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Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 118
Review
Modelling anaerobic biolm reactorsA review
V. Saravanan, T.R. Sreekrishnan
Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi-110 016, India
Received 7 October 2004; received in revised form 4 October 2005; accepted 5 October 2005
Available online 6 March 2006
Abstract
Anaerobic treatment has become a technically as well as economically feasible option for treatment of liquid efuents after the
development of reactors such as the upow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor, expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) reactor,
anaerobic biolter and anaerobic uidized bed reactor (AFBR). Considerable effort has gone into developing mathematical models for
these reactors in order to optimize their design, design the process control systems used in their operation and enhance their operational
efciency. This article presents a critical review of the different mathematical models available for these reactors. The unied anaerobic
digestion model (ADM1) and its application to anaerobic biolm reactors are also outlined.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Mathematical model; UASB; AFBR; EGSB; Biolter; Biolm; Anaerobic
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Models for UASB reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Flow model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Reactor model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Proposed models for the structure of the biolm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1. Multi-layer model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2. Syntrophic microcolony model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Non-layered structure model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. Granule cluster structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Models for AFBR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1. Bed uidization model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.1. Terminal settling velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1.2. Fluidization mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1.3. Effect of gas production on hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1.4. Bed stratication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2. Kinetic and reactor sub-models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1. Stratied biolm models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5. The EGSB reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6. The anaerobic biolter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. The unied model for anaerobic digestion (ADM1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.1. The extension of ADM1 to biolm reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8. Summary and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ARTICLE IN PRESS
www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman
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doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.10.002
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591014; fax: +91 11 26582282.

E-mail address: sreekrishnan_t_r@hotmail.com (T.R. Sreekrishnan).
1. Introduction
The term biolm reactor refers to that class of
bioreactors where the biocatalyst exists in an anchored
form, either on the surface of an inert carrier or attached
to one another. The carrier could be the wall of the reactor,
bafes provided for this purpose or particles of some inert
material. Biocatalysts such as microorganisms could also
grow attached to one another, giving rise to a biogra-
nule. The carrier or the biogranule could be stationary as
in a packed-bed or expanded bed system or mobile as in the
case of a uidized bed system. Typically, in such reactors,
the rate of substrate conversion is limited by the rate of
transport of substrate into the biolm. In an anaerobic
biolm reactor, the biocatalyst will include all the different
bacterial species responsible for the break down of complex
organic molecules to a nal end product consisting of
methane and carbon dioxide. The anaerobic treatment, as
the main biological step in wastewater treatment systems,
was scarce until the development of the upow anaerobic
sludge blanket (UASB) reactor in the early 1970s (Lettinga
et al., 1980). UASB processes are based on the develop-
ment of dense granules (14 mm) formed by the natural
self-immobilization of the anaerobic bacteria. This kind of
immobilization does not employ any support material such
as Raschig rings or clay in the reactor (Nicolella et al.,
2000). A schematic of a typical UASB reactor is shown in
Fig. 1. Wastewater enters the bottom of the reactor
through the inlet liquid distribution system and passes
upward through the dense anaerobic sludge bed. Because
of the high biomass concentration, it was demonstrated
that volumetric organic loading rates as high as 50 kg
chemical oxygen demand (COD) per m
3
per day could be
employed (Hulshoff Pol, 1989). The liquid velocity inside
the reactor is usually in the range of 0.51.0 m/h. This
reactor consists of a sludge bed, a sludge blanket and a
clarier zone supplemented with a physical device called
the gassolid separator.
In anaerobic uidized bed reactor (AFBR), the liquid to
be treated is pumped through a bed of inert particles
(typically sand with a particle size range of 0.20.8 mm) at
a velocity sufcient enough (1020 m/h) to cause uidiza-
tion (Nicolella et al., 2000). In the uidized state, the media
provides a large surface for attached biological growth and
allows biomass concentrations to develop in the range of
1040 kg/m
3
(Cooper and Sutton, 1983). A typical ow
diagram of an AFBR is shown in Fig. 2. Compared to
other high rate anaerobic reactors such as UASB, the
uidized bed system is claimed to have the following
advantages: higher purication capacity, no clogging of
the reactor (as in lters), no problem of sludge washout
(as in UASB systems if granular sludge is not obtained),
and small volume and land area requirements (Heijnen
et al., 1989).
