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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 32 (2011) 270e286

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences


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The Paleoproterozoic in the South-American continent: Diversity in the geologic time


Benjamim Bley de Brito Neves
Instituto de Geocincias da Universidade de So Paulo, Departamento de Mineralogia e Geotectnica, Rua do Lago 562, Cidade Universitria, 05508-080 So Paulo-SP, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 20 July 2010 Accepted 14 February 2011 Keywords: Paleoproterozoic SouthAmerican platform Crustal evolution Siderian Orosirian Statherian Brazilian cycle

a b s t r a c t
The Paleoproterozoic blocks and terranes that constiture of the South-American continent basement register rock-forming events (orogeny and taphrogeny) clustered in the four different periods as dened by the International Stratigraphic Chart (IUGS/UNESCO 2004). There are some particular cases for which rifting and drifting events precede the processes of convergent interaction between lithospheric plates, representing therefore examples of Wilson Cycles. In other cases, the records of extensional processes and those of convergent interaction of lithospheric plates (orogenies) are either concurrent in time (with difcult discrimination between them) or concurrent in the geographic-geologic space (they occur in different and separated domains), privileging different regions. The four periods of rock-forming events discussed here (Siderian, Rhyacian, Orosirian, Statherian) are mainly recorded and recognizable for most of the cratonic domains of the continent, but they are gradually being identied within the Paleoproterozoic basement blocks (inliers) in the large Neoproterozoic (Brasiliano) provinces of the continent. In the latter, such discrimination is much more difcult due to the overprint of the Brasiliano thermo-dynamic processes. For many years (in the recent past), the word Transamazonian (event, orogeny, cycle) had been used to cover indiscriminately all these many different Paleoproterozoic events, of the four different periods. With the present discrimination of the four major stages (periods) on time of rock-forming processes (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary assemblages) the term Transamazonian has naturally become obsolete, and its usage is no longer advisable. 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The geologic map of the South-American continent, when analyzed under the point of view of the composition and agglutination of the Rodinia supercontinent (e.g. Fuck et al., 2008) (Fig. 1), is a very useful document to evaluate the importance of the participation of Paleoproterozoic rocks, terranes and different blocks in the constitution of that supercontinent. Firstly, that importance should be emphasized for the basement framework of the main cratonic nuclei (Amazonian, So Luis, So Francisco, Rio de la Plata) of the South-American Platform. Additionally, importance can also be pointed out for the basement framework of the main Brasiliano (Neoproterozoic) structural provinces (Tocantins, Borborema, Mantiqueira, Pampean), according to Almeida et al. (1981). Many basement inliers of these Brasiliano provinces e of varied geotectonic/or structural origins e are also depicting records of the Paleoproterozoc rock asemblages and events. Furhtermore, that importance of Paleoproterozoic rock units, blocks and terranes can also be inferred for the basement of the
E-mail address: bbleybn@usp.br. 0895-9811/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2011.02.004

major Phnerozoic syneclises (Amazonas, Paranaiba, Paran) and even for some terranes docked in the Andean Chain (e.g. Arequipa block, As discussed below). In the last 25 years, the advance in the geologic knowledge of the South-American continent has been notable, thanks to new systematic geological and geophyxical mapping (carried out by universities, private and statal companies) and acquisition of new geochronological data (mainly by UePb and SmeNd methods), obtained from laboratories of various parts of Brazil and worldwide. Regarding the Paleoproterozoic, the collection of substantial data has revealed a vast diversity of rock-forming processes, variable through the geologic time, so that its four major stages can be preliminarily attested and identied: Siderian, Rhyacian, Orosirian and Statherian (thus following and respecting the Paleoproterozoic subdivision proposed by IUGS/UNESCO 2004). In fact, this groups of events and super-events that led to the crustal growth of the SouthAmerican continent ts naturally and quite properly the division (periods) of the Paleoproterozoic Era. Additionally, the stages here proposed to the South-American continent can be characterized as close to or complying with Condies (2000) conception of episodic continental growth, encompassing groups of events and super-

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Fig. 1. The Rodiniass descendants in South America (modied from Fuck et al., 2008). The main Paleoproterozoic domains are distinguished in different cratons, terranes and blocks. See other gure (Figs. 2, 3 and 4), as complement.

events responsible for peaks of continental crust production with the duration of some hundred million years. In some of these proposed time intervals (periods), one may distinguish taphrogenetic (distensional events) from orogenetic events (convergent plate interactions), sometimes in a sequence similar to the complete or incomplete Wilson Cycles, sometimes as activities concurrent in time (same time interval) but taking place in different regions. Up to now, there has been a relatively complete representation of all the above-mentioned stages in the Amazonian, the largest and most complete Rodinias descendant (Fuck et al., 2008), So Francisco and Rio de la Plata cratons. Some of these stages/periods very represented, but some other still are demanding additional researchs and discussion. In other Paleoproterozoic terranes and blocks of the continent, either cratons or parts of the basement of mobile belts, this representation is assigned to one, two or three of these events/super-events. In general, the four time interval mentioned assembled tectonic processes that played an important and well-orchestrated role in building the continent by (lateral and

vertical) growth of its several continental tracts. These were later overprinted by Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic thermaltectonic events. The data available so far not sufcient to dene which of these periods/super-events was the most conspicuous in terms of the crustal growth. Up to now, apparently the Rhyacian (represented by orogenic cycles in all cratons, terranes and basement blocks) and the Statherian (territorial extension of the events, products and sub-products) are good candidates. It is worth mentioning occurrences of high-grade ortho derived rocks (and to a lesser extent, some volcanic sedimentary rock assemblages) in the time interval 2.5e2.3 Ga (Siderian), which is a new fact in the geology of South America to be distinguished. In most of the cases, these data present the support of very good lithostructural and isotopic data. This notable fact counteracts models and data of continental crustal growth as proposed by Condie (2000), which has already been reiterated by several researchers. For example, according to Windley (1995), the Siderian was a kind of lull in the continental crust growth process. Besides attesting to this fact, there is a large perspective of other Siderian events to be

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identied and/or better characterized. Mostly the Siderian rock assemblages are strongly reworked continental tracts, which were included as inliers in Rhyacian belts and even within younger Proterozoic cycles. In the geological literature concerning South-American continent, there has been a tendency to include all these different Paleoproterozoic super-events/events (ages and areas) in the socalled Transamazonian Cycle as proposed by Hurley et al. (1967) and Almeida et al. (1973), as a response to the rst geochronological data, obtained by low resolution characteristics methods, such as KeAr and RbeSr. These studies were valid and important at their time, but this broad and non-discriminating name (Transamazonian event, cycle, orogeny) is totally out-of-date, in various ways, with the advent of new geologic, tectonic and geochronological data. This generic name should be abandoned, because even a redenition (which could cover part of the Rhyacian events) could be hazardous for the progress of knowledge. 2. The Siderian period The conrmation of rock-forming events during the Siderian of South America is a relatively new discovery/fact and has been treated with caution. These occurrences have been registered in different structural provinces of the continent, thanks to investments in geologic cartography and precise and accurate isotopic studies (run by the Brazilian Geological Survey and researchers of different universities). Nonetheless, these occurrences have helped to overcome some preconceived ideas. The rst was the excessive coverage given to the so-called Transamazonian Cycle (throughout the whole Paleoproterozoic). The second was the false dillema Transamazonian (designation misused throughout the whole Paleoproterozoic) versus Brasiliano (designation misused for most of the of postPaleoproterozoic rock assemblages). For descriptive purposes, the occurrences of Siderian rock assemblage are divide into two main groups: i) expressive geographic-geologic occurrences (Bacajs, Granja, Luiz Alves) and ii) punctual/local presence within older (Archean, Rhyacian) tectonic domains (see Figs. 1 and 2). These groups and other indications suggest that many Siderian occurrences will be revealed with the progress of the studies. 2.1. Amazonian Craton 2.1.1. Bacajs block and Central Amap Although extensional events were to be expected after the Archean fusion (as is the case of the So Francisco Craton described below), in the Amazonian Craton, the Siderian period was marked by orogenic formation of high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The most notorious cases are the Bacajs domain, located in the south easternmost part of the Rhyacian Maroni-Itacaiunas Belt (Tassinari and Macambira, 2004), to the north of the Archean Carajs-Rio Maria blocks, south of the Amazonas River. In this domain, between reworked Arcehan rock units extensively crosscut by (Rhyacian and Orosirian) granitic intrusions, Vasquez et al. (2008) identied 2.36e2.34 Ga granite-greenstone-type terraness crosscut by 2.31 Ga granitoid intrusions. In reality, these Siderian rock assemblages are true relicts present in the interior of a younger granitic domain (of 2.21e1.86 Ga of age), situated along the Bacajs river (Trs Palmeiras greenstone) and of supracrustal rocks in the Xingu-Iriri mesopotamia. Banded porphyroclastic meta-tonalites are recognized with boudins of mac igneous rocks (trending NEeSW) juxtaposed to the supracrustal rocks yielding UePb ages of 2338 5 Ma, interpreted as representing igneous zircon crystallization. The supracrustal rocks are metamac, intermediate

