Sufism: Mystical Marketing

Dan Dunn

Mr. Niall Christie HIST-1195 !1"!1#

1 Sufism is a term f$r a %ariety $f &hil$s$&hical' s$cial' an( literary &hen$mena $ccurring )ithin the Islamic )$rl(. In its narr$)est sense' the term *Sufism* refers t$ a num+er $f sch$$ls $f Islamic mystical &hil$s$&hy an( the$l$gy.1 It has +een sai( that *Sufism is at $nce the religi$us &hil$s$&hy an( the &$&ular religi$n $f Islam., Sufism can +e (escri+e( as the es$teric &iece $f a greater Islam' an( as such' it has e-erte( c$nsi(era+le influence $%er the (e%el$&ment $f Islamic &$litics an( s$ciety' an( t$ the %arie( e-&ressi$ns $f &$&ular &iety.#

It is the &ur&$se $f this &a&er t$ eluci(ate the &leth$ra $f c$ntri+uti$ns ma(e +y Sufism t$ the s&rea( $f Islam. The im&$rtance $f Sufism ins$far as the c$n%eyance $f the message $f Islam is irrefuta+le' +ut )hy )as it s$ successful. /hat ma(e Sufism' the mystical as&ect $f Islam' a c$n%ersi$n 0selling &$int0 f$r rural an( une(ucate( &$rti$ns $f s$ciety. H$) large a r$le (i( Sufist literature &lay in s&ee(ing the a($&ti$n $f Islam. 1fter careful c$nsi(erati$n' it +ec$mes clear that the effecti%eness $f Sufism t$ s&rea( Islam is (ue in n$ small &art t$ f$ur +r$a( categ$ries2 1cce&tance' accessi+ility' the Sufi lea(ers' an( Sufist cultural c$ntri+uti$ns. In a((iti$n t$ these categ$ries' is the un(enia+le im&$rtance $f 1+u Hami( Muhamma( i+n Muhamma( al-3ha4ali' )h$ create( +ri(ge +et)een the s&iritual an( f$rmal' sch$lastic si(es $f Islam.

It +eh$%es this &a&er t$ g$ int$ m$re (etails regar(ing the categ$ries that are menti$ne( a+$%e. 1cce&tance' ins$far as it (escri+es the &$tency $f Sufism in s&rea(ing Islam' entails the ease )ith )hich Sufis an( 5Sufism6 +len(e( )ith l$cal cultures' acce&ting )$rshi&&ers acr$ss class' caste an( religi$us (i%i(es. They &resente( an Islam that inc$r&$rate( l$cal tra(iti$ns an( )$rshi& styles. 1ccessi+ility &ertains t$ the )ay in )hich Islam )as &reache( +y them in a sim&le' &ragmatic an( fle-i+le )ay' c$ntrary t$ the 7lemas )h$ lai( much em&hasis $n the rigi(ity $f Islamic rules' an( Shari0ah. The Sufi
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8lias' 9amal 9.' Sufism, :Iranian Stu(ies' ;$l. #1' N$. <' Summer-1utumn: Tayl$r = >rancis' ?t(. 199@A &&. 595-B1# C. 1. Nich$ls$n' Studies in Islamic Mysticism :Cam+ri(ge' 19BDA' &. B5 # 8lias' Sufism, &&. 595-B1#

lea(ers )ere an$ther im&$rtant as&ect $f &r$&elling the influence $f Islam. The Sufis (islike( f$rmalities an( cerem$nial acts' &referring t$ lea( sim&le' th$ugh at times e-tra$r(inary' li%es. They set e-am&le thr$ugh their +eha%i$ur an( c$n(uct. It )as the +len(ing $f 5e-tra$r(inary6 an( high stan(ar(s $f m$rality an( ethics that attracte( f$ll$)ers. The e-tra$r(inary )as an im&$rtant c$ntri+ut$r t$ the %i%i( an( attracti%e nature $f Sufi literature an( art' $f )hich ser%e( as an$ther im&$rtant t$$l in the s&rea( $f Islam. >inally' m$re (etail is necessary regar(ing al-3ha4ali' )ith$ut )h$ Sufi Islam may ha%e ne%er &laye( s$ large a r$le in the s&rea( an( f$rmati$n $f greater Islam.

