terrain Armored Transports Rebel Star Cruiser Super Star Destroyer A-Wing fighters The Imperial Walker Home-One Old Republic Jedi Knights Empire Imperial Senate Rebel Alliance sandpeople Tusken Raiders Galactic Empire Journal of the Whillis Sand-flies krayt dragon The Force Corellians Gimer Stick Chief of Cyborg Operations Galactic Civil War Leafbrothers

TT item/equivalent

set 4
Tatooine Anchorhead Zachodnie Morze Wydm pustkowia Jundlandu Kosmoport Mos Eisley posterunek Echo ukad Dagobah Miasto w Chmurach Wielka Jama Carkoon ksiyc-sanktuarium R2 D2 C 3PO Czarny Lord Sith Luke Skywalker Biggs Darklighter 2-1B Lord Sithw Lubieny Okruch EV 9D9 zota sztaba Rand Ecliptic piaskoczog Sok Tysiclecia myliwiec ... typu TIE myliwiec typu X imperialny robot sondujcy gwiezdny niszczyciel Imperium terenowe opancerzone transportery gwiezdny krownik Rebelii Gwiezdny superniszczyciel myliwce A robot Baza Jeden Dawna Republika rycerze Jedi Imperium Senat Imperium rebeliancki Sojusz ludzie piasku Jedcy Tusken galaktyczne Imperium "Dziennik Whillis" piaskomuchy smok krayt Moc Korelianie gazka gimer szef dziau cyborgw galaktyczna wojna domowa bracia-licie

set 5
Tatooine (WG) Anchorhead (WG) n/a jundlandzkie pustkowia (ROTS) n/a n/a n/a n/a Wielka Jama Carkoon (TUF) n/a R2-D2 (TUF) See-Threepio (ROTS) Czarny Lord Sithw (ROTS) Luke Skywalker (WG) Biggs Darklighter (WG) robot medyczny Too-Onebee (WG) Lord Sithw (ROTS) n/a n/a Zota Sztaba (TUF) n/a n/a Sok Millenium (TUF) myliwiec TIE (WG) X-wing (WG) n/a imperialny niszczyciel gwiezdny (WG) n/a n/a gwiezdny superniszczyciel (TUF) n/a maszyna kroczca AT-AT (XW) n/a Stara Republika (WG) rycerze Jedi (WG) Imperium (WG) Imperialny Senat (WG) Sojusz Rebeliantw (WG) n/a Jedcy Tusken (AOTC) Galaktyczne Imperium (ROTS) n/a n/a smok krayt (ROTS) Moc (WG) z Korelii (WG) laska (ROTS) n/a galaktyczna wojna domowa (WG) n/a

OTHER

ORGANISATIONS

VEHICLES & STARSHIPS

CHARACTERS

LOCATIONS

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Appendix C: Details concerning the main research

Table 3.

Details concerning the breakdown of the number of translation operations by set and procedure. No. of occurences in Set: 1 6 9 3 7 25 2 3 16 4 23 3 3 17 5 25 4 3 14 1 7 25 5 4 9 2 1 2 18

Procedure: borrowing calque combinations recognised exoticism normalisation deletion covert cultural subst. overt cultural subst. Subtotal:

Total: 19 65 6 1 25 116

Global breakdown of procedures

16% 22%

Borrowing

1% 5%

Calque
Combinations
Recognised exoticism
Normalisation

56%

Diagram 1. Global breakdown of procedures identified in the main research.

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Appendix D: Details concerning the survey conducted among SF readers