metavolcanic (andesites, dacites), volcaniclastic, and some BIFs, all showing geochemical afnities with island-arc settings. The metavolcaniclastic and intermediate metavolcanic rocks yield UePb ages of ca. 2.45 Ga and of 2.36e2.34 Ga respectively. There is also unpublished information by CPRM (the Brazilian Geological Survey) of other similar occurrences east of the Bacajs domain, which are true relicts inside a younger (Rhyacian) mobile belt (Rosa-Costa et al., 2006). North of the Amazonas River, within the context of the MaroniItacainas Belt and in its important Archean basement inlier, in central Central Amap, Rosa-Costa et al. (2006, 2008) obtained a large number of UePb and PbePb ages (specially by the evaporation method) in the 2.4e2.3 Ga interval. These age values were detected at specic points within an Archean nuclei, but the petrographic and isotopic data indicate true Siderian crustal growth. Even if all these cases demand additional geologic and isotopic investigation, they are a valuable discovery for several reasons. As the Maroni-Itacainas Belt as a whole characteristically contains many pre-Rhyacian remains, the discovery of new Siderian crustal growth records are to be expected. Isolated citations exist in the literature of the occurrence of zircons of Siderian age in the above mentioned areas and in many others (Almeida et al., 2007), thus constituting a theme that deserves attention and systematic revision for the future. 2.2. The So Francisco Craton (the Siderian Taphrogenesis) 2.2.1. Basement of the Itabuna-Salvador-Juazeiro (Bahia) and Mineiro Belts (Minas Gerais) Several relatively isolated tectono-magmatic events took place in the So Francisco Craton, resulting in the formation of mac (dike swarms), mac-ultramac complexes and various granitic rocks of immediately post-Neoarchean ages. Due to their importance and nature, these rocks were referred to as representative of a Siderian Taphrogenesis by Delgado et al. (2003). Mac dike swarms are known in the southern (Quadriltero Ferrfero) and in the northern (Serrinha bock) parts the craton. It is also worth mentioning the Contenda-Jacobina Fault Zone (striking approximately NeS), which hosts the important Jacar River macultramac layered complex (ca. 2475 Ma age). Several sub-alkaline granitic and syenitic bodies are also recognized in southern Bahia, considered to be an intraplate-type magmatic event intrusive into Archean TTG complexes. These are clearly post-Archean rock units (ages between 2.56 and 2.4 Ga), some of which are relatively very large (up to 200 km long). In the northeast of the craton (Serrinha Block, Fig. 3), Oliveira et al. (2004) pointed out the intrusion of monzonitic and monzodioritic rocks of alkaline nature and of Siderian age, and they have a discussed the presence of tonalitic rocks of this age in the Itapicuru River Greenstone. These authors have also suggested the possibility that part of the greenstone volcanism (reaching back-arc conditions in the Rhyacian) might started earlier, in the Siderian (Fig. 4). Despite the need of more detailed studied, events and rocks similar to those found in Bahia have briey been reported within the basement of the southern part of the craton in Minas Gerais. Together with intraplate magmatism, which can be considered to be isolated or taphrogeny-related process, it is necessary to stress out the evolution process of the Atlantic-type continental margin that preceded the opening of an ocean and the development of the socalled Mineiro Belt (predating the Rhyacian orogenies). The lithostratigraphic development of the Minas Supergroup sediments constitutes a notable sedimentary record of the development of a passive continental margin (somehow comparable to that of the Cretaceous Atlantic-type margins of South America). This taphrogenetic process (riftedrift transition) still has a poor geochronological

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Fig. 2. The main paleoproterozoic domains for the central and northern part of south America, with emphasis for the Siderian domains: 1e Granja Massif; 2e Bacajs; 3 e AlmasConceio; 4 e Luis Alves Craton.

control, based on a few PbePb data for carbonaceous sediments, as well as some detrital zircons from clastic sediments, which are wellunderstood in the regional geologic context. These events took place between 2.25e2.40 Ga, preceding the orogenic evolution of the Mineiro Belt, according to vila et al. (2010). Based on these and other similar data for the So Francisco Craton (e.g. evolution of the Colomi Group, northern part of the craton) and

other cratonic nuclei, the expectation is open for new records and data related to this taphrogenesis that resulted and succeeded the rst expressive agglutinations of continental masses by the end of the Neoarchean. Particularly for this craton, the dominant idea is that the extensional events following the Neoarchean fusion were important. The discrimination of such events (overprinted by the Rhyacian orogenic events) should be urgently pursued.

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Fig. 3. Sketch tectonic map of the main Archean blocks (paleoplates) and the mobile belts (Rhyacian and Orosirian) that were developed among them, in the eastern domain of the So Francisco Craton and surroundings (modied of Barbosa and Sabat, 2004).

2.3. The Rio de la Plata Craton 2.3.1. Taquaremb block The incontestable majority of geochronological information for the different terranes that constitute the Rio de la Plata Craton points to its consolidation in the Rhyacian, with localized later remobilizations during Orosirian (late deformation?) and Statherian events (magmatism). The consolidation in the Rhyacian and the extremely uniform character of the chrono-tectonic history of this craton is rmly based on the recent synthesis, by Rapela et al. (2007). On the other hand, there are (up to now) some isolated observations, such as those in Tickyj et al. (2004) and Hartmann et al.

(2008) referring to the presence of pre-Rhyacian rocks, which are worth mentioning. In the northernmost of the craton, in the socalled Taquaremb block, west of the exposure window of the Rio Grande do Sul basement, in the Santa Maria Chico Complex granulitic rocks (polycyclic, with partial retrograde metamorphism to the amphibolite facies) of granodioritic composition, presented UePb (SHRIMP) ages of 2.35 Ga, obtained from zircon cores. These rocks are admittedly relicts inside a Paleoproterozoic domain, as already recorded in the literature. Additionally, some other zircon nuclei from granulitic rocks of trondhjemitic nature yielded Archean ages (Hartmann et al., 2008 and Tickyj et al., 2004), which indicates the possibility of pre-Rhyacian protoliths, whose

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Fig. 4. The principal Statherian occurrences in South America: Orogenic development (Rio Negro Juruena accretionary belt) and the anorogenic processes and records (diversied sedimentary, volcano-sedimentary, volcanic and plutonic activities).

nature and extension are open research themes for the future. Possible metamorphic reworking of these rock in the Orisirian will be discussed later in this paper. 2.4. The Luiz Alves Craton/terrane The Luiz Alves cratonic segment (Figs. 1, 2, and 5) is a terrane situated in the southern coast of Brazil (from south of So Paulo to Santa Catarina), between two Brasiliano belts: the Ribeira belt (the Pien magmatic arc) to the north and the Dom Feliciano (BrusqueTijucas belt) to the south. This terrane has behaved as stable nucleous during the Brasiliano orogeny, and so it is an important tectonic element responsible for the segmentation of the broad Mantiqueira Province. In despite of the modest size of this stable nucleous (10,000 km2), it is the most concise and complete and well-documented representation of the Siderian crustal growth among all the cratons of the continent (Basei et al., 1998, 2008). Actually, this terrane has worked out as a microplate during the Brasiliano tectonic scheme of plate interactions. The so-called Santa Catarina Granulite Complex is composed of; i) various high-grade, hyperstene-bearing tonalitic-granodioritic orthogneisses showing conspicuous gneissic foliation and containing enclaves, fragments and boudins of mac-ultramac rocks and ii) migmatitic gneisses. Components of metasedimentary origin are minority. There is also an intrusive mac-ultramac complex (Barra Velha) composed of gabbros, gabbro-norites and websterites, all affected by high-grade metamorphism. To the north, TTG-type felsic and leucocratic orthogneisses predominate, with several charnockite intercalations. The Brasiliano deformation is limited to the vicinity of shear zones, being accompanied by granitic intrusions (to the north) and several internal (e.g. Campo Alegre) and foreland (e.g. Itajai) volcano-sedimentary basins.

