Part II Materials Science

TENSORS
Course C4 (9 + 2 lectures) Dr E G Bithell

SYNOPSIS
This course will be given in 11 one-hour blocks. It does not have a separate examples class, but the allocated time will be divided between lecture-style delivery and short blocks of time for you to spend on worked examples. Introduction What is a tensor? Tensor quantities and properties (field and matter tensors). Stress and strain Key principles (brief recall of IB Mechanical Properties course). Definition of stress at a point. Notation and coordinate systems. Einstein summation convention; resolution of stresses and transformation of axes; principal axes; diagonalisation of a general tensor; the Mohr circle construction. Varying stress and strain fields. Definitions of strain at a point. Distinction between rigid body displacement and rotation, and shear. Methods of experimental stress analysis Strain gauges: fundamentals underlying gauge factor. Practical details. Analysis of strain gauge results. Photoelasticity: birefringence, stress-optical co-efficients, isochromatic and isoclinic fringes, applications. Other methods of stress measurement: brittle coatings, X-ray diffraction, ultrasonics. Residual stresses: origin and measurement. Stresses and strains in thin films: origin, measurement, epitaxy. Tensor properties other than elasticity The representation surface for second rank tensors. Optical properties and the indicatrix. Piezoelectricity: tensor notation. Applications of the piezoelectric effect, electrical transducers in a variety of devices. Effects of symmetry. Ferroelectricity, pyroelectricy, polycrystalline piezoelectric transducers. Introduction to higher order properties. Elasticity Isotropic medium: linear elasticity theory, principle of superposition, interrelationships of elastic constants. General anisotropic medium: stiffness and compliance tensors. Simplification by symmetry: matrix notation. Strain energy density: symmetry of general stiffness and compliance

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matrices. Effects of crystal symmetry. Physical interpretation of three deformation modes in a cubic crystal. Anisotropy factor for several materials. Elastic stress distributions General elasticity theory: stress equilibrium, strain compatibility, stress-strain relationship. St. Venant's principle. Examples of elastic stress distributions: circular hole in plate, notch in plate, dislocations. Elastic waves Dynamic fracture behaviour, ultrasonics. Wave equation for longitudinal wave in rod. Other waves: torsion in rod, dilatation and distortion in an infinite medium, Rayleigh waves. Comparison of wave velocities for steel, aluminium and rubber.

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REFERENCE LIST
Principal textbooks Nye: Physical Properties of Crystals, chapters 1, 2, 5, 6 & 8 (library code: Lj13b, ref) We use Nye's notation throughout. Fundamental basis for the description of material properties using tensors. Lovett: Tensor Properties of Crystals, all chapters (NbA 73b) Less comprehensive than Nye, but the content of this book corresponds very closely to that of the course. Relatively cheap in paperback. Other textbooks Cottrell: Mechanical Properties of Matter, chapters 4, 5 & 6 (Lj18a, ref) Elasticity, stress distributions, elastic waves Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy, chapters 1 & 2 (Kz1a,c,e, ref) Analysis of mechanical failures, stress and strain, elasticity Holister: Experimental Stress Analysis, chapters 1, 2 & 4 (Ky2) Strain gauges, photoelasticity Kelly and Groves: Crystallography and Crystal Defects, chapters 4 & 5 (Ll30) Tensors, stress and strain, elasticity Knott: Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, chapters 1 & 2 (Ke45a, ref) Modes of failure, stress concentrations Le May: Principles of Physical Metallurgy, chapters 1, 2 & 4 (Kz31b, ref) Stress and strain, criteria for failure, dislocations Lovell, Avery and Vernon: Physical Properties of Materials, ch. 8 & 10 (AB59) Pyroelectricity, piezoelectricity, ferroelectricity, electro-optics, non-linear optics Wilson and Hawkes: Optoelectronics: An Introduction, chapter 3 (LcD7) Electro-optic effect, non-linear optics Wyatt and Dew-Hughes: Metals, Ceramics and Polymers, ch. 5 & 6 (Ab14b, ref) Tensile testing, yield point phenomena, elasticity Web resources DoITPoMS TLPs: Introduction to Anisotropy; Tensors; Dislocations

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FORMULAE
This is a list of formulae and equations appearing in the Tensors course which are sufficiently fundamental to the subject area that you may be expected to reproduce them from memory in order to carry out derivations or calculations. Einstein summation convention (example): = , = 1,2,3 Total, normal and shear stresses on a plane:
|| = + + =

Hydrostatic stress: = Dilatation: =

+ + = 3 3

= + +

Elasticity relationships (tensor notation): = [stiffness tensor] Superposition of normal stresses in an isotropic medium: = = [compliance tensor] + etc

Important note This course goes beyond the mathematics which can reasonably be done as a pencil and paper exercise, and you will also learn (in outline) the background to computational approaches to tensor calculations. You should therefore be prepared to answer essay-type questions on this course, as well as calculations, and be able to illustrate your answers with appropriate mathematics in the same way as you would with diagrams. In these cases, key equations will not normally be provided.

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Reasons for using tensors We are concerned with the quantitative description and analysis of the properties of materials. There are two reasons why we need tensors:

1.1.1 Anisotropy (matter tensors) A materials property such as density is just a number direction has no meaning. But properties such as electrical conductivity: can depend upon direction are anisotropic need tensors for a proper description These are matter tensors: the properties have a particular orientation with respect to the material they must conform to the material's symmetry (Neumanns Principle) Anisotropy is most readily associated with single crystals but this is not necessarily the only possibility.

1.1.2 External influences and stimuli (field tensors) Even if a material is isotropic, its properties relate specific quantities i.e. cause effect, for example: electric field current (via conductivity) stress strain (via stiffness or compliance) Field tensors: can have any orientation with respect to the material can exist in isotropic materials need not conform to the symmetry of the material

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We have two particular areas of interest: 1.1.3 Crystal physics This is concerned with the behaviour of solid state devices, for example: optical properties (birefringence is a strong indicator for anisotropy) optoelectronic devices magneto-optic devices elasto-optic devices 1.1.4 Elasticity This is concerned with the analysis of stress and strain: at the atomic level relevant to dislocations and cracks at the microscopic level e.g. thin films and micro devices at the macroscopic level components and structures 1.2 Material properties represented by tensors Many materials properties can be described by matter tensors properties which relate two other quantities (see also the Tensors TLP). Property Density Heat capacity Pyroelectricty Electrocaloric effect Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity Permittivity Permeability Thermal expansion Direct piezoelectric effect Electro-optic effect Elastic compliance Piezo-optical effect Electrostriction Mass Temperature Polarisation Entropy change Current density Heat flow Dielectric displacement Magnetic induction Strain Polarisation Change in dielectric permeability Strain Change in dielectric impermeability Strain Relating the quantities Volume Energy Temperature change Electric field Electric field Temperature gradient Electric field Magnetic field Temperature change Stress Electric field Stress Stress 2 electric field components

Example 1: annotate this table with M for matter tensors and F for field tensors

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1.3 Anisotropy and symmetry These material properties are matter tensors and must obey Neumanns Principle: The symmetry elements of a material property must include the symmetry elements of the point group of the material Our treatment will rely upon Neumanns Principle. First we need to understand how to classify the symmetry found in different types of macroscopic materials: An isotropic material Has infinite symmetry (rotation axes/mirrors in all directions) Is found not only in a macroscopic continuum but in a real amorphous solid composed of atoms Lower symmetry Is clearly seen in single crystals Is described by the 32 point groups, none of which have infinite symmetry Polycrystals Are macroscopically isotropic if crystal shape and orientation are random Otherwise have preferred orientation or texture anisotropy Amorphous solids These may be anisotropic but we can induce isotropy e.g. by annealing under a tensile stress The property may have greater symmetry than the material (depending upon the type of property), so for example second rank tensors (optical properties, electrical conductivity) are isotropic for cubic crystals but cubic crystals are not isotropic in general and this is apparent in higher order tensor properties such as elasticity.

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2. STRESS AND STRAIN

2.1 Failure modes of materials and structures There are three modes of mechanical failure: elastic plastic brittle Analysis of each of these requires a treatment of stress and strain.

2.1.1 Elastic deformation This is recoverable - remove the load and the body returns to its original state. In our course we will deal only with linear time-independent elasticity. In fact the stress-strain relationship need not be linear (anelasticity), and the strain response need not be immediate (viscoelasticity).