To study the sensitivity of the process to various
operating parameters and to optimize the design of these
reactors, it is necessary to have mathematical models which
are simple in concept and close to the physical situation
existing in these reactors. During the past few decades there
have been a number of studies on modelling of UASB and
AFBR reactors. An effort is made in this article to present
the gist of different approaches used in developing
mathematical models for these reactors. This article also
reviews different proposals available for modelling the
structure of the biological granules and biolm-covered
particles in these reactors.
2. Models for UASB reactors
The formation of anaerobic granular sludge is consid-
ered to be a necessary condition for the successful
operation of a UASB reactor. The efciency of the reactor
depends mainly on active biomass concentration and the
inuent ow rate. As the reactor reaches steady state, a
dense bed composed of granulated sludge develops at the
bottom. Immediately above the sludge bed, a zone
consisting of nely suspended particles called the sludge
blanket forms. A clear zone over this sludge blanket
constitutes the settling zone. To keep the sludge granules in
suspended condition inside the reactor, the inlet ow rate
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Biogas
Effluent
Influent
Baffles
Weir
Settler
Sludge Bed
Sludge Blanket
Sludge granules
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of UASB reactor.
Wastewater feed
Carrier
Biofilm
Recycle line
Treated water
Biogas
Fig. 2. Anaerobic uidized bed reactor (AFBR).
V. Saravanan, T.R. Sreekrishnan / Journal of Environmental Management 81 (2006) 118 2
should be below a threshold limit (normally below 1 m/h).
This low inuent ow rate causes channelling problems in
the sludge bed zone, resulting in lowered efciency of the
reactor. Hence to develop mathematical models for this
reactor, it is important to analyse the ow pattern inside
the reactor and reaction kinetics within the biological
granules. In general, models for UASB reactors consist of
two parts:
1. uid ow model;
2. reactor model.
2.1. Flow model
Fluid ow models for UASB reactors differ considerably
in their approach. The different zones of a UASB reactor
are modelled as continuos stirred tank reactors (CSTR) or
plug ow reactors (PFR) having dead volume with bypass
ow between the zones (Bolle et al., 1986; Van der Meer,
1979; Wu and Hickey, 1997). The ow behaviour within a
zone mainly depends on the concentration and character-
istics of the biomass (Ojha and Singh, 2002).
Wu and Hickey (1997) have developed a ow model to
describe the ow pattern in a UASB reactor. They modelled
the sludge bed and blanket as a non-ideal CSTR by using a
combination of an ideal CSTR along with a dead zone and
a bypass ow. This CSTR is in series with a dispersed plug
ow reactor (PFR) (non-ideal PFR) that represents the
clarication zone above the sludge blanket (Fig. 3).
The equation of the ow model is given by
V
b
dC
dt
V
b
Et Q
f
Ct, (2.1)
Et
M
f
V
b
T
in
if 0ptpT
in
;
0 if T
in
p0;
(2.2)
where C(t) is the tracer concentration within the CSTR, V
b
the CSTR working volume, E(t) the input function for
tracer impulse, Q
f
the low fraction that enters the working
volume, M
f
the fraction of mass input that go through
reactors working volume, and T
in
the tracer injection time.
Ojha and Singh (2002) analysed the ow distribution in
different zones of the reactor in order to simulate the
UASB reactor performance. They used the ow resistance
approach to represent ow distribution. It was found that
with an increase in ow resistance in the UASB reactor
system, the magnitude of short-circuiting ows at the
reactor bed increased. The ow distribution at the blanket
and clarier was found to have an inuence on the ow
resistance. But no generalized model could be obtained.
Bolle et al. (1986) divided the reactor into three
compartments (Fig. 4): sludge bed, sludge blanket and
settler. The liquid ow in the sludge bed and the sludge
blanket were described by completely stirred tank reactor
systems. Liquid ow in the internal settler was described by
a plug ow model.
Narnoli and Indu (1997) developed a model for the
sludge blanket of a UASB reactor. According to them, the
maximum organic load which a reactor can assimilate
depends on proportioning of the reactor height into the bed
and the blanket sections. A condition of force equilibrium
was considered between the rising gas bubbles from the
sludge bed and the adjacent water mass. The negative
pressure behind the bubble attracts the water mass and
leads to the formation of a wake. Using diffusion concepts,
solid particles moving along the wake due to the
concentration gradient were equated to those settling down
under the inuence of gravity at steady state. The solid
concentration along the blanket height was computed and
found to match the experimental observations. This model
could be used to optimize the reactor dimensions and the
desludging schedule.