Two high-grade metamorphic episodes are clearly identied in the basement complexes based on excellent control by geochronological data: the rst and more important at ca. 2.35 Ga (age obtained from various rock types, in most domains); the second event at ca. 2.15 Ga is (superposed to the rst one) is represented by deformed granitoids, some felsic granulites and paragneisses. Most probably, these events are separated by a signicant time interval during which erosion and deposition of sedimentary rocks must took place. Sm/Nd model ages are of ca. 2.8e2.7 Ga. 2.5. Basement inliers of the (Brasiliano) Borborema province 2.5.1. The Granja massif (NW Cear/NE Piau) This massif is exposed only in the north-western most part of the Borborema Province and also constitutes part of the basement Parnaba Syneclise basement, which covers at least two thirds of the original original size of the massif, leaving exposed an area of approximately 6.000 km2. The basement of this relatively stable nucleus (within the mobile belt) is constituted by high-grade rocks, mainly TTG orthogneisses, amphibolitic gneisses and garnetamphibolites inter-layered with kinzigitic rocks, some mac granulites and locally migmatites, trending NEeSW and obeying a striking fabric of Brasiliano shear, which additionally separates these nuclei from the Neoproterozoic supracrustal domains (Mdio Corea Belt). Thermo-barometric data indicate granulite metamorphism for these rocks around 750  C and pressures of 7e8 kbar (Santos et al., 2008). The rocks of this massif are intruded by Brasiliano granites and it is deeply affected by Neoproterozoic shear zones. Despite Neoproterozoic reworking events (granites, shearing), the geochronological data (summarized by Santos et al., 2008) are very good, which discriminates this massif as one of the most concrete and expressive record of the Siderian events in the

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Fig. 5. An outline for the main tectonic elements of the southeast of South America (central and southern part of the Mantiqueira province). Special remarks for the Rhyacian (Curitiba block or microplate) and the Siderian (Luis Alves craton) blocks, that have worked out as foreland for the adjacent Brasiliano belts.

continent. UePb, with data for different rock types that show predominant ages between 2,30 and 2,36 Ma. TDM model ages are mostly between 2.38 and 2.48 Ga (only two values above 2.54 Ga), and with weakly positive eNd, values between 0.4 and1.9, indicating the juvenile nature of this Siderian magmatic (and metamorphic) event. Similarly to the Luiz Alves Craton, the Granja Massif represents an interesting tectonic high within the Brasiliano domains, the

latter one presenting very clear Siderian signature. Additionally, it is necessary to stress that the Granja Massif is a context very different (composition, structure and age) from that of So Luis Craton situated further in Maranho state (composed of Rhyacian rock assemblages). Several authors correlated both areas or suggested a continuation of Granja (Cear State) in Maranho (So Luis), which is not supported by the available geological and geochronological data.

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2.5.2. Rio Piranhas Massif (Rio Grande do Norte Terrane) In the eastern portion of the Rio Grande do Norte terrane (the northern segment of the Borborema Province), in the Rio Piranhas massif, which is an extensive Rhyacian basement inlier (natural limit) for the Brasiliano Belt from Serid to the west). Dantas et al. (2008) have recently pointed out the presence of some supracrustal rocks (Santa Luzia sequence) that yielded Siderian ages (mainly between the cities of Lages and Angico). These are amphibolitic rocks (meta-andesites and metabasalts) and intercalated with banded iron formations and calc-silicatic units, exposed within a domain of Rhyacian calc-alkaline orthogneisses (Caic complex). The supracrustal rocks and associated gneisses present Siderian UePb ages (ca. 2.33 Ga), ca. 150 Ma older than those of the classic Rhyacian Caic Complex basement, which underlies these Siderian rock units. 2.6. The basement of the Tocantins Province 2.6.1. Almas-Conceio block (northeastern portion of the Gois Central Massif) In the Tocantins Province, in the ample portion of the basement west of the northern segment of the Neoproterozoic Braslia Belt, an interesting occurrence of Siderian rocks was identied within a Rhyacian orthogneissic domain (Fuck et al., 2001). These rocks are part of the western basement of the Braslia Belt (Brasiliano) and probably extend to the north-western portion of the So Francisco Craton. In the domain between Almas and Conceio (parallels 11 S and 13 S), and part of the basement of the Arai and Natividade sedimentary groups, Statherian in ages, rocks of calc-alkaline nature of 2346 16 Ma, interpreted as the crystallization age. Similarly, a granite-gneiss north of Conceio do Tocantins yielded the age of 2375 6 Ma, which is equally interpreted as of the formation age of the igneous protolith. SmeNd model ages falling in the 2.6e2.5 Ga interval and positive eNd values (between zero and 1.0) are reported for these rocks. Although preliminary, these results (because of the place they occupying) (Fig. 2) trigger the discussion whether a (tectonic, paleogeographic) relationship exists with those rocks and the rock units and values found in the Granja (north-western part of Borborema Province) and those of in the Bacajs massifs (south easternmost part of the Amazonian Craton). The distribution of the Granja and Almas-Conceio occurrences (present position as result of the last Brasiliano events), in both sides of the Transbrasiliano Lineament deserves special attention. 2.7. The Mantiqueira Province basement 2.7.1. The Quirino Complex/unit In the structurally complex northern part of the Mantiqueira Province (eastern Araua Central and Northern Ribeira), local exposures (structural and erosional windows) of Paleoproterozoic rocks are attributed to the Statherian and older periods (Heilbron et al., 2004, synthesis work). In general, high-grade rocks of the Rhyacian cycles are more commonly found in the whole basement of this northern part of this province. The Quirino Complex occurs as an intensely reworked basement at the central part of the Neoproterozoic mobile belt (along the basement of the Paraba do Sul klippe), that is placed along an axial zone of structural divergence, composed of high-grade rocks, hornblende meta-tonalites and metagranodiorites with enclaves of calcsilicate, mac and ultramac rocks. Two groups of rock units were recently identied and described in this Quirino Complex (Viana et al., 2008), representing solid proof of the existence of two crustal growth pulses. The rst consists of high-potassium rocks, yielding