Eef$re the acce&tance $f Sufi Islam +y &$tential c$n%erts can +e (iscusse(' regar(ing the central argument' the acce&tance $f Sufism +y the Islamic instituti$ns must +e (iscusse(' f$r )ith$ut )hich' the f$ll$)ing analysis )$ul( n$t +e &$ssi+le. The ra&i( Muslim e-&ansi$n in the early centuries +r$ught milli$ns $f recent-c$n%erts un(er the Islamic um+rella' an( necessitate( a c$(ificati$n $f the myria( $f literature' hist$ry' +i$gra&hies an( $ther +ranches $f the religi$n. This e-$teric as&ect $f Islam ran c$unter t$ the Sufist +elief structure' )hich )as critical $f the f$rmalism. Sufism )as a *natural re%$lt $f the human heart against the c$l( f$rmalism $f a ritualistic religi$n.*F The$l$gians an( 5legalists6 str$%e t$ (e%el$& an $rth$($- inter&retati$n $f the faith that )$ul( &r$tect it fr$m heretical inn$%ati$n. They &ercei%e( that the Sufis6 ten(ency t$ neglect legal &rescri&ti$ns )$ul( lea( t$ the c$rru&ti$n $f Muhamma(6s religi$n. They als$ feare( that their $)n &$siti$ns as religi$us lea(ers $f the &e$&le might +e su&&lante( +y the &$&ular Sufis.5 5This c$nflict +et)een ($ctrinaire an( f$ll$)er $f the Inner ?ight )as fun(amental an( seeme( irrec$ncila+le.,B

The ;enera+le al-3ha4ali )as at the f$refr$nt $f this c$nflicts rise. GThe acce&te( &$siti$n $f Sufism...is a (irect result $f 3ha4ali6s )$rk., 3ha4ali6s arguments in The Ce%i%ificati$n $f the Celigi$us
1nHum' Tan%ir' Sufism in History and its Relationship with Power' :Islamic Stu(ies' ;$l. F5' N$. : : Islamic Cesearch Institute' Internati$nal Islamic 7ni%ersity' Islama+a(' Summer ""B'A &&. 1- B@
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Christian Cesearch Institute' Sufis: The Mystical Muslims -- 1rticle ID: DI ""-# I Ey: 8lli$t Miller 3i++' H.1.C.' Mohammedanism' ( e(. :Ne) J$rk: Ment$r2 195#A' 1"B.

# Sciences (i( much t$ relie%e the h$stility an( sus&ici$n that ha( (e%el$&e( +et)een the 7lama an( the Sufis. The t)$ tra(iti$ns came t$ regar( each $ther as ha%ing necessary r$les t$ fulfil )ithin the larger Islamic c$mmunity. /ith Sufism acce&te( +y the Islamic auth$rities' it )as free t$ &r$m$te its uniKue e-&ressi$n $f Islam. It )as %ery effecti%e. 3i%en the num+er $f religi$ns in the regi$ns $f the Mi((le 8ast' N$rth 1frica an( &arts $f the In(ian su+-c$ntinent' an( the %$latility $f religi$us +elief' the Sufist +elief structure )as (eft in the )ay it &$rtraye( its &$licy $f religi$us acce&tance' an( in (ue c$urse' create( a &$)erful f$rce f$r c$n%ersi$n.

8ssential t$ Sufism is the eth$s $f t$lerance an( uni%ersalism. The Sufi t$$k an inclusi%e a&&r$ach t$ n$n-Muslims' as $&&$se( t$ the m$re f$rmal Muslim the$l$gians. M$re$%er' Muslim s$ciety )as als$ +eset +y str$ng sectarian clea%ages' an( there e-iste( fricti$n am$ng the a(herents. Sufism left an in(eli+le mark $n the life $f the Muslims' as the Sufis $ften r$se a+$%e sectarian affiliati$ns' (es&ite the fact that m$st $f them )ere Sunni6s +y $rientati$n.D 1 num+er $f &ertinent Sufi )ritings len( cre(ence t$ this asserti$n2