2.1.2 Plastic deformation Permanent and irrecoverable Strains may be large Often the desired failure mode e.g. energy absorption on car impact, because it is slower and more predictable than ...

2.1.3 Brittle failure Catastrophic propagation of a crack, with very little or no macroscopic plastic deformation

But we need to consider also: shear stress that the stress in a real object can be very complicated So we need to describe the stress at a point

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 be able to deal with a general (complicated) stress This will require several force/area terms. To define stress at a point we e need to: take a volume element surrounding the point measure the forces transmitted across the faces resolve forces along the coordinate axes shrink the volume to a point force / unit area = stress

2.2 Choice of volume element and coordinate system We can choose the one which is most convenient for the given problem. Usually this means that the symmetry of the coordinate system will reflect the symmetry of the body and/or the stress state, and will normally be either Cartesian or cylindrical polar coodinates. cood

2.2.1 Cartesian coordinates use a right-handed handed coordinate system define axes 1, 2, 3 the volume element is a cube We visualise the components of the stress tensor acting on a cubic volume element:

i corresponds to the direction in which the stress (or force) acts

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j is used for the face (or its normal) on which the stress (or force) acts

e.g. 13 represents a force acting in the x1 direction on a face normal to the x3 direction. This notation is a convention (and others exist). This means that we can identify two kinds of stress: normal: ij with i = j shear ij with i j

There must be no net force on the cube, otherwise it would accelerate (linearly), so: a) Stresses on equal and opposite faces of the cube are equal and opposite, opposite, and we only need to consider three faces. . This means that 9 quantities are sufficient to describe the stress at a point, and we can write these as a 3x3 array:

b) We can simplify this further by considering rotational rotational as well as linear acceleration. For example, considering moments about the x axis, and only showing the relevant stresses, the total moment must be zero

So: = In general, ij = ji for all i,j so our 3x3 array is symmetrical and there are only onl 6 independent quantities. This array of 9 numbers is a second rank tensor, so we have also demonstrated that stress is a symmetrical second rank tensor.

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2.2.2 Cylindrical coordinates These are useful in describing cylindrically symmetrical geometries (tubes, disclocations ...)

zr = force in z direction on r face, and as before zr = rz etc.

2.3 Alternative notations The notation used is a matter of convention and convenience: : in particular the use of for shear stresses is common, , which gives equivalent quantities as: Equivalent notations Normal stresses (e.g. stress parallel to x1 on face 1) Shear stresses (e.g. stress parallel to x2 on face 1) 21 xy 11 x

We will use the numerical suffix notation in this course because it allows us to keep to the same conventions when considering tensors other those for elastic properties, and because it allows us to use the simplifications offered by the Einstein summation convention. Other courses may use se other conventions and it is important that you become accustomed to these differences, which are widespread in both textbooks and the research literature.

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2.4 Examples of stress tensors 2.4.1 Uniaxial tension

Choosing sensible axes, with one (x1) along the axis of the rod, 11 = , and all other ij = 0: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

( > 0 for tension)

2.4.2 Uniaxial compession

( < 0 for compression)

0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

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2.4.3 Hydrostatic compression (e.g. under water) This time there are no shear stresses:

0 0 2.4.4 Pure shear

0 0

0 0 0

12 = 21 = and all other ij = 0, so we have:

0 0 0 0

0 0 0

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2.3 Einstein summation convention We will use electric field, current and conductivity as an example to illustrate a more generally applicable notation convention. If we apply an electric field, a current will flow. Both of these quantities are vectors, and they are related by electrical conductivity: electric field E = (E1, E2, E3) current density J = (J1, J2, J3) [units V m1] potential gradient [units A m2] current density

For a general anisotropic material the relationship between J and E can be expressed as a series of equations relating their components: J1 = 11 E1 + 12 E2 + 13 E3 J2 = 21 E1 + 22 E2 + 23 E3 J3 = 31 E1 + 32 E2 + 33 E3 This describes the conductivity as a tensor of the second rank, written as:

The components of the tensor are 11, 12, etc, and the number of suffices indicates the rank of the tensor.

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Like conductivity, many other materials properties can be described by matter tensors, and these properties then relate two other quantities:

Rank 0

Number of components 1

Property Density Heat capacity Pyroelectricty Electrocaloric effect Electrical conductivity Thermal conductivity

Relating the quantities (with rank) Mass (0) Temperature (0) Polarisation (1) Entropy change (0) Current density (1) Heat flow (1) Dielectric displacement (1) Magnetic induction (1) Strain (2) Polarisation (1) Change in dielectric permeability (2) Strain (2) Change in dielectric impermeability (2) Strain (2) Volume (0) Energy (0) Temperature change (0) Electric field (1) Electric field (1) Temperature gradient (1) Electric field (1) Magnetic field (1) Temperature change (0) Stress (2) Field (1) Stress (2) Stress (2) 2 electric field components (2 1)

Permittivity Permeability Thermal expansion Direct piezoelectric effect Electro-optic effect Elastic compliance

27

81

Piezo-optical effect Electrostriction

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We can rewrite the previous equations for the tensor components as summations, so these equations: J1 = 11 E1 + 12 E2 + 13 E3 J2 = 21 E1 + 22 E2 + 23 E3 Become: J3 = 31 E1 + 32 E2 + 33 E3 =

or: = = 1,2,3

This last equation can be written in contracted form using the Einstein Summation Convention: = , = 1,2,3 A suffix occurring twice in a product (j in this case) implies summation with respect to that suffix and is called the dummy suffix.

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2.4 Transformation of axes We need to go from old axes (x1, x2 and x3) to new axes (x1', x2' and x3').

Axis x2', for example, makes angles 21, 22 and 23 with the x1, x2 and x3 axes. We define direction cosines, a21 = cos 21, a22 = cos 22, a23 = cos 23 etc, completely specifying the angular relationships between the axes. The nine direction cosines form a transformation matrix: Old axes x1 New axes x'1 x'2 x'3 a11 a21 a31 x2 a12 a22 a32 x3 a13 a23 a33

So we have: x'2 = x1 cos 21 + x2 cos 22 + x3 cos 23 and so on ... If one of the axes is unchanged this reduces to a 2x2 matrix which should look familiar! famil

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Example 2 The nine direction cosines are not independent, because: = 1 = = 0 Why is this the case?

2.5 Transformation of components When different reference axes are chosen, the tensor components change but the material property must be the same. We need to know how the components change. Using our conductivity example again: Old axes: New axes: =

= = + +

Transforming J J' one component at a time:

= + + = + + or: = which is the 'old' to 'new' transformation. Similarly for the 'new' 'old' transformation = + + =

and so on, i.e.

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So we have: New from old Old from new

= =

But we want to relate J' to E': = = = = =

and and Therefore: But also

So: = This gives us the new from old transformation, and similarly for the old from new transformation: =

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2.6 Transformation laws for tensors These laws are the basis for defining tensors of a given rank. Transformation law Rank of tensor 0 (scalar) 1 (vector) 2 3 4 New from old ' = pi' = aijpj Tij' = aikajlTkl Tijk' = ailajmaknTlmn Tijkl' = aimajnakoalpTmnop Old from new = ' pi = ajipj' Tij = akialjTkl' Tijk = aliamjankTlmn' Tijkl = amianjaokaplTmnop'

Example 3(a) A single crystalline orthorhombic material has an electrical conductivity tensor ij: 22 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 m 7

when referred to its principal axes x1, x2, x3 which are parallel to the crystallographic axes x, y and z. A thin plate is cut from the crystal according to new axes x1', x2', x3', with x1' being the normal to the plate and x2', x3' lying in the plate. The axes are such that x2' is parallel to x2, and x1' lies between x1 and x3 at 30 to x1. Calculate 11'.

Example 3(b) Electrodes are plated on to the faces of the thin plate and a potential gradient E (V m1) is applied to it. The electric field vector will be perpendicular to the plate faces. What are the components of E, referred to the 'old' (principal) axes? Using the diagonalised tensor ij calculate the current density vector (referred to the old axes).

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2.7 Resolution of stresses Force is a vector and is easily resolved into its components on Cartesian axes:

Resolution of stresses is not as simple as resolution of forces because we have to take into account the plane on which the forces act (i.e. (i.e. whether it is a normal or a shear stress). Consider a body in which the stress is homogeneous. Suppose we are interested in the stress acting within that body on planes in a particular orientation.

