Modeling and Optimal Sizing of Hybrid

Renewable Energy System

Rachid Belfkira
*
, Cristian Nichita, Pascal Reghem, Georges Barakat

GREAH, Groupe de Recherche en Electrotechnique et Automatique du Havre

University of Le Havre, 25 rue Philippe Lebon, BP 540
76058 Le Havre, France
Tel.: +33 / (0) 232744331
Fax: +33 / (0) 232744348
*
e-mail: rachid.belfkira@univ-lehavre.fr

e-mail: georges.barakat@univ-lehavre.fr
AbstractThis paper presents a new methodology of sizing
optimization of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy
system. The developed approach makes use of a
deterministic algorithm to minimize the life cycle cost of the
system while guaranteeing the availability of the energy.
Firstly, the mathematical modeling of the principal elements
of the hybrid wind/PV system is exposed showing the main
sizing variables. Then, the deterministic algorithm is
presented and implemented to minimize the objective
function which is equal to the life cycle cost of the hybrid
system and finally, the obtained results are exposed and
discussed.
Keywords Renewable energy systems, energy storage,
power supply, modeling.
I. INTRODUCTION
Around two billion people world-wide do not have
access to electricity services, of which the main share in
rural areas in developing countries. Renewable energy
resources are a favorable alternative for rural energy
supply [1].
Renewable energy sources essentially have
unpredictable random behaviors. However, some of them,
like solar radiation and wind speed, have complementary
profiles. Stand-alone hybrid power systems (Fig. 1)
usually take advantage of this particular characteristic
combining photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbines
(WT).
Because of the intermittent solar irradiation and wind
speed characteristics, which highly influence the resulting
energy production, the major aspects in the design of PV
and wind generator (WG) power generation systems are
the reliable power supply of the consumer under varying
atmospheric conditions and the corresponding total system
cost. Then it is essential to select the number of PV
modules, WGs and batteries, and their installation details
such that power is uninterruptedly supplied to the load and
simultaneously the minimum system cost is achieved [2].
The use of renewable energy technology to meet the
energy demands has been steadily increasing over the
years.
Several research tasks concerning the design and the
sizing of the hybrid systems were carried out. In [3], based
on the available hourly average data of wind speed,
insolation, and the power demand, the generation capacity
is determined to best match the power demand by
minimizing the difference between generation and load
(P) over a 24-hour period. The objective function to be
minimized is the sum of the annual cost of the capital over
the life of the generating system and its annual
maintenance cost. The iterative procedure is adopted for
selecting the wind turbine size and the number of PV
panels needed for a stand-alone system to meet a specific
load.
An alternative methodology for the optimal sizing of
stand-alone PV/WG systems has been proposed by
Koutroulis et al. [2], which the purpose is to suggest,
among a list of commercially available system devices,
the optimal number and type of units ensuring that the 20-
year round total system cost is minimized subject to the
constraint that the load energy requirements are
completely covered, resulting in zero load rejection. The
20-year round total system cost is equal to the sum of the
respective components capital and maintenance costs. The
decision variables included in the optimization process are
the number and type of PV modules, WGs and battery
chargers, the PV modules tilt angle, the installation height
of the WGs and the battery type and nominal capacity.
The minimization of the cost (objective) function is
implemented employing a genetic algorithms approach.
In [4] the authors have developed the HOGA program
(Hybrid Optimization by Genetic Algorithms) to calculate
the optimal configuration of the hybrid PV-Diesel system.
This optimal configuration is described very precisely: the
number and the type of PV panels, the number and the
type of batteries, the inverter power, the Diesel generator
power, the optimal control strategy of the system with its
parameters, the Total Net Present Value (cost of the
investments plus the discounted present values of all
future costs) of the system and finally, the number of
running hours for the Diesel generator per year.
Chedid and Rahman have used linear programming
techniques to determine the optimal sizes of the PV and
WG power sources and the batteries by minimizing the
system total cost function which consists of both initial
cost and yearly operation and maintenance costs [5].
In this paper, the proposed optimization procedure is
based on a dynamic evaluation of the wind and solar
energetic potential based on statistical models of wind
speed and solar radiation of the site of production. This
1834
978-1-4244-1742-1/08/$25.00 c 2008 IEEE
dynamic evaluation of the energetic potential of the site
permits the introduction of new constraints making the
optimization procedure more flexible like the maximum
acceptable time of energy unavailability and the minimum
power level authorised regarding the power demand.
Consequently, this approach results in a more realistic
optimization.
II. HYBRID SYSTEM MODELING
A. Wind Turbine Model
Using the wind speed at a reference height h
r
from the
database, the velocity at a specific hub height for the
location is estimated on an hourly basis throughout the
specified period through the following expression [2]
( ) ( )