Below is the questionnaire offered to the survey participants: W podanych poniej przykadach, prosz zaznaczy najbardziej odpowiedni (pynn, naturalnie brzmic) polsk wersj danej oryginalnej nazwy wasnej:
1. The Jundland Wastes: A) Jundland B) pustkowia Jundlandu C) jundlandzkie pustkowia 2. Artoo Detoo: A) Artoo Detoo B) Erdwa Dedwa C) R2-D2 3. See Threepio: A) See Threepio B) Ce Trzypeo C) C 3PO 4. Too-Onebee: A) Too-Onebee B) 2-1B C) robot medyczny Too-Onebee 5. Millennium Falcon: A) Millennium Falcon B) Sok Millenium C) Sok Tysiclecia 6. TIE fighter: A) cigacz klasy T B) myliwiec typu TIE C) myliwiec TIE 7. X-Wing fighter: A) X-skrzydowy myliwiec B) myliwiec typu X C) X-Wing 8. Rebel Alliance: A) Zwizek Rebeliantw B) rebelianckie Przymierze C) Sojusz Rebeliantw 9. krayt dragon: A) skrzydlaty w B) krayt-smok C) smok krayt 10. Gimer Stick: A) cienka gazka B) gazka gimer C) laska 11. Cloud City: A) Cloud City B) Miasto Chmur C) Miasto w Chmurach 12. Jedi Knights: A) Jedi B) rycerze zwani Jedi C) Rycerze Jedi 13. Imperial Senate: A) Senat B) Senat Imperium C) Imperialny Senat 14. Old Republic: A) Republika B) Stara Republika C) Dawna Republika

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Table 4.

Details concerning the breakdown of selections by procedure and percentage. Five votes in total were not cast. Procedure: borrowing calque combinations recognised exoticism normalisation deletion covert cultural subst. overt cultural subst. Total: No. of selections Breakdown (%) 118 8% 730 53% 187 13% 0 360 0 0 0 1395 0% 26% 0% 0% 0% 100%

Following is a list of participants of the survey: AdiSon, Agata Olempiejuk, Akashka89, an_ge, Anarchist, Ante Gregu, Anubis, Arthis, Askar, Badus, Bard, Bartek Ciunowicz, Bartomiej Rozmarynowski, Bizon, Brzoza, Burzol, Caeradwyn, ceta, Chiss, Craven, Cylindryk, DantE, Darek Jedi, djsmol, Doman, Drake, Ela, Falcon, faultfett, Ferek, Fizyk, Franki, Frost, Gaber, Gargooletz, gibonson, Greatone, greedo_85, Grey, hons, Inkwizytor, Io Nois, Irbendal, Isa Modzelewska, Jaden Kast, Jaqob, Jaxa, Jedi Grzyb, jedi_kawon, JORUUS, Kenobix, kicanka, Kiender, Kol King, KoZi, kreet, Krzychoo, Laie, Laurana, Lee_Nox, Long JB, Lorienjo, Mangus, Mazar, Mefisto, Merridius, MidMad, Mike, Mirax, Mroczny, NaVaR, N'Loriel, noggin nogarung, Padme, Pafawag, Paula, Phab, Puszon, qdlaty, Rabban, Rael, Ragnus, Rhotax, Ricky Skywalker, Rif, Ryjek, Seji, SeventhSon, Shonsu, SithLady, starlift, Szept, t_pot, Tarkis, Technik, Tremayne, Voras, Wojtek, Woej, Worm, Yako, Yarosh, ZDZS, ziem.