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We consider the action of a vector force P per unit area ea (or "stress") on a plane ABC whose orientation is specified by its unit normal vector n. The vector n makes angles 1, 2, 3 with the axes x1, x2, x3, and the direction of n is defined by its direction cosines.

= = 1, 2 and 3 are also the components of the unit vector n. In order to work out the stress on the plane ABC due to P, we can start by taking any element which has ABC as one of its faces, and it is simplest to take the tetrahedron OABC. In equilibrium the he net force on this element must be zero : the force per unit area P acting on face ABC can be resolved into its components P1, P2, P3 and each of these should be balanced by the stress components acting on the other faces of the volume element OABC. We write the area of triangle ABC as ABC (and other triangles similarly). P is a force per unit area, so the force on ABC is: = . We can resolve P. ABC because it is a vector: . = . + . + .
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But P. ABC is balanced by the other forces acting on the other faces, and we can take these one direction at a time. In the x1 direction we have: . = + + = 1 . 3 1 = . 3 1 = . 3 1 = . 3

This can be simplified by noting that the volume of the tetrahdron OABC is:

And:

= . cos = . = . = .

Therefore: = .

= .

Likewise: = .

= .

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Now dividing through by ABC: = + + And similarly for P2 and P3: = + + = + + This set of 9 numbers relates a vector P (with components P1, P2, P3) to a vector n (with components 1, 2, 3), and defines the ij as a second rank tensor relating force and plane orientation: =

Remembering that: =

2.8 Total, normal and shear stresses The total stress acting on a plane ABC is:
|| = + +

We want to calculate the normal and shear stresses separately.

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2.8.1 Normal stress This is important in (for example) tensile fracture We need Pn, the component of P normal to the plane

We resolve each Pi in the direction of n: = + + =

But: =

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2.8.2 Shear stress This matters for slip We want Ps, the component of P lying in the plane

We know that:
= +

And we have expressions for P and Pn, so we can find Ps from:

=

Example 4 A body is subjected to principal stresses of magnitudes 5, 0 and 3 3 respectively along the x1, x2, and x3 axes. For a plane which is perpendicular to the x1x3-plane plane and inclined at 30 30 to the x1x2-plane, plane, show that the normal and shear stresses acting on it are respectively 1 and 3.46.

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2.9 Principal axes All symmetrical second rank tensors possess three orthogonal principal axes. Diagonalising a tensor to write its components referred to these axes leads to a simplified simplified form of the tensor: 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.9.1 .1 Principal axes of the stress tensor A principal axis of the tensor is one along which the resultant stress is purely a normal stress There are no shear stresses in the plane perpendicular to a principal axis

So whatever the state of stress, however complicated, there is always a set of axes such that the stresses on the cubic volume element are:

And the stress tensor is: 0 0 So: ; ; This is a diagonal tensor 0 0 0 0

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There are no shear stresses By convention, a single suffix denotes a principal stress

2.9.2 Diagonalisation of a tensor This is an important procedure ... We need to find the orientation of a plane normal n (specified by direction cosines 1, 2, 3) for which the total force per unit area P is parallel to the normal. Let the magnitude of P be , so: = ; = ; = But: =

= + + = = + + = So: + + = 0 + + = 0 + + = 0 These three simultaneous equations have non-trivial solutions only if their determinant is equal to zero: = 0

= + + =

This gives a single cubic equation in the secular equation with three roots (values of ) corresponding to the three principal stresses.

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2.9.3 Orientation of the principal axes We need to find 1, 2, 3 for each principal axis. Take each value of and substitute it back into the 3 simultaneous equations Check:
+ + = 1

Then we have:

where 1, 2, 3 are the three values of

0 0

0 0

0 0

By convention the principal axes are (nearly always!) labelled such that: > >

2.9.4 2D diagonalisation In many cases diagonalisation is much easier because one of the principal axes is already known. We then simply have to rotate about that axis effectively diagonalising in 2D only. If one principal axis as already known, the tensor to be diagonalised is: 0 0 0 0

Remembering that 12 = 21

The diagonalisation required is in two dimensions, not three, and is comparatively straightforward. The determinant becomes: 0 0 0 0 =0

Multiplying out to get the secular equation:

=0

One solution is = 3 for the principal axis already known. The other principal stresses are obtained by solving the remaining quadratic:
+ + =0

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 + + 4 = 2

+ + 2 2

2.9.5 The Mohr circle ircle construction Tha above solutions can also be represented geometrically. We start with the same stress tensor, and take 11 > 22: 0 0 0 0

We construct the circle using: = =

= =

From which: tan 2 =

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Points to note: The x-axis represents normal stresses. The y-axis represents shear stresses. The circle is centred on the x-axis and intercepts it at the principal stresses (which are on the x-axis because there is no shear). The circle represents the stress state of the volume we are interested in. The coordinates of the two ends of any diameter give the normal and shear components of the stress tensor for one particular orientation of the axes. The angle of rotation of the diameter (= 2) is twice the angle of rotation of the axes in real space (= ). The sense of rotation is the same. The same principal stresses could arise from different combinations of 11, 22 and , and these would all correspond to different diameters DC of the same circle. The procedure works for any second rank tensor (and thus also for strain).

2.9.6 Uses of the Mohr circle To find principal axes and strains. To find the maximum shear stress. Knowing the stress tensor for one orientation, we can find the tensor for any other orientation.

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2.9.7 Representation of a 3D stress state This can be done by plotting 3 Mohr circles on one diagram, with one circle for plane perpendicular to a principal axis. For example, consider again the pure shear case: + 0 0 + 0 x1x2 plane 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 x2x3 plane 0 0 0

x1x3 plane + 0

Note that the maximum shear stress still occurs in the x1x2 plane at 45 to the principal axes also that this is one case where we commonly do not observe the 1 > 2 > 3 convention!

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2.9.8 Triaxial tension This time we will specify 1 > 2 > 3, and the stress tensor is then: 0 0 0 0 0 0

Note that although we can represent the stress state of a 3D system using Mohr circles when we already know the principal axes, we cannot diagonalise a general 3D tensor using Mohr circles.

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2.10 Definition of strain at a point Starting in one dimension, imagine an extensible string:

And now extend it:

The strain in OP is: = = lim

And the strain at the origin is defined as:

Now we do the same in 3 dimensions. After deformation of a body, suppose se that point P (x1, x2, x3) has moved to P' (x'1, x'2, x'3) with displacements u1, u2, u3. So: = + If the ui are the same for all points, then we have a rigid body displacement i.e. zero strain. For there to be a strain, the ui must vary through the body. = In one dimension: = So:

=
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And in 3 dimensions: = + +

= + + = + + Which can be written as: = onvention defines eij as a second rank tensor. The form of the summation convention 2.9 Physical meaning of eij = =

These are simply the tensile strains along the axes x1, x2, x3. Note that the signs are the same as for stress: positive in tension and negative in compression. Now consider what would happen for deformation in the x1x2 plane of a rectangular block, when: 0; 0 For small angles, very much exaggerated, this corresponds to:

Given that: ;

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Consider possible combinations of e12 and e21: 1. e12 = e21 is pure pure shear shear 2. e12 = e21 is pure pure rotation rotation (with no deformation)

3. e12 0 and e12 = 0 is simple simple shear shear

Note the distinction between pure shear and simple shear. In general e12 and e21 describe both shear and rotation together. Note that displacements for which (e21 + e12) is constant produce the same shape change but different rotations. We can separate the effects of shear and rotation by writing: = + Or in general: = + Where: =
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1 + 2
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And: 1 = 2

Note that ij is symmetric with respect to i and j, and is a measure of shape change, whereas ij is antisymmetric with respect respec to i and j and is a measure of rotation: = ; = And: = 0 = So ij has only 3 independent tensor elements, giving 3 independent rotations one about each coordinate axis. Note the form of the strain tensor written in terms of the shear strain angle in simple shear:

0 0 = 0 0 0 = + 0 0 0 From now on, the strain tensor will mean ij In this way, both stress and strain can be written as symmetrical second rank tensors

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Example 5 Almost all second rank tensors of interest, whether of the matter or field type, are symmetrical, i.e. Tij = Tji. Tensors with Tij = Tji are called antisymmetrical. Separate the following tensors into symmetrical and antisymmetrical components. 2 3 5 2 3 11 7 5 5 5 2 0 1 14 4 6 4 2

If these tensors were describing general strains, what would be the significance of the symmetrical and antisymmetrical components?