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
r
h
h
. t v t v (1)
where:
v is the wind speed at projected height h,
v
r
is wind speed at reference height h
r
,
is the power-law exponent (~1/7 for open land).
In function of this wind speed, the model used to
calculate the output power, P
WT
(t) (W), generated by the
wind turbine generator is as follows:
( )
( )
3
<
<
0
R ci r
WT R r co
a.v t b.P v v v
P t P v v v
otherwise

<

= <

(2)
where a = P
r
(v
3
r
v
3
ci
), b = v
3
ci
(v
3
r
v
3
ci
), P
r
is the
rated power, v
ci
, v
r
and v
co
are respectively the cut-in,
rated and cut-out wind speeds of the wind turbine.
Fig. 2 shows typical wind turbine characteristics.
B. PV Array Modeling
The output power from a PV panel can be calculated
by an analytical model given by France Lasnier and Tony
Gan Ang [6], which defines the current-voltage
relationships based on the electrical characteristics of the
PV panel. This model includes the effects of radiation
level and panel temperature on the output power. With a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT), the output power
from a PV panel is given as:
( )
( ) ( )
PV mpp mpp
mpp mpp ,ref V ,oc c c ,ref
mpp mpp ,ref sc ,ref T ref I ,sc c c ,ref
P V I
V V T T
I I I G G T T

= +

= + +

(3)
where P
PV
is the PV panel power (W) at the maximum
power point at hour t, V
mpp
is the PV panel voltage at the
maximum power point (V) at hour t, V
mpp,ref
is V
mpp
at
reference operating conditions (V), I
mpp
is the PV panel
current at the maximum power point (A) at hour t, I
mpp,ref
is I
mpp
at reference operating conditions (A), I
sc,ref
is the
short circuit current at reference operating conditions (A),
E
T
is the daily irradiance on a tilted surface (W/m), E
ref
is
the irradiance of 1000W/m at reference operating
conditions,
V,oc
and
I,sc
are the temperature coefficients
for open circuit voltage (V/C) and short circuit current
(A/C) respectively, T
c,ref
is the PV panel temperature of
25C at reference operating conditions and T
c
(t)
corresponds to the PV panel operating temperature (C) at
hour t and which can be expressed as follows [7]
( ) ( )
NOCT 20
800
c a T
T t T t .E

= + (4)
where T
a
(t) is the ambient temperature (C) of the site
under consideration at hour t and NOCT (Normal
Operating Cell Temperature) is defined as the cell
temperature when the PV panel operates under 800W/m
of solar irradiation and 20C of ambient temperature,
NOCT is usually between 42C and 46C.
Most local observatories provide only solar irradiation
data on a horizontal plane [8]. Thus, an estimate of the
solar irradiation incident on any sloping surfaces, as
analyzed by [9], is needed.
The PV panels are connected in series to form strings,
where the number of panels to be connected in series N
PV,s
is determined by the selected DC bus voltage (U
Bus
) as
follows [10]
Bus
PV ,s
PV ,nom
U
N
U
= (5)
where U
PV,nom
is the nominal PV panel voltage. Then N
PV,s
is not subject to the optimization, whereas the number of
parallel strings N
PV,p
is the design variable that needs
optimization.
Power
vco vr vci
PR
Fig. 2: Wind turbine characteristics
DC Bus
Wind
Turbine(s)
PV arrays
Battery
MPPT
AC/DC DC/DC
DC/DC
DC/DC
DC/AC Load
Fig.1. Block diagram of a hybrid WT/PV system
MPPT
Wind speed
2008 13
th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2008) 1835
C. Model of Battery
It is evident that the power generated by the hybrid
system and the amount of energy stored are time
dependent. So, the power input to the battery bank, is
controlled by the equation
( ) ( ) ( )
re L
P t P t P t = (6)
in which P
re
(t) is the total power produced by the
renewable resources (PV panels and wind turbine(s)) at
hour t and P
L
(t)=P
load
(t)/
i
, where P
load
is the power
demanded by the load.
For the charging process (P(t)>0) and discharging
process (P(t)<0) of the battery bank, the state of charge
(SOC) can be calculated from the following equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
re L
bat
bus
P t P t
SOC t SOC t . . t
U

