Chapter Three: More

About
We all know about arithmetic operations, we now have the
ability to express these precisely and accurately. The idea is that
we can combine numbers the same way that we combine sets.
Addition
If we have a set A with cardinal number c
A
, and a set B with
cardinal number c
B
, and if we combine the two sets to form C,
we get a cardinal number c
C
, consisting of the count of all
elements of both sets. If c
A
= 3 and c
B
= 6, then c
C
= 9. We say
that c
C
is the sum of the two addends c
A
and c
B
, we write
c
C
= c
A
+c
B
.
Assume that the numbers we are working with are the
natural numbers. When we combine two natural numbers we
are performing an operation on them. When we operate on pairs
of numbers, we are performing a binary operation. We can write
this symbolically as q or ;, depending on what type of
operation we are performing. Addition is such a binary
operation.
The first conjecture we will study is that when we add
two natural numbers, we get another natural number,
(1) a, b e = a +b e
this property is called the closure property of addition. We say that
the set of natural numbers is closed under addition.
this property is called the closure property of addition. We say that
the set of natural numbers is closed under addition.
Stop Reading and Do Something #1: Prove that the
set of natural numbers is closed under addition.
We begin by stating that a , and by establishing a
subset, S, of the natural numbers containing b such
that we can define a b. By P1 and P2, 1 S, this is
because a 1 a

. If we assume that b S, then

a b

S by P2. This is the same as stating that

a b 1 a b

S. So, the sum and its successor is

an element of S. Thus, by the principle of mathematical
induction, S is the whole set of natural numbers. Thus
the set of natural numbers is closed under addition.
The second conjecture is that addition produces a unique natural
number.
Stop Reading and Do Something #2: Prove that
addition of natural numbers is unique. Use the same
arguments as #1
The third conjecture is that addition of natural numbers is
associative.
(2) a +b +c = a +b +c.
Stop Reading and Do Something #3: Prove that
addition of natural numbers is associative.
2 Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb
Stop Reading and Do Something #3: Prove that
addition of natural numbers is associative.
The fourth conjecture is that addition is commutative.
(3) a +b = b +a.
Stop Reading and Do Something #4: Prove that
addition of natural numbers is commutative.
The fifth conjecture is called the principle of additive cancellation,
(4) a +b = a +c = b = c.
Stop Reading and Do Something #5: Prove the
additive cancellation property for natural numbers.
We can also state that there needs to be an element that if we
add anything to it, we get only what we added
(5) a +I = a.
this is called the additive identity. It is important to note that there
is no such element in the set of natural numbers. We need to
extend the set of natural numbers to include the cardinal
number of the empty set, 0. When we do this we get the set of
whole numbers, .
We can write out a step-by-step method for doing
addition, what we call an algorithm,
1. Write out the addends in columnar form so that the
positions line up:
Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb 3
a
n
a
n1
. . . a
2
a
1
+ b
n
b
n1
. . . b
2
b
1
c
n
c
n1
. . . c
2
c
1
2. a
1
+b
1
= c
1
. If this result is < 10, then write the result in
the first column. If the result is 10 or greater, then put
the first position of the result in as c
1
and carry the
second position as an addition to the second position
total.
3. a
2
+b
2
+any carry over fromc
1
= c
2
. If this result is
< 10, then write the result in the second column. If the
result is 10 or greater, then put the first position of the
result in as c
2
and carry the second position as an
addition to the third position total.
4. Continue in this fashion until you are finished.
There are some techniques that will make your work easier.
3 +6 +4 +9, can be made easier by recognizing that 6 +4 = 10,
adding by ten is always easier, we can also see that
9 +3 = 10 +2, so the answer is 22. Adding by 5 or 10 is easier
than 7 or 6, so try to pull those sums out first.
Multiplication
Another way to combine numbers is to add them repeatedly.
We add the multiplicand a a number of times equal to the factor b.
We write ab, or just a b. Multiplication is a binary operation.
We conjecture that the set of whole numbers is closed
under multiplication:
(6) a, b e = a b e
Stop Reading and Do Something #6: Prove that the
set of whole numbers is closed under addition.
4 Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb
Stop Reading and Do Something #6: Prove that the
set of whole numbers is closed under addition.
We also conjecture that multiplication results in a unique
product.
Stop Reading and Do Something #7: Prove that
multiplication of whole numbers is unique.
Another conjecture is that multiplication of whole numbers is
associative.
(7) a b c = a b c.
Stop Reading and Do Something #8: Prove that
multiplication of whole numbers is associative.
We conjecture that multiplication of whole numbers is
commutative:
(8) a b = b a.
Stop Reading and Do Something #9: Prove that
multiplication of whole numbers is commutative.
Another conjecture is the principle of multiplicative cancellation:
(9) a b = a c = b = c.
Stop Reading and Do Something #10: Prove the
multiplicative cancellation property of whole numbers.
Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb 5
The multiplicative identity for the set of whole numbers is 1:
(10) a I = a.
The final conjecture for multiplication that we will examine is
the distributive property:
(11) a b +c = a b + a c.
Stop Reading and Do Something #11: Prove the
distributive property of whole numbers.
We can write out an algorithm for multiplication:
1. Write out the factors in columnar form so that the
positions line up:
a
n
a
n1
. . . a
2
a
1
b
n
b
n1
. . . b
2
b
1
c
1 n
c
1 n1
. . . c
12
c
11
d
1 n
d
1 n1
. . . d
12
d
11