2.10 Separating shape changes from volume changes 2.10.1 Hydrostatic and deviatoric components of stress We can separate out two components of stress: 1. Hydrostatic volume changes 2. Deviatoric shape changes For example under compressive pressure the stress tensor is: 0 0 0 0 0 0 where = = =

And plotting this on a Mohr circle:

The Mohr circle is simply a point The stress tensor is the same for any orientation of the tensor axes i.e. it is an isotropic tensor

There is never any shear stress

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So in general we can write: = 0 0 0 0 0 0+

i.e. the full stress tensor is the sum of the hydrostatic component (volume change) and the deviatoric component (shape change). The normal components of the stress exert a pressure on the volume element, and the hydrostatic component of the stress is their average: = + + = 3 3

The hydrostatic stress is also known as the mean stress.

Plastic flow of metals depends only on the deviatoric component of the stress tensor and not on the hydrostatic component, because it occurs without volume change.

2.10.2 Dilatational and deviatoric components of strain This is exactly analogous to the separation of the stress components. In this case, for small strains we can also write the volume of the unit cube: = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + + + = + + =

Where is known as the dilatation. So: 1 3 = 0 0

i.e. the full strain tensor is the sum of the dilatational component (volume change) and the deviatoric component (shape change).

1 0 3 1 1 0 + 3 3 1 1 0 3 3 0

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Example 6 The stress tensor is symmetrical. Separate the following stress tensors into hydrostatic and deviatoric components: 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 3 0 3 1 1 1 72 1 17 0 39 17 39 5 24 24 40

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3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

3.1 Strain gauges These are devices which exploit the change of electrical resistance resulting from strain. Start with a long straight wire of length L, and stretch it to L +dL The resistance R is given by: = =

[ =resistivity, A = area of cross-section; r = radius of wire] Take logarithms: Differentiate: log = log + log 2 log + constant 2 = + = =

If the elongation is elastic, then:

Experimentally we find:

[ C 1 for metals; V = volume = Lr2] So we have:

= +2 =

And therefore:

. [1 2]

[1 2 + 1 + 2] = 2 for most metals ~0.5

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The exact proportionality depends on the material (via the constants C and ), so we introduce a gauge factor: = = 2 normal strain

To measure the strain, we:

Fix the wire onto the object Allow it to deform Measure the change in R Calculate the corresponding strain

However the strains are usually ually small (1%) so dR/R is difficult to measure. But we want to map out the stress distribution across an object, so we cannot just use a very long wire to area. We deal with this by folding the wire, which gives us a small actual gauge length (typically 1 10mm) but a large effective length, large R and a large, easily measured R. make the absolute value of R bigger we need to be able to measure the strain over a small

Gauges are made from wire or more commonly from foil etched to give an appropriate pattern A common material is constantan (55Cu + 45Ni), which gives a good linear response Semiconductor strain gauges are also available with C 1 and gauge factors 100 to measure R

In the simplest case, the strain gauge can be connected to a Wheatstone Wheatston Bridge circuit

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3.1.1 .1.1 Thermal effects on strain gauges The resistivity and the gauge factor k are both temperature dependent, which can lead to false strain readings It is better to use thermally compensated gauges, in which the thermal expansion is matched to common substrate materials

.1.2 Analysis of strain gauge results 3.1.2 A strain gauge is sensitive only to strains parallel to its length i.e. to normal strains, and not to shear strains If we know the directions of the principal stresses, we can measure the strains directly For example, the principal axes may be fixed by the symmetry of the body and the loading geometry. In this case they are known at A but not at B:

But if the principal axes are unknown, the standard method is to use a rosette an array of gauges from which the strain in any direction can be calculated

The direction of the principle strains can then be deduced from the three readings, for example using a Mohr circle

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3.1.3 .1.3 Example of a strain gauge calculation: calculati a 60 rosette

Suppose we measure normal strains (the shear strains are unknown from the gauges): gauges) A = 2.12 10 B = 3.53 10 C = 3.17 10

As a vector diagram this is:

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But on the Mohr circle the angles are doubled (and note that this is an arbitrary orientation with respect to the principal axes):

The centre of the circle is at a distance: 3.53 + 2.12 + 3.17 = 2.94 3

And we need the principal strains x and y:

cos60 cos 2 = 2.94 2.12 = 0.82 cos 2 0.59 = 2 = 45.7 cos cos60 2 0.82

cos 2 = 3.53 2.94 = 0.59

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So: = 22.8; = 0.845

= 2.94 0.845 = 2.095 10 Example 7 The strains measured by three strain gauges arranged in a 120 rosette on the surface of a steel plate are 1.2 103, 2.0 103 and 1.0 103. Determine the orientation and magnitude of the principal strains in the surface. What is the maximum shear strain?

= 2.94 + 0.845 = 3.785 10

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3.2 Photoelasticity This technique allows the strain field in a transparent model to be visualised using stressinduced birefringence: when we take a suitable transparent, isotropic material and apply a stress, it can become optically anisotropic. In an optically anisotropic material, light propagates with two different velocities and two perpendicular planes of polarisation, such that: = Where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices and c is the stress-optical stress optical coefficient.

.2.1 Analysis of plane stress distributions using a plane polariscope 3.2.1 We imagine looking towards the polariser, through a sample which is a plate cut in the x1x2 plane of the stress tensor.

At a particular point, the incident wave will be: = cos This wave splits into two components parallel to 1 and 2: = cos cos = sin cos 2 2 = =

The wave travels through a plate of thickness d, which shifts the phase of each wave by:

So on the exit side of the plate our two waves become:

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 = cos cos = sin cos

There is now a phase difference between the two waves. The wave passing through the analyser is the sum of the resolved components: analyser = sin cos cos + cos sin cos = sin 2 sin sin 2 2 2 2 = sin 2 sin 2 2

This is a travelling wave, with amplitude:

We get extinction (zero amplitude) when:

1 or 2 is parallel to either the polariser or the analyser, which gives: This gives black fringes joining the places where the principal stresses are parallel to the polariser and the analyser. These are isoclinic fringes and are independent of wavelength. The two waves are in phase with each other: sin 2 = 0 = 0 or 90

Given:

= where is an integer 2 2 2 = and =

We get:

= =

And:

C is the stress-optical coefficient; m comesfrom counting the fringes. We get extinction when the optical path difference is a whole number of wavelengths. These are isochromatic fringes and:

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o Depend on wavelength o Join points with the same value of (1 2) o Are black in monochromatic light o Are coloured in white light Isoclinics orientation of principal stresses Isochromatics value of (1 2)

3.2.2 3D stress analysis For 3-dimensional stress analysis we can: Apply a stress to a hot, 3D transparent model Cool to freeze in the birefringence Remove the external stresses Section and view slices in a plane polariscope

3.2.3 Birefringent coatings These can be applied to the surface of an object under stress A reflection polariscope (still using cross polars) is needed Possible coatings need to have high values of the stress-optical coefficient C, for example: o Glass o Epoxy resin o Polycarbonate o Perspex (PMMA)

3.3 Brittle coating methods These can be used to determine the stresses and strains in the surface of a body We apply a thing coating of a brittle material with a well-defined fracture strain If it is thin enough and well-bonded, we can assume that the strain in the coating is equal to the strin in the surface to which it has been applied

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The coating will crack under tensile strains To a first approximation, cracks appear when: 1(specimen) = E(specimen) crit(coating)

A pattern of cracks develops, oriented perpendicular to the maximum tensile stress in the surface

3.3.1 Tension in one dimension In uniaxial tension we will see:

The orientation of the cracks gives the direction of 1 The load at which the cracks appear gives the magnitude of 1 at that load

3.3.2 Tension in two dimensions If 1 > 2 > 0 and both are increasing, then the first set of cracks will appear perpendicular to 1 and a second set will appear perpendicular to 2.

