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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 1

GEOMETRICALOPTICS
BASICCONCEPTSANDFORMULAE
Reflection : When a light ray incident on a smooth surface bounces back to the same medium, it is
calledreflection.
Laws of Reflection :
(i) Angle of incidence is equal to theangle of reflection.
i.e., i = r
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected rayandthe normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
Spherical Mirror :
Spherical mirror are of two types :
(i) Concave mirror (ii) Convexmirror
MirrorFormula
Where u =distance of object frommirror;
v =distance of image frommirror;
and f =focal length of mirror.
Magnification Producedby Mirror :
Magnification M=
|
.
|

\
|
O
l
=
u
v

Refraction
Lawof Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted rayand the normal to the surface separating the two media, all lie in the
same plane.
(ii) Snell's Law: For twomedia, the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for a beamof particular wavelength i.e.,
r sin
i sin
= constant =
1
2
n
n
= 'n
2
.............. (1)
Refractive Index
n =
medium in light of Speed
vacuum in light of Speed
=
v
c
=
medium
air
v
v
=
medium
air

.............. (2)
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 2

air
and
medium
beingwavelengths of light in air and mediumrespectively.

r sin
i sin
=
1
2
n
n
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
v / c
v / c
=
2
1
v
v
=
2
1

.............. (3)
Formationof image by refraction
n =
( )
( ) MI depth Apparent
OM depth al Re
=
x t
t

.............. (4)
t
P
N
Q
M
x
I
where x is displacement or apparent shift.
The apparent shift, x =
|
.
|

\
|

n
1
1
t .............. (5)
Refraction througha number of media :
t
w
A
air
t
g
r
1
D
III glass
II water
B
N
2
r
3
r
2
r
3
C
I air
N
1
B
i
i
E
w
n
g
=
a g w a
n n
1

=
w a
g a
n
n
CRITICALANGLE: TOTALINTERNALREFLECTION
Theangle of incidence indenser mediumfor whichthe angle of refractioninrarer mediumis 90is called
the critical angle (C).
If n
r
and n
d
are refractive indices for rarer and denser media, then

r sin
i sin
=
1
2
n
n
90 sin
C sin
=
d
r
n
n
=
d
n
r
sin C =
d
n
r
=
d r
n
1
=
n
1
Spherical Lenses :
There are two types of spherical lenses.
(i) Convex lens
(ii) Concave lens
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 3
Rules of Image Formation in Lenses
(i) The rayincident on lens parallel to the principal axis, after refraction through the lens passes
throughthesecond focus (inconvexlens) or appear tocome fromsecondfocus inconcave lens.
(ii) The rayincident on lens towards optical centre C, after refraction pass undeflected.
ThinLens Formula
If uand v are object andimage distances froma lens of focal length f, then thinlens formula is
u
1
v
1
f
1
=
Magnification producedby a lens
m =
u
v
O
1
=
Lens Maker's Formula
f
1
= (
1
n
2
1)
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 1
R
1
R
1

f
1
= (n 1)
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 1
R
1
R
1
Power of a Lens
Power of lens, P =
( ) metres in f
1
diopters =
( ) cm in f
100
diopters
Lens Immersed in a Liquid
1
f
1
= (
l
n
g
1)
|
|
.
|

\
|

2 1
R
1
R
1
n
l
of liquid, n
g
of lens
Thin Lenses in Contact
If twoor morelenses of focal lengths f
1
, f
2
........... are placedincontact, thentheir equivalent focal length
Fis given by
F
1
=
.........
f
1
f
1
2 1
+ +
= E
f
1
The power of combination
P = p
1
+ p
2
+ ........... = Ep.
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 4
RefractionThrougha Prism
For a prismifAis the refractingangle of prism, then
r
1
+ r
2
= A .......... (1)
and i
1
+ i
2
=A+ o .......... (2)
n =
1
1
r sin
i sin
=
2
2
r sin
i sin
.......... (3)
Minimumdeviation: At minimumdeviation the refracted raywithin a prismis parallel to the base of
prism. So
i
1
= i
2
= i(say)
r
1
= r
2
= r(say)
Then fromequation (1) and (2),
r + r =Aor r =A/2 .......... [(4) (a)]
i + i =A+ o
m
or i =
2
A
m
o +
.......... [(4) (b)]
The refractive indexof material of prism
n =
r sin
i sin
=
2
A
sin
2
A
sin
m
o +
........... (7)
Maximumdeviation : For maximumdeviation produced bya prismeither i
1
or i
2
=90
Dispersion
Thesplittingof whitelight intoits constituent colours is calledthedispersion. Whenwhitelight falls ona
prism, it is brokenintoconstituent colourswithintheprism. Sotheemergent light has anumber of coloured
beams, the violet beingdeviated most and red the least in visible region.
Thus the prismcause deviationas well as dispersion. If o
v
, o
r
and o
y
are the are the deviations causedby
prisminviolet, redand meanyellowrays, then for small angled prism.
Angular dispersion = o
v
o
r
= (n
v
n
r
) A
Dispersive Power,
e =
deviation Mean
dispersion Angular
=
y
r v
o
o o
=
1 n
n n
y
r v