Appendix E: Interview with Piotr W. Cholewa

(ukasz Motkowski) W jakim stopniu mwi mona o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozrywkowej? Czy takie jej ujcie wymusza na tumaczu dostarczenia czytelnikowi tekstu uproszczonego wzgldem oryginau, jeli jzyk, ktrym posuguje si autor uznany zostanie jako trudny w odbiorze? (Piotr W. Cholewa) W takim samym, jak o dowolnej innej literaturze. To znaczy, istniej "czysto rozrywkowe" (cokolwiek to oznacza) teksty science fiction, istniej teksty "gboko problemowe" (cokolwiek to oznacza), oraz mnstwo tekstw pomidzy tymi biegunami. W tym literatura sf nie rni si od innych gazi literackich. Dla tumacza niewiele z tego wynika. Jeli mamy do czynienia z tekstem czysto rozrywkowym, to ju na poziomie oryginau jzyk bywa uproszczony. Wic to, o co przy tumaczeniu naprawd trzeba zadba, to nie upraszczanie jzyka, ale zachowanie "rozrywkowoci". Byoby naprawd niedobrze, gdyby tekst rozrywkowy w oryginale, w przekadzie okaza si nieciekawy i nudny. Jzyk a waciwie jego poziom - naley zachowywa tak, jak zaplanowa to autor. (M) Z jzykowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudnoci napotka moe tumacz science fiction? (PWC) Rozmaite. W utworach science fiction istotny bywa niekiedy czon "science" - to prostu wypada wiedzie, o czym autor pisze, a wiedza taka nie jest niestety powszechna. Jeli tumaczymy co na temat wirtualnej rzeczywistoci, naleaoby co wiedzie o komputerach, jeli teksty Egana - to o matematyce. I tak dalej. Oczywicie, problem znajomoci tematu pojawia si przy kadym tumaczeniu (jeli mainstreamowa ksika dotyczy - powiedzmy - druyny baseballowej, warto sprawdzi, jakie s zasady tej gry), jednak przy science fiction chodzi czsto o dziedziny cise. Nawet jeli mamy do czynienia z technik cakowicie wymylon, jak w Gwiezdnych wojnach, naley dopilnowa, by stworzone terminy brzmiay sensownie, naturalnie i eby stosowa je konsekwentnie. Tym bardziej, e s wymylone. W opisie samochodu nie musimy szczeglnie si stara, eby kierownic zawsze nazywa kierownic - a statku kosmicznym moe by wolant, drek, dojstik albo co jeszcze. (M) Popularne tytuy SF, jak chociaby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekay si licznych kontynuacji. Czy Pana zdaniem istnieje konieczno pozostania w zgodnoci z istniejcymi wczeniej tumaczeniami podczas przekadu nowego tytuu takiej serii? (PWC) To pytanie dotyczy jakby dwch spraw. Oczywicie, e tak. Istnieje konieczno, zachowanie zgodnoci to - jak si wydaje wymg przyzwoitego wydania, uczciwoci wobec czytelnika i tak dalej. Niestety, w praktyce wydawniczej tak czsto nie jest. (M) Czy Pana zdaniem dzisiejsze tumaczenia science fiction wykazuj tendencj do wyobcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tumacza? Czy tumacz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginaowi, pozostawiajc np. oryginalne nazwy wasne w przetumaczonym tekcie, czy te dokona penej adaptacji tekstu? (PWC) Nie podjbym si analizy statystycznej. Owszem, nazwy wasne czsto zostaj zachowane - ale przecie nie jest to cecha akurat tekstw science fiction. Prosz zauway, e jednak zawsze piszemy Liverpool, a nie "Basen Wtrbki" (Pool of Liver), jednak rwnoczenie Nowy

86

Jork (a nie New York) - cho z drugiej strony jednak New Jersey. W duej mierze zaley to od brzmienia, od tego, czy tumaczenie nazwy nie wypadnie nieintencjonalnie miesznie (Niebochd zamiast Skywalkera). Z drugiej strony mamy do czynienia z anglicyzacj jzyka potocznego, wic jeli tekst ma brzmie naturalnie (a o to przecie chodzi), to pewne foreignization jest konieczne. Mam wraenie, e trudno tu silnie wyrni ktrkolwiek z tendencji. (M) Czy wedug Pana tendencja w tumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniaa si, czy te pozostaje wci staa (wyobcowanie, bd adaptacja)? (PWC) Jak wspomniaem wyej, silniejsza jest chyba tendencja wyobcowania ale wynika to z tendencji obserwowanych w jzyku potocznym. (M) Jaka Pana zdaniem tendencja powinna dzi przywieca tumaczom? (PWC) Nie wydaje mi si, eby tumacz, zaczynajc przekad, z gry decydowa, czy skieruje si w stron adaptacji, czy wyobcowania. Uwaam, e bardzo mocno zaley to od charakteru, klimatu samego tekstu. Czy powinien by bardziej "egzotyczny", czy raczej swojski. Tym bardziej, e w obu przypadkach atwo o przesad. (M) Czy Pana zdaniem po literatur science fiction siga si w Polsce chtnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdz niektrzy, wyparcie przez tytuy stricte fantasy? (PWC) Fantasy w swej masie wydaje si atwiejsza w odbiorze. Science fiction jak ju wspomniaem - wymaga pewnej technicznej wiedzy, czy raczej intuicji. By moe dlatego teksty fantasy obecnie wydaj si bardziej popularne. Nie wydaje mi si jednak, eby tendencja ta by staa, tym bardziej, e granice midzy tymi odmianami mocno si zacieraj. Mamy przecie urban fantasy, a nawet Gwiezdne wojny czsto s przyporzdkowywane do nurtu fantasy, a nie science fiction. (M) Jak duy wpyw na tumaczenia duych serii science fiction maj fani danego tytuu zrzeszeni w fandom? (PWC) Niezbyt wielki. Owszem, stanowi co w rodzaju zorganizowanej opinii publicznej, ich gos jest lepiej syszalny, oceny zwykle lepiej wywaone i z lepsz argumentacj (choby dlatego, e czytali wicej i maj lepsze pole do porwna). Tworz pewien krg opiniotwrczy. Jednake nie s a tak liczni, by ich opinie musiay by dla wydawcy wice. Z drugiej strony jednak zwykle s to opinie suszne (co pokazuje rynek), wic coraz czciej wydawcy - w miar moliwoci - bior je pod uwag. Mam nadziej, e bdzie tak coraz czciej.