| |
+ = +
|
|
\ .
(7)
where
bat
is equal to the round-trip efficiency in the
charging process and is equal to the 100% in the
discharging process [2], U
bus
is the DC bus voltage and t
is the hourly time step is set equal to 1hour.
For longevity of the battery bank, the maximum
charging rate, SOC
max
, is given as the upper limit, where
SOC
max
is equal to the total nominal capacity of the battery
bank, C
n
, which is related to the total number of batteries,
N
BAT
, the number of batteries connected in series, N
BAT,s
and the nominal capacity of each battery, C
B
(Ah), as
follows [11]
B
s , BAT
BAT
n
C .
N
N
C = (8)
and the lower limit that the state of charge of the battery
bank does not have exceeded at the time of discharging is
SOC
min
which may be expressed as follows
( )
max min
SOC . DOD SOC = 1 (9)
where DOD is the Depth of Discharge of battery.
The batteries are connected in series to give the desired
nominal DC operating voltage and are connected in
parallel to yield a desired Ah system storage capacity.
Then, the number of batteries connected in series depends
on the DC bus voltage and the nominal voltage of each
individual battery U
Bat,nom
and it is calculated as follows
Bus
BAT ,s
Bat ,nom
U
N
U
= (10)
The number of batteries to be connected in series is
therefore not subject to the optimization but is a
straightforward calculation, whereas the number of
parallel battery strings, each consisting of N
BAT,s
batteries
connected in series, is a design variable that needs
optimization.
III. DETERMINISTIC ALGORITHM AND DEVELOPED
METHODOLOGY
The sizing optimization process consists in solving
problems of the form [12]:
( ) [ ]
( )
( )
x
min i 1,n
0 k [1,p]
0 j [1,q]
i
k
j
l u
f x
h x
g x
x x x

>=

(11)
where f
i
R
n
are the objective functions and h
k
R
p
, g
j
R
q
are respectively the equality and the inequality constraints.
One of the major steps of the optimization process
consists in the minimization of the objective functions.
The optimization algorithms are generally divided into
two groups: deterministic and stochastic. Many
researchers have recently proved that the DIRECT
algorithm is an effective deterministic algorithm to find
the global optimum of the problem (11).
Developed by Jones et al. [13] and acronym for
DIviding RECTangles, the DIRECT algorithm is a
deterministic global optimization technique that is used to
find the minimum of a Lipschitz continuous function
without knowing the Lipschitz constant. The objective
function and constraints must be Lipschitz-continuous in
the research space , satisfying
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1
x , x x x L x f x f (12)
This assumption means that the rates-of-change of the
objective function and constraints are bounded.
Traditionally, when this assumption (12) is satisfied, the
global optimization problem was solved by the Lipschitz
optimization method, which had been considered as a
practical and deterministic approach to many science and
engineering problems for several decades.
DIRECT evolved from the one-dimensional Piyavskii-
Shubert algorithm and was further extended from one
dimension to multiple dimensions by adopting a center-
sampling strategy. Its corresponding 1-D description
contrasted with Piyavskii-Shuberts algorithm can be
found in [14]. Here, only the multidimensional DIRECT
algorithm, which is of more interest for our application, is
described. DIRECTs behavior in multiple dimensions can
be viewed as taking steps in potentially optimal directions
within the entire design space. The potentially optimal
directions are determined through evaluating the objective
function at center points of the subdivided boxes. The
multivariate DIRECT algorithm can be described by the
following steps [14]
1) Normalize the search space to unit hypercube.
2) Sample the center point c
1
of the hypercube; Evaluate f
(c
1
). Set f
min
= f (c
1
), m = 1 (evaluation counter), and t
= 0 (iteration counter).
3) Identify the set S of potentially optimal boxes.
4) Select any box j S.
5) Divide the box j as follows:
a) Identify the set I of dimensions with the maximum
side length . Let equal one-third of this
maximum side length ( = 1/3 ).
b) Sample the function at the points c e
i
, for all
iI, where c is the center of the box and e
i
is the i
th
unit vector.
c) Divide the box j containing c into thirds along the
dimensions in I, starting with the dimension with
the lowest value of w
i
= min{f(c+e
i
), f(ce
i
)},
and continuing to the dimension with the highest
w
i
. Update f
min
, x
min
and m.
1836 2008 13
th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2008)
6) Set S = S {j}. If S = GO TO Step 4.
7) Set t = t + 1. If iteration limit or evaluation limit has
been reached, stop. Otherwise, GO TO Step 3.
This algorithm has been applied to optimize a hybrid
wind/PV system. In the developed method, the DIRECT
optimal sizing methodology outputs the optimum numbers
and the types of the components of the hybrid wind/PV
system, ensuring that the system total cost is minimized
subject to the constraint that the load energy demand is
completely covered.
The optimization procedure is achieved by minimizing
the total cost function consisting of the sum of the
individual system devices capital, the 20-year round
maintenance costs and the installation costs
( )
( )
(
)
(
1
1
1
20
20 +
20