UePb zircon ages of ca. 2308 Ma, and the second of medium- to lowpotassium rocks with Rhyacian ages (2169e2137 Ma). 3. The Rhyacian period The Rhyacian events and super-events (in the sense of Condie, 2000) of continental crust formation and growth represent the most abundant records of the sialic basement in the continent (cratons, Proterozoic belts and so on), in terms of number and quality of geologic and isotopic data as well as of the diversity of styles of occurrences. These events are concretely recorded within the cratons and the reworked massifs of the basement, as well as within the smaller exposures (several types) of the basement of the Meso- and Neoproterozoic mobile belts. In all cases with plenty and increasing literature. Additionally, as complementing this fact, the incidence of Rhyacian ages is quite overwhelming in the detrital zircon studies of supracrustal rocks of (Meso- and Neoproterozoic) mobile belts. When stressing out that in the 250 Ma time interval (between 2300 and 2050 Ma) crustal growth was conspicuous, it is worth mentioning that: i) The exact gographical-geological location of these cratonic nuclei, massifs, terranes and blocks of Rhyacian age are unknown, and they might have been apart from each other by thousands of kilometers ii) Certainly several rock-forming cycles (Wilson-type or not) must have taken place at the same time or in series, competing mutually or not. Therefore, misleading simplications (same cycle, undue continuities) should be ruled out. As expressed above, the data on Rhyacian events and superevents are abundantly registered in the literature, a substantial part of which is referenced in this text. For each area/case, it must be implicit here that there are very good published studies (which reading is advisable). This incontestable wealth of data on the Rhyacian crustal growth in different crustal and geotectonic types is a fact worth of various developments. Considering the abundande of Rhyacian data their pattern similar to those in other continents, all leads that these crustal growth peaks are indicators of a global phenomenon (e.g. Condie, 2000, among others). On the other hand, the existence of large continental masses (supercontinents) in the Rhyacian is supported by many authors and studies (supercontinents Atlantica, NENA, Hudsonia, Columbia, NUNA, Capricornia etc.), on the basis of data relative to the Paleoproterozoic as a whole and to the Rhyacian period in particular. Regarding South America, the main records relative to the Rhyacian are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 3 they will be described as ve main types of records. a) Relatively complete and linear mobile belts involving and partially reworking preexisting, Archean nuclei. They usually present some clearly juvenile (accretionary) portions e including volcano-sedimentary, granite-greenstone and similar contexts, TTG associations etc. e and others that clearly represent (by geologic and isotopic means) the reworking of preexisting Paleoproterozoic and Archean terranes, which now gure as authentic basement inliers in these belts. The best examples are in the Eastern Mobile Belt of Bahia or the Itabuna-Salvador-Juazeiro belt (Fig. 3), according to Delgado et al. (2003), Barbosa and Sabat (2004); in the Mineiro Belt (vila et al., 2010); and in the Maroni-Itacainas Belt, in the eastern portion of the Amazonian Craton (or the so-called Transamazonas

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Belt of Santos, 2003), according to Rosa-Costa et al. (2006, 2008). One may also include in this context the western portion of Bahia State (Western Mobile Belt of Bahia, part of the So Francisco Craton) and part of eastern Gois ( Dianpolis e Silvnia Belt), which present several discontinuous Rhyacian basement windows, underneath Proterozoic and Phanerozoic covers. An additional example of these Rhyacian events and mobile belts is recorded in some the large massifs, such as the Gois Central Massif (clustering granite-greenstone terrains), Pernambuco-Alagoas, and So Jos do Campestre, to be commented (See Delgado et al., 2003; Dantas et al., 2008; Della Giustina et al., 2008). As a result of these cycles of continental mass agglutination in the Rhyacian, important (epi-Rhyacian) cratonic nuclei were formed and acted as forelands to Orosirian and subsequent mobile belts and on which expressive sedimentary and volcano-sedimentary sequences developed. In general, the Rhyacian mobile belts include large Meso- and Neo-Archean cratonic nuclei (and also some smaller nuclei and blocks) and rework others, through complex paleogeographic and tectonic histories, with succeeding accretionary and collisional processes, which sometimes exceed the formal limit for the Orosirian (2.05 Ga). In the cases of the So Luis and Rio de La Plata cratons (and probably in the case of Paranapanema craton) as well as of the Curitiba terrane (microplate), the data of the basement are also indicating Rhyacian ages, but they do not present Archean nuclei, and they are dealt as separated cases below. b) Segments of previous Rhyacian mobile belts which are not circumscribing Archean nuclei. Regarding their tectonic roles during the evolution of the Brasiliano structural provinces, these segments use to present two kinds of behavior: i) Stable (cratonic) segments (e.g. So Luis, Rio de la Plata); ii) reworked segments (descratonised or regenerated) due the overprint of new thermal and tectonic conditions (so-called massifs). So, these latter have worked out as basement inliers (different types) into the Brasiliano frame (e.g. Rio Piranhas, Gois Central, Curitiba etc.). Sometimes, in some erosional windows of the Meso and Neoproterozoic mobile belts, these massifs (structural highs, hinterlands etc.) use to play an important role. As already mentioned, the incontestable majority of UePb data for the Rio de la Plata Craton granitic-migmatitic and granitegreenstone basement point to crustal growth events in the Rhyacian (see Rapela et al., 2007), with the majority of the ages falling between 2,2 and 2,05 Ga. There are only a few relic tracts that present indication of local old Archean and Siderian rock units. The So Lus Craton, is a small fraction of the Western African Craton that remained in South America after the Pangea ssion and is exposed complying with Cretaceous tectonic injunctions. Klein and Moura (2008) identied three distinct events of rock formation, all showing characteristics of juvenile origin. The older event, ca. 2240 Ma, is characterized by the formation of supracrustal rocks (sedimentary and volcano-sedimentary). This was followed by event of 2168e2147 Ma, marked by the deposition of supracrustal rocks and the emplacedment of granitoids of calc-alkaline character (quartz-diorites, tonalites and granodiorites of island arcs). The nal event, ca. 2090e2086 Ma is represented by two micabearing, peraluminous (S-type) granitoids, interpreted as representatives of a collisional events. The Curitiba terrane/massif (microplate during the Brasiliano orogenic processes) in central-eastern Paran (exposure area ca. 8000 km2) is a segment of a Rhyacian mobile belt separating two Brasiliano contexts (the Apia Belt to the north and the Pien Magmatic Arc to the south), according to Siga et al. (1995). This

small high-grade massif presents complex and special historic and isotopic characteristics, being essentially composed by banded gneisses, migmatites (tonalitic leucosome), amphibolites and charno-enderbites etc. This is known as the Atuba Complex, exposed in a marked NE structural trend of the Brasiliano ductile shearing. According to geologic and isotopic data (Siga et al., 1995; Sato et al., 2003) protoliths of these rocks are Archean in age (TDM ages w 3.1e2.7 Ga) and underwent important metamorphism and migmatization processes around 2100 Ma (2086e2130 Ma). It is interesting to add that differently from So Luis Craton, almost all eNd data for this segment (of a Rhyacian mobile belt) present negative to strongly negative values. Besides, this segment was reworked in various ways in the late Paleoproterozoic (Statherian Taphrogenesis, granitic plutonism), in the Mesoproterozoic (Calyminian volcanism) and mainly in the Neoproterozoic (during the Brasiliano events). c) Segments, various mobile belts fractions as those above described, occur as regenerated basement highs (massifs, inliers) to several of Meso- and Neoproterozoic mobile belts. So they are responsible for the branching of these belts as well as for contributing to their structural and geometric complexity. These basement exposures in Borborema Province (Central Cear, Rio Piranhas, So Jos do Campestre, Pernambuco-Alagoas etc), Mantiqueira Province (Quirino, Guanhes etc.) and Tocantins Province (Gois Central massif) as well as Paleoproterozoic belts further to the east (Cavalcante-Almas area) present in general characteristics which are similar to those described in the previous items. However, their integrity and continuity was broken by younger geological events during the Meso- and Neoproterozoic cycles, especially due to the Brasiliano cycle. In practically all Meso- and Neoproterozoic mobile belts there are real records (local windows) and other indications of Paleoproterozoic tracts, mainly Rhyacian in age. d) Sedimentary and volcano-sedimentary sequences belonging to granite-greenstone terranes, occupying more or less sparse and restrict domains. There are several references in the literature of Rhyacian sedimentation (outside the classic domains of crustal growth during this period). The best documented example is that of the cover sequences of the Archean greenstone belts from Gois, described by Jost et al. (2008), which leads to several other possibilities of new discoveries in the future. In Central Brazil there is an Archean block of ca. 25,000 km2, forming a major part of the so-called Gois Central Massif , which have acted as backland for the Braslia Belt in the Brasiliano development. In this block, several greenstone belts are well documented. The upper portions of these sequences are formed metasedimentary piles, including carbonaceous phyllites, graywackes and dolomites (in Crixs), iron formations of different facies, phyllites, volcanic ashes and graywackes (in Guarinos), calcsilicate rocks, metacherts (in Pilar de Gois) etc. UePb data obtained from the detrital zircons of Crixs graywackes indicate Archean (3.35 Ga, 2.8 Ga) and Rhyacian (2222 Ma, 2229 Ma) ages. Guarinos banded iron formations yielded Archean (2.6 Ga), Siderian (ca. 2453 Ma) and also Rhyacian (2232 Ma) ages (detrital zircons). A SmeNd isochron indicates the age of T 2189 36 Ma, and negative eNd (6.89) for the Pilar de Gois calc-silicate rocks and metacherts. Based on these data and on other stratigraphic evidences, the authors (Jost et al. 2008) concluded that the three upper sequences of the sedimentary unit/group of the greenstones are coeval, probably lateral facies variations, and they must have been constrained to the same Rhyacian tectonic-sedimentary processes.