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Appendix F: Interview with Agnieszka Sylwanowicz

(M) W jakim stopniu mwi mona o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozrywkowej? (Agnieszka Sylwanowicz) Nigdy nie byam zwolenniczk podziaw gatunkowych, najchtniej dziel literatur na dobr i z. SF jako lit. rozrywkowa - o tyle, o ile mwi o rzeczach rozrywkowych, a wic zapewne gwnie wanie space opera; mamy przecie duo SF problemowej, bynajmniej nie rozrywkowej choby taka LeGuin, Wilhelm czy Brunner. (M) Czy takie jej ujcie wymusza na tumaczu dostarczenia czytelnikowi tekstu uproszczonego wzgldem oryginau, jeli jzyk, ktrym posuguje si autor uznany zostanie jako trudny w odbiorze? (AS) NIE, NIE I JESZCZE RAZ NIE! Obowizkiem (powoaniem, posannictwem?) tumacza jest przetumaczy tekst moliwie wiernie, bez uszczerbku dla jzyka przekadu, tak, by wraenie czytelnika przekadu byo jak najbardziej zblione do wraenia czytelnika oryginau. Nie tumaczowi jest dane poprawia autora. Jeli j. oryginau zostanie uznany za trudny w odbiorze (tak nawiasem mwic - znasz jaki przykad? Mnie si to wydaje do hipotetyczne), to ksiki albo nie naley tumaczy (bo za trudna, ale dla czytelnika, nie dla tumacza), albo jednak ambitnie wyda. Ale nie zmienia - nie mamy prawa tego robi. Autor napisa to tak, jak napisa. Chyba e si z nim porozumiemy. Ciekawi mnie ew. przykad, bo trudno mi sobie wyobrazi rozrywkow SF napisan za trudnym jzykiem. Uwaam, e rwnie sumiennie, a najlepiej z pasj, naley tumaczy Tolkiena, jak "arlekiny". Tego wymaga profesjonalizm. Rozumiem, e mwimy o tumaczeniach profesjonalnych, a nie amatorskich, cho i efekty takiej pracy mona znale w ksigarniach. (M) Z jzykowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudnoci napotka moe tumacz science fiction? (AS) Tak na szybko - chyba najwiksze zwizane z neologizmami. Taki np. j. ang. ma ogromn atwo tworzenia nowych sw, u nas z tym gorzej. No i problemy natury naukowo-technicznej - dobrze jest si zna na tym, co si tumaczy... (M) Popularne tytuy SF, jak chociaby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekay si licznych kontynuacji. Czy Pani zdaniem istnieje konieczno pozostania w zgodnoci z istniejcymi wczeniej tumaczeniami podczas przekadu nowego tytuu takiej serii? (AS) Absolutnie tak! W tym wypadku dodaabym te, e w zgodnoci z tumaczeniem filmu. Na szczcie pierwsze wersje kinowe byy do dobrze przetumaczone, na tyle, e polskie teksty weszy do uytku wrd fanw, ale ju np. wersja "odczyszczona", bodaje na 20-lecie premiery, wydana na kasetach, bya przetumaczona straszliwie, "po swojemu", nie wiedzie czemu nie skorzystano z poprzedniej wersji kinowej, i w efekcie tumacz dosta Zotego Meteora (antynagroda KF). Problem by si oczywicie pojawi, gdyby wersja kinowa bya za. Wtedy opowiadaabym si za ulepszeniami. Natomiast na pewno przy takich dzieach jak GW powinna by jedna osoba (zesp osb), czuwajca nad caoci terminologii, bo chyba o tym mwimy? Oczywicie musi to by znawca tematu, a nie drtwy redaktor. Rzadko zagldam do polskich ksiek ze wiata GW, ale z tego, co widziaam, z tym czuwaniem nie jest w "Amberze" najle-