PV
WT
BAT
C PV , p WT BAT , p
n
i i i i
PV PV PV I ,PV
i
n
j j j j
WT WT WT I ,WT
j
j j j
h hm I ,h
n
k k k
BAT BAT I ,BAT
k
k
BAT BAT
F N , N , N
N . C .M C
N . C .M C
C .C C
N . C C
y C
=
=
=
= + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+
_
_
_
( )
( ) )
20 1
k k
I ,BAT
k k
BAT BAT
C
y .M
+
+
(13)
where N
PV,p
, N
WT
and N
BAT,p
represent the sizing variables,
where N
PV,p
is the total number of parallel PV strings, N
WT
is the total number of wind turbines and N
BAT,p
is the total
number of parallel battery strings, n
PV
, n
WT
, n
BAT
are the
total numbers of PV panel types, wind turbine types and
battery units types, respectively, and C
i
PV
, C
j
WT
, C
k
BAT
are
the corresponding capital costs (), M
i
PV
, M
j
WT
, M
k
BAT
are
the corresponding maintenance costs per year (/year) and
C
i
I,PV
, C
j
I,WT
and C
k
I,BAT
are the corresponding installation
costs (). C
j
h
is the WT tower capital cost (), C
j
hm
is the
WT tower maintenance cost per year (/year), C
j
I,h
is the
WT tower installation cost () and y
k
BAT
is the expected
number of battery replacements during the 20-year system
operation, because of limited battery lifetime. The costs of
converters and of other components are included in the
installation cost.
N
i
PV
= N
i
PV,p
N
i
PV,s
is the total number of PV panels of
type i, and N
k
BAT
= N
k
BAT,p
N
k
BAT,s
is the total number of
batteries of type k in the battery bank.
The minimization of the objective function is subject to
the constraints that the power produced by the system is
equal to the power demanded by the load and the state of
charge of the battery bank is limited between SOC
min
and
SOC
max
as follows
( ) ( )
( )
P L
min max
P t P t
SOC SOC t SOC
=

(14)
where P
P
(t) is the power produced by the system and it is
calculated as follows
( ) ( ) ( )
P re
P t P t P t = (15)
where P
re
(t) is the power produced by the renewable
resources as follows
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
PV WT
PV WT WT
n n
j j i i
re PV
i j
P t N .P t N .P t
= =
= +
_ _
(16)
and P(t) > 0 during the charging process of the battery
and P(t) < 0 in the discharging process as calculated in
the eq. (6).
Additional constraints to be imposed are
1
1
1
i i
PV , p PV , p max
j j
WT WT max
k k
BAT , p BAT , p max
N N
N N
N N