If 1 = 2 >0 then the direction of the cracks is indeterminate, and a crazed surface results.
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This is commonly seen in: Dried mud Old china Surfaces of varnished oil paintings

In these cases the crazing is the result of differential expansion or contraction. Brittle coatings can also be applied deliberately as an analytical technique: Coatings are 50 - 200m thick Applied as a spray of resin The solvent evaporates and the resin cures on heating leaving a brittle coating Ceramic coatings can also be used (these need firing to melt, but can then be used at high temperatures)

3.3.3 Advantages Simple to use on a real structure Useful to determine the directions of the principal stresses Can then apply strain gauges for accurate measurements

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3.3.4 Problems Ceramic coatings are needed for high temperature use Failure strains need calibrating

3.4 X-ray diffraction This technique allows measurements of changes in lattice parameter (and is especially good for thin films) X-rays are truly non-destructive and non-contact Useful for residual surface strains A back reflection method is commonly used

But there are drawbacks: Inconvenient to set up Small penetration depth (tens of microns) Only measures surface strains

3.5 Ultrasonics Wave velocity depends on modulus and density: modulus = The modulus and density both depend on stress and strain (given that Poissons ratio for most materials) The appropriate modulus depends on what type of wave is being used

But again there are drawbacks: Real materials are non-linearly elastic Interpretation is not straightforward

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3.6 Optical interferometry This includes both holography and laser speckle interferometry. In general optical methods are attractive because they are intrinsically non-contact non and very sensitive.

3.7 Residual Stresses These are internal stresses which are not a result of external forces, and which must mu be retained by interlocking (for example, a residual compressive stress cannot exist by itself and must be balanced by a tensile stress somewhere).

There are three main origins of residual stresses in macroscopic bodies: 3.7.1 Thermal stresses due to differential expansion Consider a plate which has been roll-bonded roll at high temperature and is then cooled to room temperature. th = 1210-6 K-1 for Fe and th = 1.710-6 K-1 for Cu so they apportion the thermal strain between the layers differently:

If the sheet is not symmetric, the residual stresses will cause bending: when this can be calibrated (e.g. a bimetallic strip) it can be used for temperature measurement.

3.7.2 Plastic flow Consider bending a bar so that the surfaces (but only the surfaces) are stressed beyond their elastic limit. The surface regions flow, so when the stress is released the bar will remain slightly bent in order to accommodate the residual stresses:

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This means that residual stresses can be found as a result of forming processes processes such as shot peening (surface hardening) and machining.

3.7.3 Changes in volume Residual stresses can also result from non-uniform non uniform or localised changes in volume, such as occur in: Phase transformation Carburising and nitriding (in which interstitials cause a change in lattice parameter)

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4. EXAMPLES OF STRESS AND AND STRAIN ANALYSIS

4.1 Elasticity in thin films This is important for: Pottery glazes Optical and other coatings Electronic devices etc

In addition, devices are often multilayered e.g. GaAs/AlAs solid state lasers, W/C x-ray x mirrors.

4.1.1 Stresses in thin films

There cannot be any forces on a free surface, so 33 = 0 and i3 = 0 and this is plane stress: 0 0 0 0 0

In almost all cases 11 = 22 ( = ) so we have isotropic biaxial tension (or compression). These are now principal stresses, and we should expect to find both biaxial in-plane in strains, and a normal strain. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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The biaxial stress and the biaxial strain in the (x1,x2) plane of the film are related by: = = 1

is given by:

The normal strain in the film can be determined (for example) by x-ray diffractometry, and = 2 1

Example 8 Derive the above relationships for this plane stress, thin film condition, i.e. = 2 and = 1 1

Residual stresses of this type can arise from: thermal stresses due to differential contraction between film and substrate deposition stresses a film which is bombarded with gas atoms or ions during deposition will normally develop a compressive stress epitaxial stresses a single crystal film in a fixed orientation with respect to its substrate can develop a strain as a result of the difference in lattice parameters

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4.1.2 Epitaxy in multilayers Consider a stack of alternate layers of (100) Cu and (100) Pd on a (100) NaCl substrate. Would the interfaces remain coherent?

1. If the multilayer stack is coherent (i.e. there are no dislocations) there is a 7.6% difference in lattice parameter but the lattices are forced to match. So the Cu must be in tension and the Pd in compression, with equal and opposite stresses for equal layer thicknesses. 2. If the stack is not coherent, there is no strain energy due to matching but a 2D network of dislocations is needed at each interface. So we have two scenarios: For thin layers (d < dcrit) the interfaces will be fully coherent with no dislocations For thick layers (d > dcrit) there will be few interfaces but these will contain dislocations For Cu: = 3.6148

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5. OTHER TENSOR PROPERTIES

5.1 The representation surface for second rank tensors For second rank tensors there exists a simple geometrical representation which is useful, for example, in deriving the magnitude of a material property in a given direction. Taking electrical conductivity as an example, the property referred to its principal axes is: 0 0 0 0 0 0

The applied field E has components (1E, 2E, 3E).

The resulting current density J therefore has components (11E, 22E, 33E). Thus the component of J resolved parallel to E is:
parallel = + + = + + =

So the conductivity parallel to E is:

This conductivity can be represented by the surface: = 1 Which will be an ellipsoid if all the coefficients are positive. A radius in a given direction (1, 2, 3) will have length r and intersect the surface at a point (x1, x2, x3) given by: = ; = ; = = 1 = / = 1

With these coordinates:

In general for a second rank tensor property, the radius length in any direction is the (property)1/2 in that direction. For an applied vector quantity parallel to the radius (e.g. field), the normal to the representation surface at the point where the radius intersects the surface is

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parallel to the resultant vector (e.g. current density). [For discussion of this radius-normal radius property, see Nye p28]

The representation ntation surface (or quadric) for a second rank tensor property, shown in this case for conductivity

5.2 Optical properties For an isotropic material the electric displacement D is related to the electric field strength E by: =

where o is the permittivity of vacuum and K is the dielectric constant. The real refractive index is (K)1/2. For an anisotropic material, the electric displacement and field strength are not necessarily parallel. Their vector components are related by: = or =

Where Kij is the tensorial dielectric constant, and Bij is the relative dielectric impermeability. On principal axes therefore, the real refractive index is n = (K)1/2 = (B)1/2. The representation surface for Bij is therefore a plot of refractive index this is the optical indicatrix.

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5.3 Piezoelectricity 5.3.1 Direct piezoelectric effect This is the name given to the situtation where we apply a stress to a crystal, which develops (or changes) its electric moment as a result. The effect is linear, i.e. moment stress and when the stress is reversed, so is the moment. So we need to relate the polarisation vector Pi (moment per unit volume, a first rank tensor) and the stress ij. This requires a relationship of the form: = + + + + + + + + and similarly for P2 and P3. In general we have: = where dijk is a third rank tensor composed of the 27 piezoelectric moduli. dijk = dikj always, so we have only 18 independent coefficients. 5.3.2 Converse piezoelectric effect In this case the crystal develops a strain in response to an applied electric field. So: = dijk must have the same components as before, otherwise we can make a perpetual motion machine! 5.4 Effects of crystal symmetry Consider a crystal with a centre of symmetry. Apply a stress e.g. 11 (and this is inherently centrosymmetric) The result must also be centrosymmetric

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So any resultant dipole will be cancelled by its opposite.

Thus centrosymmetric crystals (belonging to the 11 centrosymmetric point groups, out of 32) cannot be piezoelectric. But we can expect to make piezoelectric devices from non-centrosymmetric non rosymmetric single crystals e.g. quartz, point group 32. We can also have piezoelectric polycrystals provided that: The individual grains are piezoelectric The polycrystal has texture (preferred orientation)

5.5 Ferroelectricity Texturing of piezoelectric polycrystalline ceramics makes use of ferroelectric properties, as in BaTiO3.

Above 120C C the Ti atom moves towards one of the oxygens in the coordinating octahedron. This causes: A cubic tetragonal transformation on cooling Spontaneous polarisation

The e direction of polarisationcan be influenced by cooling in an electric field (poling). High T cubic BaTiO3 polycrystal (no texture)
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Cool in electric field E Low T tetragonal BaTiO3 polycrystal (with texture and a net dipole parallel to E) Ferroelectricity is only possible in the 10 polar classes: 1, 2, m, mm2, 3, 3m, 4, 4mm, 6, 6mm These are a subset of the piezoelectric classes, and the final direction of polarisation in a single crystal will be a unique direction. 5.6 Applications of piezoelectricity These are generally as transducers, which convert a mechanical signal into an electrical signal, e.g.: Sonar (e.g. ultrasonic testing) Microphones Earphones Resonators Gas lighters

5.6.1 Scanning tunnelling microscope

[CC-SA from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ScanningTunnelingMicroscope_schematic.png]

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The tip is scanned laterally and the height adjusted to maintain a constant tunnelling current, with control to better than 1, and thus atomic resolution. The tip has to be moved laterally with extreme precision, and this is achieved with piezoelectric transducers.