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piej. Stwarza to zamt i rozwciecza fanw, ktrzy akurat do tego dziea maj stosunek wielce emocjonalny. Jak zwykle, chodzi o profesjonalizm - w tym wypadku wydawnictwa. Chocia i tumacz by si chyba nie rozchorowa, gdyby przypilnowa poprzedniej terminologii? (M) Czy Pani zdaniem dzisiejsze tumaczenia science fiction wykazuj tendencj do wyobcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tumacza? (AS) Pytanie nie najszczliwiej skierowane - po polsku czytam polsk SF, anglojzyczna staram si w oryginale (co ostatnio jest do proste, poniewa zupenie nie mam czasu i bardzo starannie wybieram nieliczne tytuy). Pamitam dyskusj wrd znajomych, z ktrych kto zobaczy wanie w jakiej ksice GW "blaster" i dziwi si, dlaczego to nie "miotacz". Skoro pojawi si "blaster", to wiadczyoby to o "foreignization" - a moe o niechlujstwie tumacza? Przy zbytnim zaawansowaniu tego procesu tumaczenie mona ju sobie darowa, prawda? (M) Czy tumacz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginaowi, pozostawiajc np. oryginalne nazwy wasne w przetumaczonym tekcie, czy te dokona penej adaptacji tekstu? (AS) Wydaje mi si, e to zaley od tumacza i/lub wydawnictwa. Ja bym bya jednak za przekadaniem (nie adaptacj, bo to mi trci zbytni dowolnoci, ale tu si chyba czepiam), bo chyba dobrze wiedzie, jakie skojarzenia budzi nazwa statku Hana Solo? Poza tym jzyk polski jest na tyle gitki, e zawsze da si, lepiej lub gorzej, przekaza czytelnikw, co autor sobie wymyli. To jest temat na dusz dyskusj - np. mieszanka angielsko-oryginalna w tumaczeniu Skibniewskiej "Wadcy Piercieni" (ale zachowania pewnych nazw po angielsku yczy sobie sam JRRT); cakowite spolszczenie trylogii o krlewskim zabjcy Hobb, co, moim zdaniem, doskonale tym ksikom robi, i dowolna mieszanka proporcji polskich i ang. nazw wasnych w innych ksikach SF. Nie pamitam w tej chwili przykadu zostawienia wszystkich nazw po angielsku, ale zapewne takie s. Zostawianie nazw ang. ma taki efekt, e dla czytelnikw przekadu kosmos (mwic w uproszczeniu) jest zaludniony osobnikami kultury nam obcej, bo anglosaskiej; podczas gdy dla czytelnikw oryginau - osobnikami jak najbardziej swojskimi, co si kci z moim zaoeniem wywierania tego samego efektu. Z drugiej strony nawet bohaterowie Lema mieli angielskie nazwiska, wic poniekd jestemy przyzwyczajeni do anglosaskiej inwazji kosmosu - w sumie to oni wymylili wspczesn form SF... Natomiast za jak najbardziej uzasadnione uwaam zostawianie nazw brzmicych obco lub nic nie znaczcych dla czytelnikw oryginau (Yoda, Vader, Kenobi, Kashyyyk, zagldajc na najblisze nam podwrko). (M) Czy wedug Pani tendencja w tumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniaa si, czy te pozostaje wci staa (wyobcowanie, bd adaptacja)? (AS) Z przyczyn podanych wyej nie wiem, ale zaryzykowaabym teori, e przez analogi z pogarszaniem si standardw w innych dziedzinach ycia to samo mamy w tumaczeniach, a wic zaryzykowaabym wyobcowanie ale oczywicie mog si myli. Naprawd za mao czytam przekadw. I w sumie to jednak chyba zaley od tumacza. (M) Jaka Pani zdaniem tendencja powinna dzi przywieca tumaczom? (AS) Wedug Paskiej terminologii - adaptacja. Ostatecznie chodzi o tumaczenie osobie nie znajcej oryginau o co w oryginale chodzi. (M) Czy Pani zdaniem po literatur science fiction siga si w Polsce chtnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdz niektrzy, wyparcie przez tytuy stricte fantasy?