e
n n
e
n n1
. . . e
n 2
2. Multiply all of the digits of a by b
1
, consider all carrying
over of digits. Place c
11
below b
1
.
3. Multiply all of the digits of a by b
2
, consider all carrying
over of digits. Place d
11
below b
2
.
4. Keep doing this until you complete b
n
.
5. Take the sum of the results. Consider blank areas to be 0.
Algebraic Structures
Any set whose elements are combined by some binary relation,
q, where certain properties hold for q, and having some kind
of equivalence relations, ~, is called an algebraic structure. We
write this symbolically by set, q, ~. Any set that is closed and
associative with respect to q is called a semigroup. Any set that is
a semigroup and has an identity with respect to q is called a
monoid. The set of whole numbers is a monoid with respect to
both addition and multiplication. So we write , +, = and
, , =.
6 Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb
Any set whose elements are combined by some binary relation,
q, where certain properties hold for q, and having some kind
of equivalence relations, ~, is called an algebraic structure. We
write this symbolically by set, q, ~. Any set that is closed and
associative with respect to q is called a semigroup. Any set that is
a semigroup and has an identity with respect to q is called a
monoid. The set of whole numbers is a monoid with respect to
both addition and multiplication. So we write , +, = and
, , =.
Stop Reading and Do Something #12: Prove that
(,+,=) and (,,=) are monoids.
Order Relations
We have established binary operations between elements of a
set, particularly numbers. We have also established equivalence
relations. We can now establish another kind of relation
between any two whole numbers, a, b e : either a < b, a = b,
or a > b.
The case a < b occurs if and only if there exists c e , such
that a +c = b.
The case a > b occurs if and only if there exists c e , such
that b +c = a.
The case a = b occurs if and only if a b and a b.
Any set where these hold:
1. a = b = a > b a < b.
2. a < b = a = b.
3. a < b and b < c = a < c.
is called a linearly ordered set.
A set consisting of numerical values, A, that is non-empty will
likely have an element that is less than every other element of
the set, we write
Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb 7
A set consisting of numerical values, A, that is non-empty will
likely have an element that is less than every other element of
the set, we write
(12) a, b e A = a < b
then a is called the first element of A.
If every non-empty subset of a set, B, has a first element, we call
B a well-ordered set.
Stop Reading and Do Something #13: Prove that is
well-ordered.
Powers and Exponents
Another way to combine natural numbers, or whole numbers, is
to repeatedly multiply one by another. We multiply the base a a
number of times equal to the power b. We write a
b
, this is called
an exponent. If we multiply two exponents that have the same
base, this is the same thing as taking the base to the sum of the
powers,
(13) a
b
a
c
= a
b+c
.
If two bases are equal, then their exponents will be equal
assuming they are taken to the same power,
(14) a = b = a
c
= b
c
.
There is an identity element for powers, 1, and a base taken to
the power of 0 is always 1,
(15) a
1
= a; a
0
= 1.
8 Chapter 3 More Numbers.nb