5.7 Pyroelectricity Ferroelectricity is the existence of a spontaneous polarisation. If this polarisation varies with temperature then we have pyroelectricity, according to: =

T also causes a change in volume V, which also contributes to Pi. If V is held constant then T causes primary pyroelectricity; if it varies, we also measure secondary pyroelectricity. An experiment will normally measure the sum of both primary and secondary effects. Pyroelectric materials come from the same 10 polar classes as the ferroelectric materials. They are primarily used for temperature measurement and the detection of infra-red radiation. Examples include BaTiO3 (doped), and triglycerine sulphate (TGS).

5.8 Electrostriction Magnetostriction is a more important and useful effect, but electrostriction is an example of a second order effect which illustrates the treatment of non-linearity. Whereas centrosymmetric crystals cannot show piezoelectricity, they can show electrostriction. We start from converse piezoelectricity: = If the effect is non-linear we require an additional term:
= +

and there can be no effect if the crystal is centrosymmetric.

The first term (d E ) is linear in applied field (if the field is reversed, the strain is reversed),

= at = 0

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It can also be useful to write this expression as:

= +

Where the correction term iljk El is a third rank tensor which represents electrostriction. The effect is quadratic in applied field (if the field is reversed, the strain is the same) and it can appear for centrosymmetric crystals.

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6. ELASTICITY
We need to relate two second rank tensors: stress ij and strain ij. Each component of can in general depend upon all nine components of , so we need a fourth rank tensor: =

6.1 Elasticity in isotropic media In the perfectly general case, Cijkl could have 81 coefficients, so first we will consider the simpler case of isotropic materials include: Polycrystalline materials and ceramics (if texture-free) these are isotropic on a macroscopic scale although individual crystallites or grains will not be Amorphous materials (glasses and glassy polymers)

Anisotropy arises from: Texture (e.g. rolled metals) Structure (e.g. composite materials, single crystals, wood )

But we can often assume isotropy as an approximation.

6.1.1 Isotropy Isotropy has two important, simplifying consequences: 1. The strain depends only on the stress state in the material and not on the orientation 2. The principal axes of stress and strain coincide

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6.1.2 .1.2 Linear elasticity theory This makes the dual assumptions of linearity and superposition. 1. Linearity Hookes s Law This assumes a linear relationship (proportionality) between stress and strain e.g. E is a scalar: the Modulus Modulus of Elasticity Elasticity or Youngs Modulus and is the same in both tension and compression. 2. Superposition Suppose a stress A produces a strain A and B produces B. Then: This is a consequence of linearity and holds only for small strains. + + =

6.1.3 Poissons ratio Consider again the rod in uniaxial tension:

But there is a lateral contraction in the x2x3 plane:

= = 0

Experimentally we find:

= 0 = = =

Where is Poissons s ratio, and is constant for any one material (note the sign convention). Typically it takes values of 0.25 0.33 for most materials in the he elastic range. If there were no volume change, then: + + = 0

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This requires = 0.5, and is true for the elastic deformation of rubber (caused by coils unwinding rather than bonds stretching). Note that does not have to be positive, and for example cork has a negative Poissons ratio because of its cell structure, as does -cristobalite. These are known as auxetic materials.

6.1.4 General expression for strain Using superposition, we can see that each principal strain is the sum of a tensile extension due to the parallel stress, and two lateral contractions due to the perpendicular stresses, for example: = And similarly: = = principal axes. Example 9 A body of an isotropic elastic material is subjected to principal stresses along the axes x1, x2 and x3 of such magnitudes that the elongations along x2 and x3 are zero. In a second experiment it is stressed along these same axes in such a way that the elongations along x2 and x3 are equal and that along x1 is zero. Show that the effective modulus (stress-strain ratio) along x1 in the first case is (1 ) times that along x2 or x3 in the second case. + + +

There are no shear stresses in these expressions because the tensors are referred to their

Even for arbitrary cases we still have equivalent expressions: =

+ etc [see Nye for a proof

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For simple shear, shear stresses are related to shear strains by = :

Or equivalently (given that = 2ij):

= 2

is the shear modulus or modulus modulus of rigidity rigidity (alternatively sometimes written as G).

6.1.5 Other elastic constants In isotropic media there are just two independent elastic constants (we can specify any two), and so there are algebraic relationships between them. For example, to describe volume changes due to hydrostatic pressure: = Dilatation is given by: V = =

And hydrostatic stress H by:

= + + 1 = + + 3
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K is the bulk modulus and is the compressibility. We can find relationships between E, , , K and by algebraic manipulation. For example we can add the three equations relating principal stresses and strains: + + = = And so: 1 2 + +

Which gives:

1 2 . 3 31 2

= Example 9 Derive the following relationships: =

9 3 2 = = 21 + + 3 6 + 2

6.1.6 Lams constants We have expressions for strains given known stresses, but we also need expressions for stresses given known strains. Manipulating the above equations gives: = If we define: + + + 1 + 1 2 1 + = Then we have: 1 + 1 2

We call and Lams constants.

= 2 +

For shear stresses 12 = 212 etc as before. and are often quoted as the two elastic constants but the choice is arbitrary.

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6.2 Elasticity in general anisotropic media We want to relate the two second rank tensors stress (ij) and strain (ij). So we write: =

The Cijkl are the 81 stiffness coefficients. We can also write the reverse: =

Where the Sijkl are the compliances. Again there are 81 of them, forming a 4th rank tensor. 1 C stiffness constants (elastic constants, Youngs modulus etc) S compliances (elastic moduli) Both ij and ij are symmetrical and only have 6 independent components., so for stiffness and compliance the number of independent coefficients is reduced to 66 = 36 i.e. Cijkl = Cijlk = Cjikl = Cjilk

6.2.1 Matrix notation We have: 6 independent stress components 1 6 6 independent strain components 1 6

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We would like to be able to write expressions like:

= =

= =

However going from tensor to matrix notation is not straightforward and must be done carefully. First we replace the stress notation like this:

Note that the 1 6 are not principal stresses.

In order for our equation i = Cijj to work, we have to define 6 = 212 etc, so the 6 strain terms become:

Note that this makes 4 the simple shear angle 23 (and similarly for 5 and 6). So we can now write: = =

Where Cijkl Cmn for all m,n (appropriately ordered) i.e. the stiffness constants are unchanged. The compliances are more complicated. To write: = We require: = + + + 2 + 2 + 2

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So that: Sijkl = Smn when m and n are 1,2,3 Sijkl = Smn when either m or n are 4,5,6 Sijkl = Smn when both m and n are 4,5,6

Defiend in this way, we can now write: = =

Note that the two arrays of numbers Cij and Sij are matrices but not tensors. .

6.2.2 Elastic strain energy Considering the elastic energy stored in a body allows us to simplify the equations further. Consider a bar in uniaxial tension, and remember that the elastic strain energy stored in a body must be equal to the work done by the external forces in deforming it:

At one instant the bar is under a load F with strain . Suppose it elongates by dL, then the work done is: = = So the work done per unit volume is:

sectional area, and: Where A is the cross-sectional

[Compare this with = E for uniaxial stress]

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In the general case, and using matrix notation, the work done per unit volume will be: = If the deformation is isothermal and reversible, the work done per unit volume is also equal to the increase in free energy d, and so: = Now we can differentiate twice, giving: = Similarly, we can derive: =

But is a function of the state of the body and defined by the strains, so the order of differentiation must be immaterial, so: = And therefore: = Similarly: = In the same way as the 1D case, this gives us the strain energy per unit volume = Cijij. Since Cij = Cji, the 36 coefficients reduce to 21 independent coefficients for a perfectly general anisotropic solid.

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6.2.3 Crystal Symmetry The 21 independent coefficients are all that we need to describe the properties of a crystal of minimum symmetry (i.e. triclinic), but for f higher symmetry the number of independent coefficients is lower still. 6.2.4 The cubic system We should choose axes which reflect the symmetry of the lattice, so in the cubic system we choose the cube axes (i.e. x1 is parallel to [100], x2 is parallel to o [010] and x3 is parallel to [001]). For the most general result, we choose the least symmetric cubic point group 23. This point group has: Diads parallel to <100> Triads parallel to <111> No mirror planes No 4-fold axes

The four triads require the three ree cube axes to be equivalent to each other, so: = = = = = =

(and similarly for the compliances)

The diads require all the remaining constants to be zero (see Nye p137/8 for a proof).