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(AS) Na prawd nie wiem. Sysz narzekania na zalew fantasy i brak dobrej, twardej SF, wic moe nie damy si zala? Tylko czy kto zechce pisa (po polsku) albo wydawa obc SF? Ja bym bya za, b. lubi tward SF i nawet ostatnio czytaam wietn trylogi (niestety, bez ostatniego tomu), ale wydawca powiedzia, e nie wyda, bo cho jest naprawd dobra, to zbyt ambitna i pewnie si nie sprzeda... Nie mwic ju o robocie dla tumacza, bo mnstwo tam neologizmw. Ale bo i wymaga ich sytuacja. Wracajc do Paskiego pytania - po SF siga si chyba mniej chtnie, bo, oglnie rzecz biorc, jest trudniejsza od przecitnej, dominujcej na rynku fantasy. O ile SF w ogle jest wydawana... (M) Jak duy wpyw na tumaczenia duych serii science fiction maj fani danego tytuu zrzeszeni w fandom? (AS) Hmmm... wiem, e dziki zmasowanej akcji fanw mielimy kopie z napisami (a nie tylko z dubbingiem) E I-III GW, i e dystrybutor "Wadcy Piercieni" zosta zalany mailami domagajcymi si w napisach tumaczenia Skibniewskiej, a nie oziskiego. Nie wiem, na ile pokrywao si to z zamiarami dystrybutora, ale fani na pewno wykonali ogromn robot. Co do ksiek wiem jedno - czytelnicy SF jak nikt inny ledz przekady i interesuj si nimi, chtnie rozmawiajc z tumaczami o ulubionych dzieach, wytykajc im bdy i chwalc za udane propozycje. Wiem, e tumacz "Harry'ego P." konsultowa si z czytelnikami w sprawie pomysw na neologizmy w kolejnych tomach ksiki. Czyli jaki tam wpyw jest...

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Appendix G: Interview with Maciej Szymaski