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In the So Francisco Craton, eastern Bahia, there is a series of greenstone belts with supracrustal rocks related to oceanic environments, so including many back-arc basins (Delgado et al., 2003). The geochronological control of all these occurrences is still preliminary. At least for the Rio Itapicuru and Rio Capim greenstones northern segment of the Itabuna-Salvador-Cura Belt, in the domain of the Serrinha and Uau blocks (Fig. 3), the ages for these supracrustal rocks (felsic and mac metavolcanic rocks) fall in the 2.2e2.15 Ga time interval, according to Oliveira et al. (2004). This is a similar situation as that of Gois, above described. This Rhyacian age records can be further identied in other similar crustal types in this craton and in others, even in cases where the infrastructure yielded Archean ages. e) Within the Gois Central Massif, to the west of the Niquelndia complex, a small exposure of the Serra da Mesa Group basement (between Uruau and Mara Rosa) occurs. There is the record of meta-volcano-sedimentary sequence, crosscut by granites, which is worth mentioning. The Campinorte Sequence (exposed due to the erosion of the Serra da Mesa) is composed of metapsammites and metapelites (being quartz-micaschists the most common rocks), with gondite and metachert lenses (Della Giustina et al., 2008) and subordinate meta-rhyolites and pyroclastic rocks. Ortho derived metamorphic rocks (tonalites and granodiorites) are intrusive into this sequence, and they yield UePb ages of 2.18e2.16 Ga. SmeNd determinations lead to positive or slightly negative eNd values, indicating the juvenile nature of these rocks, that were strongly reworked by Brasiliano events. Most probably, similar rocks/contexts of larger surcial expression can occur in this massif, west of the large bodies mac-ultramac bodies underlying Statherian and younger metasediments. f) The recognition of Paleoproterozoic (mostly Rhyacian) gneissic and migmatitic rock types within the basement (erosional or structural windows) of all Brasiliano structural provinces has widely been described in the literature. Most of these indication were based on RbeSr and KeAr methods. This has contributed to the spreading of the generic term Transamazonian basement. This mean Transamazonian as synonimous of Paleoproterozoic (geological time), what deserves to be rened. For the basement of the major Paleozoic syneclises (Parnaba, Amazonas and Paran), such generalization has also been common, from scarce data (RbeSr and KeAr) obtained from deep well cores. In all cases, proper revision of such information is necessary by means of methods of more robust geochronological methods. These indications should not be promptly ruled out, but they have to be subject of isotopic studies for the future. g) Detrital zircons of Rhyacian age are very common in Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic rocks of the mobile belts. It is necessary to stress out beforehand that in the study of detrital zircons of these mobile belts variable quantities of grains of Orosirian and Statherian (and even of younger periods) ages are found, showing that the expositions/source areas for these belts were very much varied.

Additionally to the events and super-events discriminated below, there are many reconnaissance geochronological determinations throughout the basement of the Brasiliano provinces that yielded ages between 2.0 and 1.8 Ga and that were almost compulsively alluded to the Transamazonian Cycle. These determinations possibly have their own geologic meaning, such as tectono-magmatic reworking, metamorphism, uplift and cooling (which is the case of many KeAr values of ca. 1.8 Ga) etc., which should be properly checked in the future and then, correctly integrated to the Orosirian context.

4.1. Accretionary orogenies/terranes 4.1.1. The Ventuari-Tapajs (or Tapajs-Parima) Belt As an accretionary province, the Ventuari-Tapajs (Tassinari and Macambira, 2004; Cordani and Teixeira, 2007) or Tapajs-Parima (Santos, 2003) is particularly outstanding in the Amazonian craton. It is localized the central-western part of the Craton, presenting NNW-SSW structural trends, about 3000 km long (from Venezuela to the basement of the Alto Xing basin, in Mato Grosso, Brazil) and up to 450 km wide. This orogenic belt was accreted to the west side of the so-called Central Amazonian Craton (composed of Archaen nuclei and Rhyacian belts). The present degree of knowledge of this accretionary belt is still pretty low due to various regional conditions (lack of detailed geological maps, rain forest, indian territories etc.). There is a strong demand for the completion of the studies because of different mineral resources there present (e. g. Gold occurrences). In this province, a notable succession of magmatic arcs is recognized by the authors cited above (Jacareacanga, Cur, Creporizo, Tropas, Parauari etc., in chronological order) developed between 2.03 and 1.87 Ga. Some secondary sedimentation events (arc-related basins) and other minor collisional events have been identied locally. Isotopic data indicate a juvenile nature of the original rocks, with eNd values ranging from positives (up to 2.1) and weakly negatives (1.6). This seems to be consensual among researchers. The presence of supracrustal rocks of sedimentary origin (from the greenschist to the amphibolite facies) is subordinate in the Province. There are some minor divergences regarding the limits and evolution mode of this accretionary belt (the same is valid for the provinces that delimit it). This is fully understandable and expected, having in mind the Amazonian region is still poorly known. A particular focus of divergences is the delimitation of this province from the younger accretionary Statherian Rio Negro-Juruena province, to the west and from the Rhyacian Maroni-Itacainas province, to the east (see Fig. 2). Regarding the transition zone between the areas mapped as Maroni-Itacainas and Ventuari Tapajs, there is a series of new contributions to be considered. Almeida et al. (2007) identied (north of Manaus) a magmatic arc suite followed by collisional granitoids of ages between 1975 and 1968 Ma. Further south, Valrio et al. (2009) identied magmatic arc associations (I-type granites) and volcanic and granitic associations of collisional nature with ages between 1.9 Ga and 1.88 Ga. In turn, Fraga et al. (2009) described to the northeast (Brazil-Guianas border) a suite of subalkaline charnockitic rocks, monzogranitic to leucogranodioritic composition, named Serra da Prata suite, with ages between 1943 and 1933 Ma, to which the authors attributed a post-collisional nature. All these data show the importance of the Orosirian magmatism in the Amazonian region, despite their integration is still lacking. This important accretionary belt (in which collisional events have been identied, so far) has no similar in the South-American

4. Orosirian period In the Orosirian, the forms of crustal evolution of the SouthAmerican platform were very diversied, with important, accretionary and collisional orogenic events, with their own characteristic marks, distinct from the preceding and succeeding periods. Besides that, there is also a diversied range of records of anorogenic tectonic processes, plutonism above all.