>r$m 1#th-century Lersian &$et' the$l$gian' an( Sufi mystic 9alal al-Din Cumi:

GTh$ugh the many )ays M(i%erse religi$nsN are %ari$us' the g$al is $ne. D$ y$u n$t see there are many r$a(s t$ the Oaa+a.,@

>r$m Sufi Mystic I+n 51ra+i:

H$(gs$n' The Venture of Islam: The Classical A e of Islam' 1: #9# Seyye( H$ssein Nasr' Sufi !ssays :?$n($n: 3e$rge 1llen an( 7n)in ?t(.' 19D A' 11-1

F GMy heart has +ec$me ca&a+le $f e%ery f$rm: it is a &asture f$r ga4elles an( a c$n%ent f $r Christians' an( a tem&le f$r i($ls an( the &ilgrims Oa5+a an( the ta+les $f the T$rah' an( the +$$k $f the O$ran. I f$ll$) the religi$n $f ?$%e: )hate%er )ay ?$%e6s camels take' that is my religi$n an( faith..9

1n$ther Sufi saint' Mahmu( Sha+istari' in his )$rk 3ulshan-i Ca4 :The Mystic C$se 3ar(enA c$ncurs'

G..)hat is m$sKue' )hat is synag$gue' )hat is fire tem&le. ... 5I6 an( 5J$u6 are the Ha(es %eil +et)een them.. /hen this %eil is lifte( u& fr$m +ef$re y$u' there remains n$t the +$n( $f sects an( cree(s.,1"

These e-am&les n$t $nly illustrate the acce&tance $f $ther religi$ns +y the Sufist m$%ement' +ut als$ the im&$rtant use $f the arts' namely' literature. Lerha&s the m$st effecti%e means $f c$n%eying un(erstan(ing am$ngst the masses $f une(ucate( )as that $f the arts. 1 &re($minating f$rm $f )hich' f$r Sufis' &$etry. C$m&are( t$ the ($gmatic han(+$$ks' an( c$m&licate( treatises' these &$ems ha( a m$re imme(iate a&&eal an( accessi+ility....it )as thr$ugh their c$-$&ti$n $f such %ernacular entertainments that the Sufis )ere a+le t$ reach a m$re general au(ience...an( ensure( that it )as als$ a relati$nshi& )hich )as )arme( )ith affecti$n an( inf$rme( +y at least a measure $f un(erstan(ing.11 Ey stri%ing t$ make its $)n +elief structure m$re accessi+le' +$th in &ractice an( un(erstan(ing. The Sufis ease( the transiti$n t$ Islam +y &$tential c$n%erts. They ha( (e%el$&e( a systematic' an( regulate( &r$gressi$n int$ the mystical' an( Islam itself.

Nasr' Sufi !ssays' 1FD Nasr' Sufi !ssays' 1FD 3reen' Nile' Sufism: a "lo#al History' :;$lume #F' /iley Elack)ell Erief Hist$ries $f Celigi$n: 9$hn /iley = S$ns' "1 A

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5 In his f$lk &$em' Shah Hashim Ohu(a)an( Ha(i illustrates this %ery &$int. M1N 1s 8at$n (escri+es it' GThe the$l$gy here is as sim&le as the language. The (e%$tee is n$t aske( t$ master either the ($ctrinal kn$)le(ge $f the the$l$gian $r the fine &$ints $f the Sufis es$teric kn$)le(ge' +ut $nly t$ feel c$mf$rt in 3$(0s unity an( maHesty.,1

1((iti$nally' it is )$rth n$ting that a large &$rti$n $f Sufi literature takes the f$rm $f lulla+ies an( )e((ing s$ngs' an( likely a&&eale( es&ecially t$ )$men. There is Kuite a +it $f e%i(ence &$inting t$ the im&$rtance that Sufis &lace( $n )$men' es&ecially )here the transmissi$n $f Islam is c$ncerne(. s$me Sufi $r(ers the g$al $f the mystical Kuest is G&ers$nifie( as a )$man' usually name( ?aila )hich means 5night6... this is the h$liest an( m$st secret in)ar(ness $f 1llah... in this sym+$lism ?aila an( haKiKa :Di%ine CealityA are $ne.,1# N$t $nly s$ s$me Sufist $r(ers re%ere the r$le $f a female figure' +ut $ne se%enteenth-century acc$unt n$te( that )$men )ere all$)e( t$ enter e%en the inner circle $f a Sufis f$ll$)ers.1F The inclusi$n $f )$men (uring rituals further s$li(ifies the im&$rtance $f )$men t$ the Sufis' an( n$ ($u+t the &r$-imity $f m$thers t$ their chil(ren )as instrumental in the transmissi$n $f religi$us &ractices an( attitu(es at rural le%els.15 In