(M) W jakim stopniu mwi mona o literaturze science fiction jako literaturze rozrywkowej? Czy takie jej ujcie wymusza na tumaczu dostarczenia czytelnikowi tekstu uproszczonego wzgldem oryginau, jeli jzyk, ktrym posuguje si autor uznany zostanie jako trudny w odbiorze? (Maciej Szymaski) 99% wszelkiej beletrystyki to literatura rozrywkowa. To samo dotyczy s-f. Dodam, e przez rozrywk rozumiem tu wzbudzanie w sposb sztuczny reakcji emocjonalnej (nie tylko miechu, rzecz jasna, ale take smutku, zadumy, susznego gniewu itp.). Tumacz ma wic tylko jedno zadanie: zrobi wszystko, by wzbudzi w czytelniku lokalnym te same reakcje. Nie umiem sobie wyobrazi sytuacji, w ktrej uznabym, e polski czytelnik jest gupszy i nie zrozumie, wic trzeba mu uproci. Jeeli zrozumienie tekstu oryginalnego wymaga np. znajomoci historii czy kultury popularnej Ameryki, to tumacz ma obowizek subtelnie zasugerowa w kontekst, w ostatecznoci nawet dodajc przypis. Jeli mamy do czynienia z literatur s-f cakowicie oderwan od "ziemskiego" kontekstu, pozostaje jedynie wierno oryginaowi. (M) Z jzykowego punktu widzenia, na jakie trudnoci napotka moe tumacz science fiction? (MS) Nie spotkaem si jeszcze z powieciami, w ktrych trudnoci byby sam jzyk, czy zabawa jzykiem na masow skal - a umiem sobie wyobrazi taki koszmar - wic jeli chodzi o problemy, mam do powiedzenia tylko jedno sowo: neologizmy. Mona zaryzykowa twierdzenie, e s-f to ksiki powicone rzeczom, ktrych nie ma. S to zatem rzeczy, ktre trzeba nazwa :) Tworzc polskie odpowiedniki neologizmw staram si - o ile to moliwe - z jednej strony odda sens oryginau, a z drugiej zachowa zwiz, "wymawialn" form, ktra naprawd mogaby powsta w naszym jzyku. Tak si nieszczliwie skada, e gdy autor anglojzyczny wymyli sowo zoone z dwch jednosylabowych wyrazw, doskonale oddajce sens tego, co chcia powiedzie, to owe wyrazy w polszczynie maj odpowiedniki zoone z trzech i wicej sylab - zgodnie z prawem Murphy'ego, oczywicie. To dlatego czytelnicy tak czsto pluj na tumaczy za tworzenie jzykowych potworkw... (M) Popularne tytuy SF, jak chociaby Gwiezdne wojny, doczekay si licznych kontynuacji. Czy Pana zdaniem istnieje konieczno pozostania w zgodnoci z istniejcymi wczeniej tumaczeniami podczas przekadu nowego tytuu takiej serii? (MS) Moim zdaniem istnieje konieczno pozostania w zgodnoci z poprzednimi tumaczeniami w serii, ale nie zawsze jest to moliwe. Przykad 1: do niejasn nazw, ktra pojawia si we wczeniejszej powieci tylko jako nic nieznaczcy ozdobnik, przetumaczono w sposb X. W powieci pniejszej okazuje si, e nazw t mona jedynie przetumaczy jako Y, jeeli cao ma mie jakikolwiek sens... Zdarza si tak, niestety, a wtedy zmiana jest konieczna. Przykad 2: tumacz dostaje propozycj przejcia serii i ma naprawd mao czasu na wykonanie pierwszego przekadu. Nie sposb przeczyta 50 tomw w 2 tygodnie. Nie sposb wyszukiwa szuka nazw napotkanych w tomie 51, a cilej ich polskich odpowiednikw (!), w 50 tomach... Nie sposb dobiera wycznie takich tumaczy, ktrzy znaj na wylot dan seri, cho nigdy dotd nad ni nie pracowali.... Przykad 3: poprzedni tumacz wygupi si tak koszmarnie, e nie pozostaje nic innego, jak tylko odstpstwo od jego przekadu :)