Singhal et al. (1998) reported that a simple two-zone
axial dispersion model adequately describes the uid ow
characteristics of UASB reactors. They found that the uid
ow behaviour is very sensitive to the volume of zones and
degree of bypassing between them but less sensitive to the
dead volume. The model assumed that some of the liquid
bypasses the rst zone and enters directly into the second
zone. The schematic representation is shown in Fig. 5.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Dead volume
CSTR Dispersed
plug flow
By-pass flow
Fig. 3. Representation of hydraulic model (Wu and Hickey, 1997).
Effluent
Settler
Sludge blanket
Short circuit
Dead space
Sludge bed
Influent
Fig. 4. Block diagram of uid ow pattern (Bolle et al., 1986).
They had veried the model efcacy through tracer
studies. The step response of an axially dispersed tubular
ow reactor for an inert tracer is described by the following
partial differential equation:
1
Pe
q
2
C
qZ
2

qC
qZ

qC
qy
, (2.3)
where C is the dimensionless concentration of the tracer
(c/c
0
), Pe is the Peclet number (uL/D), Z is the dimension-
less distance (z/L), y is the dimensionless time (t/t), u is the
linear average velocity of the liquid in the reactor, L is the
length of the reactor, and D is the axial dispersion
coefcient. The simulation and experimental results gave
a very good t validating this ow model.
All the above multi-compartment models were capable
of tting laboratory scale experimental data well. In the
case of full-scale reactors, the feed distribution is very
different from that in the laboratory scale reactor. Distinct
zones of sludge bed, sludge blanket and clarier may not be
observed due to the large volume of the reactor and uneven
ow distribution. This will make the task of quantifying the
extent of non-ideality in the ow patterns difcult. It may
not be correct to predict the uid ow pattern based on lab
scale studies alone. Hence, further investigations are
required to test the models for full-scale reactors.
2.2. Reactor model
Substrate degradation in the bioreactor is dependant on
the observed reaction rate. In a biolm type of reactor set-
up, the observed reaction rate is normally less than the rate
predicted by the reaction kinetics. The reason for this is
that the substrate concentration actually available to the
microorganisms is less than the substrate concentration
present in the bulk liquid. This is due to the control exerted
by the mechanism of molecular diffusion on the penetra-
tion of substrate into the biolm. It is, therefore, important
to analyse the rate-determining step while developing
models. Hence, the reactor model consists of 3 parts:
substrate utilization within the biolm (granules), mass
transfer and transport in the granule bed and blanket, and
mass transport within the clarier.
Kinetic models are based on the relationship between
limiting substrate concentration and growth rate as
proposed by Monod (1950). James (1961) pointed out that
in biological processes a wide variety of substances might
act as limiting substrates. Stewart (1956) and Agardy et al.
(1963) have used COD as the limiting substrate in the
development of their models for the anaerobic digestion
process. Lawrence and McCarty (1967) used volatile acids
concentration as the limiting substrate, since it is generally
believed that the rate-limiting step in the anaerobic
decomposition of complex organics is the conversion of
volatile acids to methane. Andrews (1969) has presented a
dynamic model for the anaerobic digestion process, which
considers only the methanogenesis step. It is commonly
observed in the eld that a high volatile acids concentration
and low pH value leads to digester failure. To represent this
phenomenon in a quantiable way an inhibition function
(Haldane type) was used in the model. The un-ionized form
of volatile acids was considered as the rate limiting
substrate since it is a function of both pH and the total
volatile acids concentration.
Rittman and co-workers have presented a biolm model
describing the biolm growth and substrate ux under
steady-state conditions (Rittmann, 1982; Rittmann and
McCarty, 1980a). UASB reactor models using methano-
genic biolm models have focused on mass transfer
limitations and single as well as multiple limiting substrates
(Alphenaar et al., 1993; Atkinson and Davies, 1974;
Atkinson and How, 1974; Bufere and Steyer, 1995; de
Beer et al., 1992; Lens et al., 1993; Lin, 1991).
Thick biolms may give rise to mass-transfer limitations
for the substrate within the biolm, resulting in an overall
reduction in the substrate conversions achieved. Under this
condition, the transport of substrate into the biolm or
transport of products out of the biolm could become the
rate-determining step. Contradictory results have been
reported on the impact of internal (within the biolm) and
external (in the bulk liquid phase) mass transport. While
some reports indicate that both internal and external
diffusion limitations inuence the rate of substrate utiliza-
tion (Dolng, 1985; Wu et al., 1995), others indicate that
mass transport limitations are not observed in anaerobic
biolms (de Beer et al., 1992; Schmidt and Ahring, 1991)
even at lm thicknesses as high as 2.6 mm (Droste and
Kennedy, 1986). In addition, it has been reported that pH
proles inside anaerobic granules may affect the conversion
rate more than mass transport limitations (de Beer et al.,
1992).