(17)
where N
i
PV,pmax
, N
j
WTmax
and N
k
BAT,pmax
were calculated
according to the nominal power of PV panel, wind turbine
and nominal capacity of battery, respectively, and the
peak of the load demand.
IV. OPTIMIZATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The optimization methodology developed above was
applied to sizing a hybrid energy system supplying a
variable load. In fig. 3, the hourly power demand during a
day is presented. This power reaches the maximum values
between 13 h and 15 h and between 21 h and 23 h in the
day; this is due to the utilization of the household
electrical appliances in these periods.
For the site of Fecamp in the region of Haute-
Normandie, in France, where the hybrid energy system is
assumed to be installed, a long-term data of wind speed
and ambient temperature were recorded for every hour of
the day during the period of six months, are used for the
calculation of the power produced by the hybrid system
and are plotted in fig. 4. The wind speed was measured at
a 40 meters height which is considered as the reference
height for the site (cf. eq. (1)).
In this example, two types of each component of the
hybrid wind/PV system have been used. The
specifications and the related capital, maintenance and
installation costs of each component type, which are input
to the optimal sizing procedure, are listed in Tables I-III.
The maintenance cost of each unit per year and the
installation cost of each component have been set at 1%
and 10% respectively of the corresponding capital cost.
The serial connection numbers of the two types 1 and 2
of the PV arrays and of the batteries which are determined
by the operating voltage of the system which is chosen to
be equal to a standard value of 48 V, take respectively the
values: N
1
PV,S
= 2, N
2
PV,S
= 3, N
1
BAT,S
= 4 and N
2
BAT,S
= 4.
The expected battery lifetime has been set at 3 years with
proper maintenance resulting in y
k
BAT
= 6. Since the tower
heights of wind turbines affect the results significantly, 30
meter high tower is chosen.
Using all these data and parameters, the minimization
of the system total cost is achieved by selecting an
appropriate system configuration. The optimal sizing
results, consisting of both the device types and their
number, are shown in table IV. From these results, one
can deduce that the rate of penetration of the wind power
2008 13
th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2008) 1837
is higher than that of the PV power; this is due to the
highly speed of the wind of the site of Fecamp compared
to the solar radiation.
Fig. 5 presents the variation of the system total cost
(fitness function) during the optimization procedure. It can
be noted that a near optimal solution was derived during
the early stages of the function evaluations.
Fig. 6 shows the state of charge (SOC) of the battery
bank for the obtained configuration. One can deduce that
the SOC reaches the lower limit of discharge nearly
between 300 h and 500 h and between 860 h and 2100 h,
this is due to the low power produced by the renewable
resources in these periods. Also, one can verify that the
state of charge of the battery bank can never exceed the
permissible maximum value, SOC
max
(100% of SOC) and
can never be below the permissible minimum value,
SOC
min
(20% of SOC).
TABLE I
PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS SPECIFICATIONS
Type 1 2
Voc (V) 32.6 21
Isc (A) 7.87 7.22
Vmax (V) 25.9 17
Imax (A) 6.95 6.47
NCOT (C) 45.9 43
Capital cost () 603 519.14
Installation cost () 60.3 51.9
Maintenance cost
per year (/year)
6.03 5.19
TABLE II
WIND TURBINES SPECIFICATIONS
Type 1 2
Power rating (W) 10000 7500
vr (m/s) 13.8 13.8
vci (m/s) 3.1 3.1
vco (m/s) 25 25
Capital cost () 20682 16978
Installation cost () 2068.2 1697.8
Maintenance cost
per year (/year)
206.82 169.78
Tower capital cost
()
741 741
Tower installation
cost ()
7.41 7.41
Tower maintenance
cost per year
(/year)
74.1 74.1
TABLE III
BATTERIES SPECIFICATIONS
Type 1 2
Nominal capacity
(Ah)
100 230
Voltage (V) 12 12
DOD (%) 80 80
Efficiency (%) 80 80
Capital cost () 126 264
Installation cost () 12.6 26.4
Maintenance cost
per year (/year)
1.26 2.64
TABLE IV
OPTIMAL SIZING RESULTS
Type 1 2
NPV,p 1 0
NWT 1 0
NBAT,p 1 1
Cost () 41242
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
W
i
n
d

s
p
e
e
d

(
m
/
s
e
c
)
Number of hour
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A
m
b
i
a
n
t