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continentet, and it is characterized for being for many years an important source of primary and secondary (alluvial) gold. 4.1.2. The Cabo Frio Terrane The easternmost part of the Ribeira Belt (northern Mantiqueira Province, northern sector) was recognized as a tectono-stratigraphic terrane (in the sense of Howell, 1995) by Heilbron et al. (2004), due to its litho-structural characteristics and geologic evolution. This Orosirian terrane (Schmitt et al., 2008) of unknown provenance (Africa?) played the role of a backland that docked along the easternmost part of the Ribeira orogen, at the end of the Cambrian (ca. 520 Ma). The so-called Regio dos Lagos Complex encompasses tonalitic to granitic orthogneisses with dioritic enclaves and amphibolitic lenses (representing old dismembered mac dikes). The UePb age of the order of 1.9 Ga (admitted as of accretionary origin), what is an unusual fact in this continent (out of the Amazonian Craton) and unknown in the African counterpart. Some rare, high-grade metasedimentary aluminous bands (Bzios-Palmital metasedimentary association) with calc-silicate intercalations are associated with the development of the Brasiliano orogeny (during its latest phases in this continent). The on shore sized of the Cabo Frio Terrane is modest, estimated to be a little less than 3000 km2, but its presence, characteristics and age are extremely important. In fact, it must have acted as an exotic terrane, such as a microplate or a fraction of an Orosirian arc (coming from African?) docked/incorporated to the Mantiqueira Province, at the end of the Ribeira Belt development (east of the Bzios back-arc), in the northernmost portion of the Province (in the Rio de Janeiro State). 4.2. Orogens and other collisional events 4.2.1. The Jacobina-Areio (Jacobina e Contendas) Belt The Contendas (Areio)-Jacobina Fold System in the central part of the So Francisco Craton (Fig. 3) stretches out from north to south for ca. 500 km, being less than 30 km in width and altitudes above 1000 m last century. The literature is extensive. The sedimentation environment of the Jacobina Group was a relatively stable platform (foreland basin?; post-Rhyacian transtractional rift?), due to the maturity of most of its metasediments. These rocks were folded and metamorphosed between 2.0 and 1.96 Ga, according regional inferences, since there are no direct determinations. Characteristically, this narrow and linear belt delineated the eastern border of the Archean Gavio-Lenois cratonic nucleus, and the collision of this nucleus with other segments (Archean microcontinents and Rhyacian belt) to the east. South of this belt, this hilly structure overlies the volcano-sedimentary deposits of the Contendas Mirante Complex, and is affected by this latest deformation phase registered there, most probably the collisional event that marked the end of the Itabuna-Salvador-Juazeiro Belt accretionary history. In general, the litho-stratigraphic context of the Jacobina Ridge consists composed of siliciclastic rocks (monomictic conglomerates, quartzites, schists) intercalated with metabasic rocks, metatuffs and iron- and manganese-rich jaspilites. The Campo Formoso mac-ultramac complex and several internal ultramac bodies represent Orosirian mantle manifestations (Delgado et al., 2003). Folding is intense, close to isoclinal folds present, with rupture of anks, and clear vergence toward the Archean block in the west. The geochronological data point to Rhyacian sources (the youngest detrital zircons yield ages ca. 2.08 Ga) and the nal deformation phase, based on data obtained from intrusive granites, occurred between 1.94 and 1.91Ga (RbeSr data). The constraint of this collisional belt to the Orosirian is practically consensual, probably

composing a group of collisional events occurring to the east, following the long accretionary history of the Itabuna-SalvadorCura belt. It is worth adding that the geochronological knowledge is still indirect and other types of investigation are required. 4.2.2. The Arequipa Massif The Arequipa Massif is a basement inlier of the Andean cordillera stretching out from the Peruvian coast to northern Chile. It underwent a notorious plycyclic evolution, with isotopic ages assigned from the Paleoproterozoic to the beginning of the Paleozoic. This block, derived from Laurentia, has a controversial tectonic history, but Grenvillian ages (end of the Mesoroterozoic) undoubtedly predominate. There is a region in the Arequipa Massif where high-grade metamorphic rocks are exposed (Mollendo, San Juan, Beln). Orosirian ages from 1910 Ma to 1811 Ma, obtained by reconnaissance methods (Tosdal, 1996), were attributed to these rocks and their signicance with respect to the general context of the massif is still debatable. There are some preliminary indications that other coeval protoliths were rejuvenated during the Grenvillian, under highgrade metamorphic conditions. Anyway, the record of Orosirian events (probably of collisional nature) in the Arequipa Massif must be considered and further investigated. 4.2.3. The Orosirian reworking 4.2.3.1. The Taquaremb block (basement of the Dom Feliciano Belt). There is a considerable amount of geochronological data, not yet properly synthesized, on tectonic processes already occurring in the Orosirian, which are interpreted as the nal processes of the Rhyacian belts. The formal time limit (2.05 Ga) between the end of the Rhyacian and the beginning of the Orosirian is not always well dened well constrained in the Amazonian and So Francisco cratons. In the Rio de la Plata Craton a similar example is found in the Taquaremb block (already mentioned above, when referring to the Siderian), which is a marginal exposure of the craton, lateral to the Brasiliano domain, at the westernmost of Rio Grande do Sul State. The basement of the Rio de La Plata craton and adjacent areas has already been described in detail as part of the history of the Rhyacian crustal evolution (Rapela et al., 2007, among others). In the Santa Maria Chico Granulitic Complex e garnet-rich granulitic rocks (pyroxenites and lherzolites) e isolated metamorphic events of 2.35 Ga (considered as the rst regional metamorphic event) have already been identied and described as Siderian remnants within a real Rhyacian domain. Recently, Tickyj et al. (2004), dating monazites of this complex using UePb methods, identied important Orosirian reworking in these high-grade rocks. From a total of half a hundred determinations, 30% of the data (obtained at garnet rims) are indicating ages between 1844 and 2014 Ma. The context of these isotopic determinations (SHRIMP UePb) is substantial and valuable and must be considered and properly discriminated, although the real signicance in regional tectonic terms is still an open problem.

4.3. Orosirian anorogenic volcanism and plutonism One of the most striking characteristics of the Orosirian period in the continent was the intraplate magmatism that affected mainly all the central and eastern portions of the Amazonian region between 2000 Ma and 1860 Ma. These processes are also important as a mark of the stable regime that succeeded the Rhyacian orogenies and as an eastward intracratonic equivlent of coeval accretionary processes (Ventuari-Tapajs, to the west). But, this belt was also affected by part of this magmatism.

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This large plutonic and volcanic province has generally been referred to as Uatum (group, complex, magmatism) and includes a diversied suite of multiple designations Iriri-Iricoum-SurumuCuchivero-Iwokrama in northern Brazil and neighboring countries. Special emphasis is given to the intermediate and acid volcanism, in part explosive (ignimbrites and common breccias), which privileged the areas consolidated in the Rhyacian (small extension over the recently-consolidated Ventuari-Tapajs). The original extension exceeded 700,000 km2, which makes it comparable to several LIPs of the world, always intercalated with the anorogenic plutonism and more locally and restrictedly with some sedimentary contexts. The ages come from various sources and methods and spread between 1900 Ma and 1870 Ma (maximum values up to 2000 Ma). Good recent reviews and syntheses are in Santos (2003) and Tassinari and Macambira (2004). The associated anorogenic plutonism is notable, closely related in time and space to the volcanism, privileging the Archean blocks from Carajs (Serra dos Carajs, Cigano, Seringa, Estrela, Paraupebas, Pojuca granites) and Rio Maria (Jamon, Musa, Redeno, Bannach, Gradas granites etc., felsic dikes). Generally these are A-type granitoids, with ample compositional variation. Syenites and monzogranites the dominant rock types (see DallAgnol et al. (2006) for an updated synthesis). The ages for these granitic rocks are very close to one other, ranging in the interval between 1.9e1.8 Ga (1.88 Ga is considered the most frequent value). The conjunction of these magmatic events between 2.0 and 1.86 Ga, their vast extension, the context of the succeeding ample cratonization (epi-Rhyacian) justied the proposal of a LIP in this region. These magmatic events preceded (in time and in terms of cratonic tectonics) the establishment of the Roraima orthoplatformal basin (to be discussed). Out of the Amazonian region, a few anorogenic magmatism events of this period are pointed out in the So Francisco Craton. In the Paramirim block, a fraction of the Archean-Paleoproterozoic basement between the Espinhao and Chapada Diamantina, there is an important occurrence of syenitic magmatism hosting the most expressive uraniferous mineralization of Brazil. The syenites (rich in albite and titanite) of Lagoa Real present (crystallization) ages of ca. 1904 44 Ma (Chaves et al., 2007, zircon ages by LA-ICPMS), following an intense metamorphic recrystallization around 1860 69 Ma (with uraninite precipitation). This is not a completely solved problem and other obstacles exist due to later tectonic reworking (Espinhao?, Brasiliano?); nonetheless, the Orosirian ages must be taken into account. In northwest of Bahia, south-southeastern margin of the Parnaba Basin, the Angico Dias carbonatitic complex yielded an age of 2.01 Ga (UePb in zircon and baddeleyite), and therefore must be considered as the rst occurrence of this type of rock in all the Paleoproterozoic of South America. Pyroxenites, alkaline dunites, syenites, carbonatites and lamprophyres are found in the complex, which is inserted in a context of alkaline basaltic magmatism in an intraplate environment (Delgado et al., 2003). Several other occurrences of mac and ultramac bodies in Bahia, showing discordant relationship with the structures of the domains of Rhyacian mobile belts and they have been pointed out as candidates of Orosirian intraplate magmatism, lacking geologic and geochronological support.