In(ee(' the Sufi mystics an(!$r &hil$s$&hers )ere Hust as im&$rtant as the means +y )hich they s&rea( Islam. Charismatic an(!$r (e%$ut shaikhs :$ften &$ssessing &r$n$unce( 5&sychic &$)ers6A freKuently attracte( large f$ll$)ings. These gatherings $f initiates c$nstitute( +r$therh$$(s' $r c$mmunities' gr$)ing ar$un( the resi(ence $f the shaikh. 1((iti$nally' (isci&les )h$ achie%e( a high le%el $f initiati$n )$ul( $ften +ring their masters teachings t$ ne) areas' )here they )$ul( attract (isci&les $f their $)n' an( f$un( ne) su+-$r(ers.1B 1((iti$nally' Sufis )ere m$re &re&are( t$ un(ertake
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8at$n' Cichar( M.' Sufi $ol% &iterature and the !'pansion of Indian Islam' :Hist$ry $f Celigi$ns' %$l. 1F' N$. : 7ni%ersity $f Chicag$ Lress' N$%.' 19DFA &&. 11D-1 D 1# /illiam St$((art' Sufism ( The Mystical )octrines and Methods of Islam :Ne) J$rk: Larag$n H$use Lu+lishers' 19@BA' &&. DF 1F 8ta$n' Sufi $ol%' &&. 1 " 15 8at$n' Sufi $ol%' &&. 1 " 1B Miller' 8lli$t' Sufis: The Mystical Muslims' :Christian Cesearch Institute - 1rticle ID: DI ""-#A

B missi$nary missi$ns as it )as easier f$r the t$ mi- )ith n$n-Muslims )ith$ut f$rmality an( (ifficulty. This )as (ue in n$ small &art t$ their $%erarching acce&tance $f $ther religi$n' castes' races' an( cultures.

>act$rs' ranging fr$m acce&tance - $riginally $f the Sufist ($ctrine +y greater Islam' an( then +y the Sufis regar(ing $ther religi$ns' cultures' an( im&$rtantly' )$men. The charisma $f the Sufis themsel%es' an( the )ay in )hich Islam )as ma(e m$re accessi+le - thr$ugh literature' an( the ($)n&laye( nature )ith )hich Sufis &$rtraye( the im&$rtance $f the 5sch$lastic6 as&ect $f Islam' ha%e all +een &aram$unt t$ the success that Sufism has ha( in marketing Islam' an( its s&rea( in general. 1s if in testim$ny $f this' (uring the &eri$( s&anning the si-teenth thr$ugh the eighteenth centuries' the Sufis reache( the height $f their influence in the Islamic )$rl(. The num+er $f Muslims affiliate( )ith Sufi +r$therh$$(s at that time has +een estimate( t$ ha%e +een any)here fr$m 5" t$ @" &ercent $f the t$tal &$&ulati$n.1D

1D

Crim' Oeith C.' C$ger 1u+rey Eullar(' an( ?arry D. Shinn. A#in don )ictionary of &i*in Reli ions :Nash%ille' Tenn: 1+ing($nA s.%. GSufism,