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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 5
Scattering Light
The light is scattered byair molecules. According to LordRayleigh the intensityof scattered light
1
4
) length wave (
1
1
4
1

10. Figure represents a capacitor made of two circular plates each of radius r = 12 cmand separated by
d = 5.0 mm. The capacitor is being charged by an external source. The charging currect is constant
I = 0.15 A.
(i) Calculate the rate of change of electric field between the plates.
(ii) Find the displacement current across the plates.
(iii) Is Kirchhoff's first rule valid at each plate of capacitor? Explain.
d
l
+
Sol.
(i) Let Cbe the capacitance of capacitor and q the instantaneous charge on plates, then
q = CV

dt
dq
= C
dt
dV
If Eis the electric field between the plates, then V=Ed

dt
dq
= C
( ) Ed
dt
d
i.e., I = C d
dt
dE

dt
dE
=
Cd
1
=
d
d
A
1
0
c
=
A
1
0
c
= 2
0
r
1
t c
Here, I = 0.15 A, r = 12 cm = 12 10
2
m.
Rate of change of electric field between the plates
dt
dE
=
( )
2 12
10 12 14 . 3 10 85 . 8
15 . 0

= 3.14 10
11
Vm
1
s
1
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 6
(ii) Displacement current I
d
= c
0
A
dt
dE
= c
0
A
A
l
0
c
= l =conducting current = 0.15A.
(iii) Yes, Kirchhoff 's lowholds at each plate of capacitor since displacement current is equal to conduction
current.
Exercise I
1. State four properties of electromagnetic waves.
2. Explain the terms (i) ground waves (ii) skywaves.
3. Write Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic waves.
4. Howare electromagnetic waves produced? Give the formula for frequencyof waves produced.
5. What is height and role of ozone layer?
6. Have you heard about the damage of ozone layer? What factors do you think have caused this damag?
7. In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates at a frequencyof 0.2 10
10
Hz. What is the
wavelengthof the wave?
8. The electric feild vector in an electromagnetic wave travelling in free space has amplitude 120 N/C.
Determine electrosatic energydensityandthe amplitude of the magnetic feildvector.
9. An electromagnetic wave of wavelength 1 mmis propagating along X-axis. Thedirection of magnetic
field vector is along Z-axis. What is the frequency of wave? What is the direction of propagation of
wave?
10. Compare and contrast between x-rays and -rays?
11. State complete electromagnetic spectrum. Give at least one use of each part.
12. What do you mean by ground waves and sky wave? Whyis the tranmission of signals using ground
wave restrictedtofrequencies less thanabout 1500 kHz? Whycannot T.V. signals be brodcasted using
skywaves?
Exercise II
1. Name the electromagnetic waves that have frequencies greaater than those of ultraviolet light but less
than those of gamma rays.
2. When can a charge acts a source of electromagnetic wave? How are the directions of electric and
magneticfieldvectors, inanelectromagneticwaverelatedtoeachother andtothedirectionof propagation
of the wave?
Which physical quantity, if any has the same value for wave belonging to the different parts of the
electromagneticspectrum?
3. The oscillatingelectricfieldof anelectromagnetic waveis givenby
E
y
= 30 sin (2 10
11
t + 300 tx) Cm
1
(a) Obtain the value of wavelengthof the electromagnetic wave.
(b) Write downthe expressionfor oscillatingelectric field.
4. Theoscillatingmagneticfieldinaplaneelectromagnetic wave.
B
y
= (8 10
6
) sin [2 10
11
t + 300 tx]
(i) Calculate the wavelengthof the electromagnetic wave.
(ii) Write downthe expressionfor the oscillatingelectric field.
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 7
5. Identifythe part of the electromagneticspectrumtowhichthefollowingwavelengths belong?
6. Name the electromagnetic readiations used for studyingthe crystal structure of solids.
7. Towhichregions of the electromagnetic spectrum, thefollowingwavelengths belong?
2,000 , 5,000 , 10,000 and 1.0 .
8. It is necessaryto use satellites for longdistance TVtransmission; why?
9. Whichconstituent radiation of the electromagnetic spectrumis used
(i) In radar,
(ii) To photograph internal parts of a human body, and
(iii) For takingphotographs of the skyduringlight and foggyconditions?
Give one reason for your answer in each case.
10. What is the ratio of speed of - rays and radiowaves in vaccum?
(i r )
1 1
(i r )
2 2
r
2
r
1
N
R Q
E
N
1
N
2
i
2
i
1
H
G F
P
A
Y
x
i
i
2
i
1
i
2.9 Dispersion
Thesplittingof whitelight intoits constituent colours is calledthedispersion. Whenwhitelight falls ona
prism,it is broken into constituent colours with in the prism. So the emergent light has a number of
coloured beams, the violet beingdeviated most and red the least in visible region.
Thus the prismcause deviationas well as dispersion. If o
v
, o
r
and o
y
are the deviations caused byprism
inviolet, red and mean yellowrays, thenfor small angled prism.
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 8
R Q
W
h
i
t
e
l
i
g
h
t
r
a
y
s
Yellow
P
A
Red
Voilet
Dispersive power,
e =
deviation Mean
dispersion Angular
=
y
r v
o
o o
=
( )
( ) 1 n
n n
y
r v