overlies and characterizes the large orthoplatformal domain constructed after the end of the Uatum volcanism-plutonism. The supergroup is composed essentially of various siliciclastic rocks (conglomerates, sandstones, arkosean sandstones, shales) intercalated with tuffs and volcanic ashes (Santos et al., 2003a, b). There are several peculiar characteristics in the Roraima plateau: its elevated altitudes, its notable geographic scenarios of a thick sedimentary plateau submitted to dissecation, the limit of countries (Venezuela, Brazil, Guianas), the locus of the rst, oldest (pre-1873 Ma), great stable area in the evolution of the Amazonian Craton (Amazonian-Laurentian block), and the source of detrital diamonds. The original Roraima extension can be estimated as a much bigger area, such is the amount of its remnants widespread around it. This unit overlies the (LIP) Uatum and it has been recently dated by means of UePb analyses of zircons from tuffaceous intercalations, which indicated an age of 1873 3 Ma (Santos et al., 2003a, b). This determination is very well constrained by the age of the underlying basement and also by the ages obtained for mac dikes (Statherian Avanavero or Pedras Pretas magmatism, ca. 1782 Ma) that crosscut the supergroup. It is worth adding that in the So Francisco Craton (and adjacent zones) similar stability conditions would only took place ca. 100 million years later (ca. 1.76e1.78 Ga), with the development of vast and thick siliciclastic covers (Chapada Diamantina and similar areas, to be discussed). 5. The Statherian period In the crustal evolution of the South-American continent, the Statherian period is represented by two distinct and very well characterized sets of tectonic events and super-events, with exceptional geologic and geochronological records. Exclusively in the central-western portion of the Amazonian region, accretionary processes were dominant, along the so-called Rio Negro-Juruena belt. This belt was placed following a chelogenic scheme of crustal growth (typical for the Amazonian craton), from NNE to SSW, so it was adjusted to the western side of the Ventuari-Tapajs (Orosirian in age). On the other hand, in the rest of the continent (even in the Amazonian Craton), taprhrogenic processes were by far predominant, either sparsely or concentrated in area, constituting exceptional basin-forming processes associated to magmatism, from Venezuela to Uruguay. For the Rio Negro-Juruena accretionary system there are relatively recent evolutionary syntheses by Santos et al. (2003a,b), Tassinari and Macambira (2004), Cordani and Teixeira (2007) that gather much geologic and geochronological information. For the taphrogenic processes, marked by several ssural intrusives, granitic and explosive volcanism, and extensional events, there is a previous synthesis by Brito Neves et al. (1995), presently demanding robust updating, in view of the substantial scientic advances in last years. These sets of Statherian crustal growth events must be viewed under an optics that transcends the South-American continent. In the case of the accretionary belt, the Rio Negro-Juruena is only part of a much wider orogenic development (Rio Negro JuruenaTranscontinental-Labrador-Gothian-Kongsbergian) encompassing, to the north, the Laurentian and Baltic blocks, where it is best studied and known (Brito Neves, 2004). In the case of the taphrogenesis, it occurs in a similar way and practically in all Paleoproterozoic blocks (which were certainly separated from each other) of this and other continents (specially North America and Africa). It is certainly represents a global phenomenon. In both cases (accretionary and taphrogenic processes) there are problems with the heterogeneity of the data. In particularly, the recognition of accretionary processes in South America is far from

4.4. The Roraima plateau e Roraima Supergroup The Roraima Supergroup (Reis et al., 1990) covers a large region of northern Brazil and neighboring countries (more than 160,000 km2) and is characterized by plateaus supported by subhorizontal (weakly and locally deformed) siliciclastic units. It

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ideal, since it is located in a rain forest domain where detailed geological maps are not available. The continuity of this belt northwards into Laurentia and Baltica is also an open question demanding further investigation. When it comes to diversied intraplate magmatism and formation of basins during taphrogenesis, the coverage of the theme is vast, and an extensive (though heterogeneously detailed) literature exists (e.g. see Brito Neves et al., 1995; Delgado et al., 2003; Danderfer et al., 2009). The number and variety of cases are large and easily extrapolates any attempt of synthesis, once there are signicant occurrences (and corresponding literature) in the Guyanas Shield (Brazil and neighboring countries) to the north, down to fractions in the Rio de la Plata Craton and the basement of the Dom Feliciano Belt (in Uruguay) to the south. 5.1. Accretionary events e Rio Negro Juruena Belt The Rio Negro Juruena accretionary processes succeeded in time the Orosirian Ventuari-Tapajs system, according to a long evolution cycle, between 1780 and 1550 Ma (entering the Calymmian period) and sense of younging from NE to SE. The time interval is very long even for a multiple accretionary process. The territorial domain is also very large, as opposed to a non-satisfactory general geologic and isotopic knowledge. There are very few areas studied in detail. The orogenic belt roughly trends NW-SE in the central-western portion of the Amazonian region, from Venezuela (Mit Complex) and Colombia (Casiquiare Domain) to the upper Juruena river, north of Mato Grosso (basement of the Parecis Basin), with a possibility of an extension southwards into the Rio Apa massif, totaling more than 2600 km. The width usually proposed for the Province is around 400 km, but there are records of rocks of the same nature to the west in the basement of the Rondonian Province, in Bolivia, within the so-called Paragua Craton (Bittencourt et al., 2010). The Province is constituted by (granodioritic, tonalitic and granitic) gneisses and migmatitic rocks, with a few metamac intercalations, forming a general scenario of calc-alkaline rock assemblagesof magmatic arc afnity, but as already said, at a reconnaissance level. The supracrustal units are more restricted throughout the Province, being recognized volcano-sedimentary contexts (greenstone belt-type associations), some of them of intermediate and felsic nature (rhyolites, rhyodacites, tuffs). Some subvolcanic granites (1.65e1.55 Ga) are known, which record late intraplate activities. As mentioned before, the identication of this accretionary domain (in Brazil) was mainly based on radar images and geochronological data, resulting in several publications, integrated in the syntheses mentioned above (e.g. Cordani and Teixeira, 2007). From the reconnaissance methods used initially (RbeSr and KeAr), gradually passing to methods such as UePb and SmeNd and some systematic mapping, the predominance of Statherian orogenic activity has been conrmed. According to several researchers, the data fully attest the presence of a juvenile (or little affected by crustal contamination) accretionary crustal province for the Rio Negro Juruena Belt. The eNd(t) values are predominantly positive (up to 4), side-by-side with slightly negative values (down to 2.0). 5.2. Intraplate basic magmatism As said above, the Statherian taphrogenic events affected all the Paleoproterozoic blocks of the South-American continent, practically with no exceptions, and a vast literature is available. Among these intraplate extensional phenomena the basic magmatism

deserves attention, and it is here discussed separately only for descriptive reasons: a) In the Amazonian Craton, crosscutting the Roraima Supergroup and its basement (Brazil and neighboring countries), the socalled Avanavero or Pedras Pretas magmatism; this conists of a series of thick sills, dikes and small plugs of gabbroid/ basaltic composition. This magmatism is one of the most important and expressive events in South-America, and it can be observed in the 1/5,000,000 geologic map. Large sills, up to 1 km thick, basic igneous rocks of composition varying from tholeiitic to andesi-basalts were identied (Menezes Leal et al., 2006). Recent determinations by the UePb method using zircon and baddeleyite (Santos et al., 2003a, b) indicated an age of 1782 3 Ma for this magmatism, which also constitutes a mark of age (maximum) for the Roraima Group. From Serra do Carajs (north and south) to Rio Maria (through Xiguara) some volcanic records of this age interval are also known, consisting ofa basalt-and esite-rhyolite association studied by e.g. Rivalente et al. (1998). The basalts occur as NE- and NW-trending dikes and are classied in two groups, of high- and low-TiO2. The basaltic rocks are concentrated to the north of the Serra dos Carajs. The geochronological data, resulting from the RbeSr method, varies from 1720 Ma (rhyolites) to 1874 Ma (basalts), with relatively low initial Sr87/Sr86 ratios, but relatively high errors (of the order of 8%). b) In the south-southeastern domain of the So Francisco Craton at least three distinctgroups of mac dikes, according to their composition, nature and age (Statherian, Tonian and Upper Cretaceous). There is a N-S-trending dike generation of some centimeters to decimeters in width associated with sills and small basic stocks, partially deformed (superimposed Brasiliano deformation along the margins of the craton) and partially undeformed, marking the presence of the Statherian taphrogenesis in that region. The deformed rocks were transformed in quartz-chlorite schists and chloritoid-sericite schists. The undeformed part show gabbroic features and composition. KeAr data indicate ages from the Statherian to the Calymmian. The baddeleyte UePb dating of the Ibirit gabbro yielded the age of 1714 5 Ma (with lower discordia intercept pointing to Brasiliano values). The predominant trend of these rocks, ages, position in the context of the craton (of the So Francisco paleocontinent) are indications of a post-Orosirian extensional event to which the evolution of the Northern Espinhao rift system (basin). c) The innermost portion of the Rio de la Plata Craton in Uruguay (Pedra Alta Terrane) is marked by an important dike swarm (called Florida) trending approximately EeW, which can be recognized at various scales and has been the object of numerous petrologic and isotopic works (e. g. Teixeira et al., 1999). To the east, this swarm is suddenly truncated by the Sarandi Del Yi fault system (part of the Brasiliano events). From the compositional point of view basic rocks of the andesitic-tholeiitic and basaltic-andesitic types are recognized. The original magmas display some degree of contamination with the older continental crust. The dikes are up to 50 m thick (generally <30 m), subvertical and very long (up to 26 km). There is a series of geochronological determinations by the RbeSr (whole rock: 1766 124 Ma) and AreAr (hornblende: 1727 10 Ma; biotite: 1725 10 Ma) methods. The intraplate ssural magmatism context is very well characterized.