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So for all cubic crystals there are only 3 independent elastic constants: C11 C12 C44 (or S11, S12 and S44) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The stiffness matrix is therefore:

So, for example:

And similarly for the other axes.

= + +

6.2.5 Deformation modes of a cubic crystal Each independent elastic constant is associated with a fundamental mode of deformation. For an isotropic material there are two modes: dilatation and shear. The three independent constants in a cubic crystal require there to be three independent modes of deformation a) Dilatation by hydrostatic stress Under a hydrostatic pressure p: = = = = = = 0 = + +

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Example 10 Using these relationships, show that the bulk modulus K is given by: = 1 = + 2 3

Then there are two shear modes: b) Shear on a cube face parallel to a cube axis

e.g. on the (010) plane in the [001] direction: =

C44 is a shear modulus, which by convention we name o.

c) Shear at 45 to a cube axis

[ 0 direction. In this case the shear modulus is: e.g. on the (110) plane in the [11

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So we can define an anisotropy factor: 2 = =1 = ; = ; + 2 = This explains why cubic crystals are not in general isotropic. W 1.0 bcc Al 1.2 fcc Fe 2.4 bcc Cu 3.2 fcc Na 7.5 bcc

For an isotropic material:

And:

Structure

6.2.6 The Cauchy Relation Where atoms lie at centres of symmetry and where interatomic forces act entirely along the line joining atom centres, then: =

This is roughly true for ionic crystals (e.g. KCl, NaBr) but does not work for metals, where bonding is not localised.

6.2 Elastic stress distributions Additional equations are needed to describe stresses or strains which vary through a body. We need to take account of: Stress equilibrium Strain compatibility The stress-strain relationship

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6.3 Stress equilibrium The net forces on an element must balance, but the stress may change across a volume element.

For example in direction x1:

may not necessarily equal zero. However it can be shown that: + + =0

, ,

So we have three equations which (using the summation convention) can be written as: = 0 and = 1,2,3

6.4 Strain compatibility The displacements ui must vary smoothly through the body with no gaps and no discontinuities, which means that the ui components must be single-valued, valued, continuous functions of xi. This leads to six compatibility relations:

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And:

= + + and 2 others + = 2 and 2 others

6.5 Stress-strain relationship For linear elasticity we have: = from = which gives another six equations. So in general we have 3 + 6 + 6 = 15 equations with 15 unknowns: six stress components, six strain components and three displacements.

6.6 The Airy Stress Function The mathematical treatment of the general condition is formidable unless it is simplified by symmetry. For example, plane stress gives 1 and 2 0 and 3 = 0. In this case we can use the Airy Stress Function . This is defined such that: =

The Airy stress function allows all 15 equations to be combined into the single biharmonic equation: = 0

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6.7 Computational procedure Solve the differential equation for appropriate boundary conditions to obtain . This can be done analytically in some cases (such as holes) Differentiate to obtain ij Obtain the strains from the stresses using Sijkl

6.8 Elastic stress distributions and Saint-Venants Saint principle Any geometrical discontinuity (holes, cracks, notches ) will create a nonnon-uniform stress distribution, but far away from the discontinuity the stresses will remain uniform. This is an example of Saint-Venants Venants principle in operation, which can be stated as: The stress distribution in a body depends only locally on discontinuities or on the method of loading Or more formally: If the forces acting on a small part of the surface of a body are replaced by statically equivalent forces (i.e. same resultant and couple), the stress state is negligibly changes at large distance. For example, the stress in the middle of a plate does not depend upon the method of gripping:

This is an important principle which is implicit in all mechanical testing.

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6.8 Examples of stress distributions 6.8.1 Holes in plates

In general, the solutions for the stresses are: = 3 4 1 + 1 + cos 2 2 3 1 + 1 + cos 2 2

3 2 = 1 + sin 2 2

Examining the limiting cases illustrates illustr how the stresses vary: At r = ro, we have rr = 0 and r = 0 because there is no stress perpendicular to a free surface. But = ( 1 2 cos 2), so = 0 = = /2 = 3 So we have stress magnification (3) beside the hole, which can lead to crack propagation and catastrophic failure and stress reversal () above and below the hole. In brittle materials (e.g. masonry) this can lead to failure above and below holes where a compressive stress is reversed to become tensile.

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At = /2 ( cos 2 = 1 ) and large r, the stress falls off as 1/r2. As r : 0 = 0

which is as expected from Saint-Venants Saint principle.

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6.8.2 Stresses at notches and cracks [See Cottrell p145 for an approximate treatment of notches and Knott p29 for a more sophisticated treatment] We can use the results for a hole to get a rough idea of the effect of a notch.

If there are n holes in total, after the nth and last hole the stress is: 3

Suppose that the he radii decrease by a factor of 10 from one hole to the next, with the largest radius being a and the smallest . Then: 10 and log

Taking logs of the first equation we have: log

Taking exponentials of both h sides gives:

1 1 log 3 log 2 2

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This is a good order magnitude estimate for comparison, the exact solution for the stress at the edge of an elliptical hole is: 1 2 Note also (and dont confuse with) the result for a sharp crack: 2

6.8.3 General features of stress distributions around holes and notches

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The general features of the stress distribution ahead of a notch are similar to those ahead of a hole. The tensile stress in the radial direction is important in understanding how cracks are stopped in composite materials:

If the fibre/matrix interfaces are weak in tension, they can open up ahead of a crack resulting in crack blunting and stopping.

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6.9 Dislocations 6.9.1 Screw dislocations

For the volume element on the surface of the cylinder surrounding the core of the dislocation: and all other 0 2

In a finite medium this causes a problem at the ends of the cylinder because the forces do not balance. This causes an Eshelby twist along the length. Consider an annular element of a rod of total length L:

Shear stress Area 2

Tangential force

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 Total torque 2

Moment

Suppose that the torque T causes a twist , which is the same everywhere. For the annular element: Shear strain

Tangential force . 2 Total torque 2 2

Shear stress

Moment . 2 .

So for this dislocation: 2 2

which gives the Eshelby twist as :

Note that this depends on b and R, but is independent of .

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6.9.2 Edge dislocations

In this case the expressions for the stresses are: This is plane strain, so: sin 21

cos 21

sin 1

Exploring the special cases: or or or

above the dislocation on the half plane above the dislocation on the half plane 0

0 but is at a maximum

and 0 maximum compression

below the dislocation half plane below the dislocation half plane

and 0 maximum tension 0

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The region below the dislocation half plane is therefore a desirable site for solute atoms (as occurs for example in strain ageing of o steels).

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7. ELASTIC WAVES
These are important in analysing the dynamic response of materials and structures (for example impact/explosive loading can give a very different fracture pattern from static loading). They are also important in the measurement of mechanical properties at high strain rates. Ultrasonic waves in particular are used for: Flaw detection (non-destructive destructive testing) Medical applications Microstructure refinement during casting and welding Piezoelectric transducers in scanning probe microscopes

We will consider only isotropic materials (because anisotropic behaviour is much more complex).

7.1 Longitudinal waves in a rod

There is a uniform stress across the planar cross-section. cross The net force on an element is:

If the displacement of an element from its rest position is u, we can use: Newton' s second law And:
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To give: density

This is a 1-dimensional wave equation for a longitudinal wave propagating with velocity vo, where: v These are rod waves. Similarly, for pure shear we get torsion waves according to: v

7.2 Waves in infinite media In this case the relevant strain is 1, and the relevant modulus is C11, so we get compression waves with a velocity given by: 2 v Similarly we get transverse waves (shear distortion waves) according to: v In general for a bulk, isotropic material there will be two waves, corresponding to the two independent deformation modes. For a fluid, = 0 (there is no shear), so only longitudinal waves are possible.