=
( )
1 n
n n
y
r v

3. SCATTERINGOFLIGHT
The light is scattered byair molecules. Accordingto LordRayleight the intensityof scattered light
l
( )
4
wavelength
1
l
4
1

As
blue
<
red
, accerdinglyblue colour is scattered the most and red the least, so skyappears blue.
At the time of sunrise and sunset, blue colour is scattered the most and red colour enters our eyes, so
sunrise and sunset appear red.
3.1 Defects of Eye and Their Correction
Due togrowingage or otherwise, eye maysuffere the followingdefects :
1. Myopia or shortsightedness : Myopia is the defect of eye in which a person can see only nearby
objects, but falls to see the far awayobjects distinctly. This defect is due to
l
Parallel rays
from object
Eye lens
Image formation
by myopic eye
l
Corrective
lens
(b) Myopia
F
Retina
l
(a) Decrease in focal length of the eye lens.
(b) Spreading of the eye-sphare.
Due tothese reason the image is formed in front of the retina.
Clearly, for eliminationof myopia the focal lengthof corrective concavelens will beequal tothe distance
of far point of myopic eye fromthe eye lens.
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 9
2. Longsightedness of Hypermetropia : Hypermetropia is the defect of eye in which a person can see
onlyfarther objects but fails to see nearer objects distinctly. This defect is due to
(A) Increase in focal length of eye lens. (B) Contraction of eye-sphere.
Due to these reasons the image of a nearbyobect is formed behind the retina.
Normal near
point
(a) Image formation by
hypermetropic eye
D=2cm
Retina
Normal near
point
(b) Corrected hypermetropia
l O
Near point of
defective eye
Corrective
convex lens
N
3. Presbyopia : Ingrowingage, the eye lens loses its flexibilityof changingthefocal length, Consequenty,
the near point of an eye is displaced farther and far point of the eye is displaced nearer, so that the eye is
unable to see the nearbyas well as far away objects.
This defect of eye is called presbyopia.
This defect maybe eliminated byusingbifocal lenses.
4. Astigmatism: The defect of eye in which horizontal and vertical objects at the same distance are not
focused at the retina clearlyis calledastigmatism. This arises whenthe cornea is not spherical in shape.
For example cornea could have a larger curvature invertical plane than in horizontal plane.
If astigmated eye sees a wire mesh or a shirt having horizontal and vertical lines, then vertical and
horizontal lines are not equallywell focused; if vertical lines are well focused, the horizontal lines may
appear distortedor curvedandviceversa. This defect mayoccur alongwiththemyopiaor hypermetropia.
Remedy: The astigmationis correctedbyusinga cylindrical lens havinga cylindrical surfaceof a radius
of curvature withan appropriatelydirection.
3.2 Optical Instruments (Microscopes andTelescopes)
(1) Simple Microscope : It consists of a convex lens of small focal length f.
If | =angle subtended byan image on eye
o=angle subtended byan object on eye, when object is at a distance of distinct vision
Magnifyingpower,
M =
o
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
f
v
1
v
D
If the final image is at , v =then M=
f
D
If the final image is at a distance of distinct vision, v =D, M=1 +
f
D
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 10
(2) CompoundMicroscope : Magnifyingpower of microscope,
M =
o
|
(= m
0
m
e
) =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
e
e
e 0
0
f
v
1
v
D
u
v
B
A"
F
0
F '
e
A'
|
B'
E
Fe
B"
v
e
Objective
D
u
0
v
0
u
e
Eye piece
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
The lengthof microscope,
L=length of tube
= sepration between lenses = v
0
+ u
0
Special cases : (i) Whenfinal image is formed at a distance of distinct visio, v
e
=D
M =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
e 0
0
f
D
1
u
v
and L = v
0
+ u
e
In a compound microscope, object is placed, just beyond the focus i.e.,
M ~
e
f
L
e 0
f
D
.
f
L
(3) Astronomical Telescope(RefractingTelescope)
The magnifyingpower of telescope is
M =
eye on object an by subtended Angle
eye at image final by subtended Angle
=
o
|
= (m
0
m
e
) =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
e
e
e
0
v
f
1
f
f
and Length of telescope L= f
0
+ u
e
where v
e
=distance of final image fromeye lens
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS (T.N.) PAGE # 11
u
e
=distance of real imageA' B' fromeye lens
Special cases (i) When final image is formedat a distance of distinct vision, then v
e
=D
M = |
|
.
|

\
|
+
D
f
1
f
f
e
e
0
and L = f
0
+ u
e
(ii) Whenfinal image is formedat infinity, thenv
e
=
M =
e
0
f
f
and L = f
0
+ f
e
4. Reflecting Telescope
Newtonian reflecting telescope.
t
For the final image formedat the least distance of distinct vision,
m = |
|
.
|

\
|
+
D
f
1
f
f
e
e
0
For thefinal image formedat infinity,
m =
e
0
f
f
=
0
f
2 / R