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[

C
]
Number of hour
Fig. 4. Hourly mean values during a period of seven months of
meteorological conditions: (a) wind speed and (b) ambient
temperature
5 10 15 20
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Number of hour
P
l
o
a
d

[
W
]
Fig. 3. Hourly demand power in a day
(a)
(b)
1838 2008 13
th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2008)
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a methodology of sizing a stand-alone
hybrid wind/PV system using the DIRECT algorithm has
been explained. This developed methodology is based on
the use of the collection of six months data of the wind
speed and the ambient temperature on one hand and on the
other hand on the estimation of the solar irradiation for the
site under consideration.
The optimum numbers of wind turbines, PV panels and
batteries depend on the particular site, load profile and the
specifications and the related cost of each component of
the hybrid system.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Gul, Integrated analysis of hybrid systems for rural
electrification in developing countries, TRITA-LWR Master
Thesis, Stockholm 2004.
[2] E. Koutroulis, D. Kolokotsa, A. Potirakis, K. Kalaitzakis,
Methodology for optimal sizing of stand-alone
photovoltaic/wind-generator systems using genetic algorithms,
Solar Energy, 2006.
[3] W. D. Kellog, M. H. Nehir, G. Venkataramanan, V. Gerez,
Generation unit sizing and cost analysis for stand-alone wind,
photovoltaic, and hybrid wind/PV systems, IEEE Trans. on
Energy Conversion, vol. 13, no. 1, March 1998.
[4] R. Dufo-Lopez, J. L. Bernal-Agustin, Design and control
strategies of PV-Diesel systems using genetic algorithms, Solar
Energy, vol. 79, pp. 33-46, 2005.
[5] R. Chedid, S. Rahman, Unit sizing and control for hybrid wind-
solar power systems, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, vol. 12,
no. 1, pp. 79-85, 1997.
[6] F. Lasnier, T. G. Ang, Photovoltaic engineering handbook.
Bristol, England: A. Hilger, 1990.
[7] T. Markvar, Solar Electricity, 2
nd
ed, J. Wiley & Sons, 2000.
[8] H. Yang, L. Lu, W. Zhou, A novel optimization sizing model for
hybrid solar-wind power generation system, Solar Energy, vol.
81, pp 76-84, 2007.
[9] J. Bernard, Energie solaire: calculs et optimisation, Ellipses-Paris,
2004, pp. 53-93.
[10] G. Seeling-Hochmuth, Optimisation of hybrid energy systems
sizing and operation control, Dissertation in Candidacy for the
Degree of Dr.-Ing, University of Kassel, October 1998.
[11] B. S. Borowy, Z. M. Salameh, Methodology for optimally sizing
the combination of a battery bank and PV array in a Wind/PV
hybrid system, IEEE Trans. on Energy Conversion, vol. 11, no.
2, June 1996.
[12] J. Azzouzi, R. Belfkira, N. Abdel-Karim, G. Barakat, B. Dakyo
Design optimization of an axial flux PM synchronous machine:
comparison between DIRECT method and GAs method, EPE-
PEMC, August 30September 1, 2006.
[13] D. R. Jones, C. C. Perttunen, B. E. Stuckman, Lipschitzian
optimization without the Lipschitz constant, J. Optim. Theory
Appl, vol. 79, pp. 157181, 1993.
[14] M. Bjrkman, K. Holmstrm, Global optimization using the
DIRECT algorithm in Matlab, AMO - Advanced Modeling and
Optimization, vol. 1 no. 2, 1999.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Number of hour
S
O
C

[
%
]
Fig. 6. Hourly variation of SOC of battery bank
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
x 10
5
Number of Function Evaluations
T
o
t
a
l

C
o
s
t

(

)
Fig. 5. The system total cost during the DIRECT optimization
2008 13
th
International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (EPE-PEMC 2008) 1839