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(M) Czy Pana zdaniem dzisiejsze tumaczenia science fiction wykazuj tendencj do wyobcowania (foreignization) czy adaptacji (domestication) tekstu przez tumacza? Czy tumacz raczej pozostanie wierny oryginaowi, pozostawiajc np. oryginalne nazwy wasne w przetumaczonym tekcie, czy te dokona penej adaptacji tekstu? (M) Czy wedug Pana tendencja w tumaczeniach na przestrzeni lat zmieniaa si, czy te pozostaje wci staa (wyobcowanie, bd adaptacja)? (M) Jaka Pana zdaniem tendencja powinna dzi przywieca tumaczom? (MS) W pierwszej chwili pomylaem, e mamy tendencj do zachowywania nazw obcych w oryginale. e dawniej tumaczono wszystko, spolszczajc nawet imiona bohaterw. Mam jednak wraenie, e widywaem te przed laty powieci, w ktrych w oryginale pozostawiano zatrwaajc liczb sw - moe wynikao to ze zwykej niewiedzy tumaczy gatunku uwaanego dawniej za poledni? Nie wiem, naprawd trudno mi oceni kierunek zmian, zwaszcza, e nie czytam dzi zbyt wiele s-f (poza SW, rzecz jasna, cho i tu mam od jakiego czasu przestj). (MS) Jeli chodzi o moje tumaczenia, to staram si zachowa rozsdek i szukam zotego rodka. Uzasadnienie: nie chc, eby czytelnik czu si totalnie obco czytajc mj przekad, ale jednoczenie nie chc, eby czu si w wiecie Gwiezdnych Wojen jak na wakacjach we wschodniej Polsce. Przykad: klasy okrtw i nazwy wasne okrtw. Uwaam, e zachowanie tych pierwszych w oryginale dobrze suy klimatowi i spjnoci powieci (cyklu), natomiast tumaczenie tych drugich (w miar moliwoci, rzecz jasna) bywa konieczne, jeli czytelnik ma w peni zrozumie intencje autora (a to dlatego, e nazwy poszczeglnych jednostek nadawane s przez ludzi, bohaterw, maj dla nich znaczenie, mwi nam co o charakterach albo o wiecie, o ktrym opowiadamy.) No, chyba, e kto tumaczy nazw statku nalecego do hazardzisty, "Lady Luck", jako "licznotka", ale to ju zupenie inna para kaloszy... (M) Czy Pana zdaniem po literatur science fiction siga si w Polsce chtnie? Czy grozi jej, jak twierdz niektrzy, wyparcie przez tytuy stricte fantasy? Nie bd udawa, e wiem :) (M) Jak duy wpyw na tumaczenia duych serii science fiction maj fani danego tytuu zrzeszeni w fandom? (MS) Rok temu byem pewien, e fani nareszcie maj wpyw na to, co dzieje si z ich ukochanymi seriami wydawniczymi. Nie bd si powtarza - chodzi oczywicie o mj przekad "Zemsty Sithw". Zrobilimy wszystko, co moliwe, eby byo dobrze, naprawd blisko wsppracowalimy w grupie "Workshop" na Holonecie ICO, a potem... wydawca zignorowa (czyli zniweczy) nasze wysiki. Wic przynajmniej w przypadku SW odpowied jest jasna: fani nie maj wpywu na tumaczenie serii s-f. Co gorsza, niewielki jest te wpyw tumaczy :( Mamy do czynienia z dyktatur wydawcy, ktry wie, e "upchnie" swj "produkt" na rynku bez wzgldu na to, czy jest on wietnej, czy mniej wietnej jakoci. Mona zaryzykowa twierdzenie, e to "wina" samych fanw: s tak bardzo spragnieni "swojej" literatury, e nigdy nie zdobd si na bojkot i przekn kad zniewag ze strony wydawcy, ktry skrztnie z tego korzysta, na przykad nie marnujc pienidzy na zatrudnienie solidnego konsultanta serii, ktry koordynowaby prace zespou tumaczy. (Inna rzecz, e bojkot mgby si skoczy co najwyej przerwaniem wydawania serii, bo przecie wydawca nie przyzna si, e popenia bdy...) Nie od rzeczy bdzie doda jeszcze, e proponowaem (przez przedstawiciela Lucasfilmu), e jako fan i zawodowiec w jednej osobie za darmo przetumacz list dialogow Zemsty Sithw, tylko po to, by zachowa cigo nazewnicz z powieci i innymi materiaami - polski dystrybutor oczywicie nie by uprzejmy nawet odpowiedzie na t ofert, co zaowocowao seri potwor-

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kw jzykowych i nonsensw w filmie. Smutne, ale prawdziwe (Wyjanienie: zbieno nazwisk tumaczki filmu i czonka zarzdu firmy dystrybutorskiej nie jest przypadkowa, niestety, ale to ju tylko uwaga na marginesie...). Fani mog tylko jedno: wysupa kas na kolejny produkt.

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