D 8n(-n$tes M1N >irst )as 3$(0s name' 1n( then His Kualities. In my min( I kee& the name' 1n( )ith each +reath :refrainA: Say *?a-illah* MThere is n$ g$(N D)ell in *il-1llah* MEut 1llahN 3$( Himself fr$m the hi((en treasure Has create( the )h$le )$rl( artistically. He has create( it )ith His $)n &$)er:refrainA: Say *?a-illah* D)ell in *il-1llah.* 3$( Himself came $ut fr$m the hi((en treasure 1n( sh$)e( Himself in the guise $f the Lr$&het. :refrainA In the &resence $f 3$(' the Lr$&het is the chief /h$se teachings ha%e gi%en us su&&$rt in +$th )$rl(s. :refrainA The Lr$&het0s Ohalifa is 01li' )h$ is (ear t$ Him' 1n( )h$se (isci&les are $ur &irs. :refrainA 1llah' Muhamma(' an( 01li 1re $ur lea(ers )h$m )e trust m$st 1n( $+ey as sla%es. :refrainA Pur &ir has taken $ur han(s in his2 He has gi%en us c$nnecti$ns )h$lehearte(ly. May he kee& this c$nnecti$n f$re%er. :refrainA These Say *?a-illah* D)ell in *il-1llah.*1@

Hashim Ohu(a)an( Ha(i' Chakki-nama 0Irfan' )a%ani manuscript :Hy(era+a(' I(ara-e-a(a+iyat-e-ur(u' n$. 9#EA' f$ls. 1 B+-1 @a.
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1nHum' Tan%ir' Sufism in History and its Relationship with Power' :Islamic Stu(ies' ;$l. F5' N$. : Islamic Cesearch Institute' Internati$nal Islamic 7ni%ersity' Islama+a(' Summer ""B'A &&. 1- B@. htt&:!!))).Hst$r.$rg!sta+le! "@#9"1B

Crim' Oeith C.' C$ger 1u+rey Eullar(' an( ?arry D. Shinn. A#in don )ictionary of &i*in Reli ions :Nash%ille' Tenn: 1+ing($nA s.%. GSufism,

8at$n' Cichar( M.' Sufi $ol% &iterature and the !'pansion of Indian Islam' :Hist$ry $f Celigi$ns' ;$l. 1F' N$. : The 7ni%ersity $f Chicag$ Lress' N$%.' 19DFA &&. 11D-1 D. htt&:!!))).Hst$r.$rg.e4&r$-y.langara.+c.ca!sta+le!1"B ""F

8lias' 9amal 9.' Sufism' :Iranian Stu(ies ' ;$l. #1' N$. <: Tayl$r = >rancis' ?t(. $n +ehalf $f Internati$nal S$ciety f$r Iranian Stu(ies' Summer - 1utumn' 199@A' &&. 595-B1#. htt&:!!))).Hst$r.$rg.e4&r$-y.langara.+c.ca!sta+le!F#1119

3i++' H.1.C.' Mohammedenism: An Historic Sur*ey' :7ni%ersal Digital ?i+rary' CN: D@95: 1 3ala-y E$$kA

3reen' Nile' Sufism: A "lo#al History' :;$lume #F $f /iley Elack)ell Erief Hist$ries $f Celigi$n: 9$hn /iley = S$ns' "1 A

Ha(i' Hashim Ohu(a)an(' Chakki-nama 0Irfan' )a%ani Manuscript :Hy(era+a(' I(ara-e-a(a+iyat-e-ur(u' n$. 9#EA' f$ls. 1 B+-1 @a.

9 H$(gs$n' 3.S. Marshall' The Venture of Islam: The Classical A e' :7ni%ersity $f Chicag$ Lress' 19DDA' Lara. 1: Lg. #9#

I44ati' 1+u- al->a4$l' 1. 844at' The Spread of Islam: The Contri#utin $actors, :SaKi E$$ks: IC1S Lress' "" A Lg. "1

Miller' 8lli$t' Sufis: The Mystical Muslims' :Christian Cesearch Institute - 1rticle ID: DI ""-#: Christian 1rticles IslamA

Nich$ls$n' C.1.' Studies in Islamic Mysticism, :Cam+ri(ge' 19BD'A Lg. B5

Shah' I(ries' The Sufis :3ar(en City' NJ: 1nch$r E$$ks' 19BFA' 1BD.

St$((art' /illiam' Sufism: The Mystical )octrines and Methods of Islam' :Ne) J$rk: Larag$n H$use Lu+lishers' 19@BA &&. DF