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5.3. Felsic magmatism The following description and order follow expository reasons mainly, because it is recognized that there are several concrete indications of causal relationships between the igneous events and the basin tectonism. 5.3.1. The Amazonian region In the northern part of the Amazonian region (Guyanas Shield) there are sparse records of Statherian granitic plutonism and felsic volcanism. It is worth stressing out that there are plutonic and volcanosedimentary activities in the southern portion of the Craton, in the northern portion of Mato Grosso, between the Roosevelt and Teles Pires rivers, covering an area of ca. 40,000 km2. This seems to be a kind of cratogenic tract, as an exotic terrane in the interior of the Rio Negro-Juruena Province (with which the relationship has not yet been properly established). Various felsic volcanic (from dacite to rhyolite) and volcaniclastic rocks (ignimbrites, tuffs, ashes), and subordinated basalts are associated with anorogenic (A-type) granites (Leite et al., 2001). The general characteristics of this magmatism and of the associated volcano-sedimentary rocks indicate intracratonic or intraplate extensional environment. 5.3.2. Central Brazil In the central-eastern part of the continent, between meridians 40 W and 48 W and parallels 11 S and 20 S several occurrences of Statherian felsic activities are found. These occurrences preceded the installation of the Brasiliano Cycle (differentiation of cratons, terrains, massifs and mobile belts), acting as a part of the substrate of this development, and because of that they exhibit therefore different grades of reworking. Only, in some local cases, the rock units are undeformed and they preserved igneous texture and structures. Toward west, in Gois and the south of Tocantins, the Gois Tin Province stands out, where several granitic rocks (some 15 small bodies), and volcanic and sedimentary associations, including siliciclastic and volcanic rocks (Arai and Natividade groups) were identied two groups of ages: ca. 1.77 Ga (called Rio Paran subprovince) and from 1.58 up to 1.77 Ga (Rio Tocantins subprovince). From the litho-stratigraphic, tectonic and metallogenetic points of view (Dardenne and Schobbenhaus, 2001), all these occurrences are together indicative of intraplate activity and display remarkable literature. In the eastern portion (and with attested subsupercial connection), from Bahia (north) to Minas Gerais (south), a complex system of Statherian sedimentary to volcano-sedimentary basins (rifts and syneclises) developed and was later deformed in the preBrasiliano and in the Brasiliano, constituting the so-called Espinhao Fold System. It is attested by a vast and increasing bibliography (see Delgado et al., 2003 and Danderfer et al., 2009). In Minas Gerais, between Serro and Itabira, a dozen of small to medium-sized granitic bodies (Borrachudos Suite) described by Dussin and Dussin (1995), are intruded in the Archan-Paleoproterozoic basement (Guanhes block) under an anorogenic regime. Similar granites have been described in the Paramirim corridor, in central-western Bahia, along a fraction of the Paleoproterozoic basement, between two major beltsof the volcano-sedimentary (Espinhao-Chapada Diamantina) groups. 5.3.3. Northeastern Brazil (Borborema Province) The basement of the Borborema northern segment in Cear (from the Mdio Corea to the Jaguaribeana belt) and in Rio Grande do Norte (So Jos Belt, northwest of the Rio Piranhas Massif), several occurrences of anorogenic (acid to intermediate) volcanic

rocks and associated granitic plutonism have been recognized. All of them clearly cut the older dominantly Rhyacian basement, as well as they are reworked by contractional and shearing events of the Brasiliano Cycle. This reworking can be local, but can transform granitic rocks in augen-gneisses and volcano-sedimentary bands into true schist belts. The exact areal extension of this volcanism-plutonism associations is not yet known, because part of the volcano-sedimentary (Ors Group etc.) sequences and the granitic contexts (several augen-gneisses, Serra do Deserto Suite, suite G2 etc.) have been strongly involved together with the older basement rocks by the Brasiliano deformations. The complete discrimination still remains to be done and evaluated. In the Rio Grande do Norte Terrane, some granitic bodies of tabular shape and alkaline nature (intrusive in the Rhyacian gneissic-migmatitic substrate) have been identied and they yielded UePb ages ca. 1740 Ma. Other coeval granites are present and even some older ones, as intrusive (augen-gneisses) in this basement (Caic Complex, Rhyacian in age) were subsequently deformed and tansformed into gneisses by the Brasiliano events. These granitoids are very common and usually referred to as G2type (G1 would be the granites of the Rhyacian basement themselves). In several parts of the Paleoproterozoic (Rhyacian) basement of the Transversal Zone (between Patos and Pernambuco EeW lineaments) gabbro-anorthositic bodies, always deformed by the Brasiliano, have been identied Only in some of the many cases, Statherian ages have been conrmed (Delgado et al., 2003; Santos et al., 2010), and in many others are waiting age determinations. 5.3.4. Mantiqueira In the northern part of the Mantiqueira Province, within the domain of the Araua Belt basement, the presence of supracrustal rocks (Espinhao) and associated anorogenic granites (Borrachudos) has been debated. To the east, in the northern portion of the Ribeira Belt basement in Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, there are many convergent ideas, which were reviewed by Heilbron et al. (2004). In Minas Gerais, there are successions of Statherian (and even Mesoproterozoic) supracrustal rocks, as the So Joo Del Rei Group, which were reworked in the Brasiliano. In Rio de Janeiro there are several references to granitic rocks (orthogneisses) of alkaline nature and Statherian ages, so that the age value of 1.7 Ga has usually been used as the upper age limit for the basement rocks of the belt. To the south, in Paran, along the southern border of the Apia Belt and adjacent to the Lancinha Lineament (north-northeast of Curitiba) some intensely deformed (mylonitic and ultra-mylonitic) granitoid bodies of alkaline afnity occur within younger volcanosedimentary supracrustal rocks. In the Betara (close to the southern part of the fault) and Tigre (to the north) nuclei, along the same structural trend, Statherian intraplate granitoids (respectively 1748 and 1772 Ma old, Cury et al., 2002) were described, demonstrating the presence of the Statherian taphrogenesis in the basement of the belt. Part of this Statherian granitic rocks were transformed into mylonites by the Brasiliano processes of extrusion. Additionally in Uruguay, in the central-western portion of the Nico Perez Terrane ea regenerated fraction of the Rio de la Plata Craton e immediately east of the Sarandir Del Yi fault, there is an interesting occurrence of a small subvolcanic granitic body (<650 km2) presenting rapakivi texture. The Illescas body (Campal and Schipilov, 1995) is of alkaline character and characterized by the presence of blue quartz. The geochronological data show that it is contemporaneous with the Flrida basic magmatism that cuts the Pedras Altas Terrane.

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