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7.3 Surface waves Displacements perpendicular to a surface are Rayleigh waves. On the surface of the Earth, these are responsible for causing earthquake damage. v

0.92 for 0.25 0.955 for 0.5

So in general, vs < v2, so the Rayleigh (surface) waves arrive after the bulk waves, and also lose least energy because they are propagating in only two dimensions instead of three. Elastic wave velocities (ms-1) Steel Rod waves Bulk, longitudinal Bulk, shear Surface vo v1 v2 vs 5190 5940 3220 2980 Aluminium 5090 6320 3100 2920 Rubber 46 1040 27 26

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Part II Materials Science

TENSORS

PREPARATORY QUESTIONS
You should be able to complete these questions from your knowledge and understanding of the IB Mechanical Properties course. You may need to review your notes from that course, and the recap at the start of the Part II Tensors course will also be helpful. Start (and finish) this sheet as soon as you can you should not need help from your supervisor with these questions! 1. Construct a Mohr circle diagram for each of the following stress states and deduce the values of the principal stresses. Describe each stress state in words. Then diagonalise each tensor using the secular equation and check that you obtain the same values of principal stress. 1 1 0 0 1 0 2 0 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2. Construct Mohr circles for the following stress tensors. Find the principal stresses and the angle between the tensor axes and the principal axes. Then calculate the same quantities from the secular equation. 1 2 0 1 2 0 2 3 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

3. A cylindrical tube of diameter 80 mm and wall-thickness 2 mm is pressurised to 10 MPa above atmospheric pressure. It bears a tensile load of 12.5 kN and is subjected to a torque of 1 kN m at its ends. What are the principal stresses in this system, and at what angles to the tube axis do they occur? Answers 1. (a) 1 = 2; 2 = 0; 3 = 0 (b) 1 = +1; 2 = -1; 3 = 0 (c) 1 = 0; 2 = 0; 3 = -4 2. (b) 1 22; 1 22; 4; 22.5 (a) 225MPa; 100MPa; 0; 26.46 (a) 1 22; 1 22; 0; 22.5

3.

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Part II Materials Science

TENSORS

QUESTION SHEET 1
1. A three-dimensional state of stress is given by 11 = + 80 MPa 22 = 40 MPa 33 = + 60 MPa

12 = + 20 MPa 23 = + 30 MPa 31 = 50 MPa

Show that the total stress on a plane with direction cosines: 1 1 1 2 2 2 is 106.6 MN m2 and that the normal and shear stresses on this plane are 79.5 MPa and 71.0 MPa respectively. 2. A three-dimensional state of strain is given by: 11 = 4 104 22 = 6 104 33 = 2 104

12 = 3 104 23 = 3 104 31 = 5 104

Show that the greatest axial strain is 9.27 104 and that there is no volume expansion. 3. Tests are made in combined tension and shear on molybdenum single crystals to decide whether cleavage fracture is controlled by a critical value of the normal stress across the most highly stressed {100} cleavage plane. One such experiment is made on a crystal whose tensile axis lies along [123]. If the crystal fractures under a combination of a tensile stress of 400 MPa and a shear stress, acting on the (123) plane in the [21 0] direction, of 300 MPa, which is the {100} plane with the highest normal stress, and what is the critical value of this stress? 4. A transformation of axes should not, of course, affect the property of a material or a stress state, but the description in terms of tensor components will be changed. Show, however, that a symmetrical tensor (of the second rank) will always remain symmetrical on transformation of the reference axes.

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Part II Materials Science

TENSORS

QUESTION SHEET 2
1. (From Tripos 1996, Qu. 11) A cylindrical strut 20 mm in diameter is made from a titanium alloy. A strain gauge is fixed to the surface of the strut at an angle of 30 to the axis of the strut. What strain is registered by the gauge when the strut is subjected to an axial tensile load of 5 kN? An axial torque is then applied to the strut, producing an additional surface shear strain of 5 105. The sense of the torque is such as to decrease the strain registered by the gauge. What value of strain is recorded by the gauge under these conditions? [For the titanium alloy, Youngs modulus E = 120 GPa, Poissons ratio = 0.30] 2. Two strain gauges are arranged to measure the principal strains on the surface of a thin-walled tube which is subject to a tensile load P and a torque T. When the tube is on the point of yielding the tensile strain has just twice the magnitude of the compressive strain. Show that at yield T = 0.56 Pr, where r is the radius of the tube. [Poisson's ratio = 1/3] 3. In the manufacture of a test circuit, a polycrystalline thin film of aluminium is deposited on to a thick silicon substrate at 120C. Subsequently, the silicon wafer with aluminium layer uppermost is mounted in an X-ray diffractometer (in the standard setting with the normal to the wafer bisecting the angle between the incident and diffracted beams). At room temperature (20C) the diffractometer trace has aluminium peaks showing a lattice parameter decrease of 0.167%, compared to the unstressed state at 20C. Assuming that the aluminium was stress-free during deposition, what is the thermal expansion coefficient of aluminium? [The thermal expansion coefficient for silicon is 7.6 106 K1. aluminium is 0.345.] Poissons ratio for

4. A thin multilayer of many alternating (100) GaAs layers 10 unit cells thick and (100) AlAs layers 4 unit cells thick is deposited on to a thick (100) GaAs substrate. (a) If all the interfaces are fully coherent, what are the diagonalised strain tensors representing the states in the GaAs layers and in the AlAs layers? (b) If the multilayer were to lose coherency with the substrate but to retain it between the GaAs and AlAs layers, the net force in the multilayer would be zero, i.e. the tensile and compressive forces in alternate layers would balance. In that case, what would be the strain tensors? (c) If all coherency were to be lost, what would be the tensors? [The lattice parameter, a, for GaAs is 0.5563 nm and for AlAs is 0.5571 nm. Poisson's ratio is 0.429 for both GaAs and AlAs. Assume that GaAs and AlAs have equal elastic moduli.]

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Part II Materials Science

TENSORS

QUESTION SHEET 3
1. Poissons ratio for rubber is 0.5. Show that a bicycle inner tube can be inflated with zero change in circumferential length. (A small length of tube can be treated as a thin-walled thin cylinder.) 2. The stress distribution in a rotating circular disc is of practical importance in the design esign of gas turbine engines. For a disc containing a central hole of radius a, the principal stresses in the plane of the disc depend on its density , its angular velocity and its maximum radius b as follows: 3+ + 8 3+ 1 3 + + 8 3 For a disc containing a central hole of radius a = b/10, plot the variation of r and with r. Assume that Poisson's ratio is 1/3. Where are the maximum radial and tangential stresses? Compare the maximum value of tangential stress with the maximum value for a disc with no hole (a = 0) and note the stress-concentrating stress effect of the hole.

If a rotating transparent disc of suitable material is viewed in a polariscope, isochromatic fringes will be seen joining ng all points with the same value of (r ). Sketch the appearance of these fringes. 3. An infinitely long edge dislocation of Burgers vector b in an elastically isotropic medium, with shear modulus and Poissons ratio , gives rise to plane strain and, via the Airy stress function, the following stress tensor components are found: = = 2 sin

where r and are defined with respect to the dislocation in the figure, and: 41 a) Determine b) Determine the strain tensor c) Derive an expression for the dilatation and determine at what angle this is a maximum for r > 0 d) Using the Mohr circle construction or otherwise, determine expressions for the principal strains [from Tripos 2010 q2(b)]

2 cos

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Part II Materials

TENSORS
PAST TRIPOS QUESTIONS
This list covers those Part II Tripos questions set during the last ten years which were directly based upon the Tensors course. It does not include questions drawn from other courses which nevertheless require a sound knowledge of tensors. Whilst the content of the Tensors course itself has remained relatively constant over recent years, there have been changes in the structure, content and examination of the Part II course as a whole, and also in the coverage of tensor-related material in Parts IA and IB. All of the questions on this list could be attempted by a student from the current Part II Class, but slight changes in coverage mean that some of the problems may appear more difficult (or, conversely, easier!) than when they were first set. This is particularly likely to be true for older questions (not on this list but available from the past papers page http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/teaching/exams/pastpapers.php) 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Paper I questions 3; 4 Paper I questions 3; 4 Paper I questions 2; 3; 4 Paper I questions 2; 3; 4 Paper I questions 1(a); 2 Paper II question 10(c) Paper III question 19 Paper IV question 36 Paper I question 2 Paper II question 1(g) Paper III question 23 Paper IV questions 30; 36 Paper I question 1(f); 2 Paper II question 12 Paper III question 26 Paper I question 9 Paper IV questions 29; 38 Paper I question 1(c,d); 3 Paper III question 20 Paper I questions 1(c); 9 Paper III question 23 Paper IV question 31

2007

2006 2005 2004 2003

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