Gonzalez-Gil et al. (2001a) studied the inuence of
external and internal mass transport in anaerobic granular
sludge. For this, kinetic properties of acetate degrading
methanogenic sludge granules of different mean diameters
were assessed at different up-ow velocities. It was
experimentally found that external mass transport resis-
tance can be neglected and that biogas formation does not
inuence the diffusion rates. The substrate uptake could be
explained by biolm (internal) diffusion.
The general approach to the modelling problem starts
with development of the biolm model. These are then
used to nd the substrate ux at the surface of each
granule. The biolm model is then tailored with the ow
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Zone-1 Zone-2
Sludge
Blanket
Clarifier
Fig. 5. Schematic of the two-compartment axial dispersion model
(Singhal et al., 1998).
model to predict the overall performance of the reactor. In
general, the following assumptions were made in develop-
ing anaerobic biolm models:
1. Granules are spherical.
2. Substrate utilization is described by the Monod model.
3. External mass transport is negligible.
4. Density of the biolm is constant throughout the
granule.
5. The relative concentrations of the acidogenic and
methanogenic bacteria are constant throughout an
anaerobic granule. This remains true irrespective of
the location in the reactor from where the granule was
taken.
Many of the reported studies deal with steady-state
conditions. Unsteady state is the most critical situation for
modelling, associated with real-time control strategies. Wu
and Hickey (1997) developed a dynamic model to describe
UASB reactors with methanogenic anaerobic granules.
They assumed that substrate diffuses into the granules
outer layer upto a thickness of 100 mm. At the inner edge of
this layer, the substrate gradient reaches zero. Growth of
acetate utilizing methanogens is neglected due to their low
growth rate.
By applying an acetate mass balance on anaerobic
granules, the granular bed and the clarier, respectively,
the dynamic model equations are obtained.
For anaerobic granules:
qs
qt
D
q
2
s
qx
2

2
R x
@s
@x
_ _
k
m
x
m
s
k
s
s
. (2.4)
Boundary conditions:
1.
D
qs
qx
k
l
s
b
k
l
s
b
; x 0,
2.
qs
qx
0; x d,
where R is the granule radius; k
m
the specic substrate
utilization rate; k
s
the half velocity constant; D the effective
diffusion coefcient; k
l
the mass transfer coefcient; x
m
the
active acetate utilizer biomass within the outer layer d; s the
acetate concentration within the biolm.
A mass balance on a granule bed involves three terms:
substrate entering the reactor, substrate leaving the reactor,
and substrate being taken up by the granules and
subsequently being utilized:
V
b
ds
dt
V
b
Et Q
f
st k
l
A
r
s
b
s0; t. (2.5)
Initial condition: s
b
(0) s
b0
Et
M
f
V
b
T
in
if 0ptpT
in
for impulse;
0 if T
in
p0;
(2.6)
where A
r
is the total granule surface area; T
in
the substrate
injection time for the acetate impulse; k
l
A
r
s
b
s0; t
describes the substrate transferring from the bulk solution
through the liquid boundary layer into the granules. Data
from an acetate impulse experiment was simulated using
these hydraulic- reactiondiffusion models with a good t.
The results indicated that diffusion inside the granules,
reaction kinetics and hydraulic behaviour play important
roles in the performance of a UASB reactor.
Bolle et al. (1986) developed an integrated dynamic
model for the UASB reactor. Their ow model has been
described in Section 2.1. Substrate and biomass balance
were done over the sludge bed and sludge blanket. Thus the
model was developed by integrating the uid ow pattern
in the reactor, the bacterial growth and substrate utiliza-
tion kinetics, and the mass transport between different
compartments and different phases. This model was able to
predict the sludge bed height, the biomass concentration in
the sludge blanket, the short-circuiting ows over the bed
and the blanket, and the efuent COD concentrations as a
function of the hydrodynamic load, COD load, pH and
settler efciency.
Skiadas and Ahring (2002) proposed a model for
UASB reactors based on the cellular automata (CA) concept.
A cellular automation is a simulation, which is discrete in
time, space and state. A CA model usually consists of an
array of compartments similar to the spaces in a game of
naughts and crosses. The CA theory has been applied to
predict the layer structure of the granules, which is high
acidogen and low methanogen concentrations at the outer
granule layers and the reverse at the inner granule layers. It
has also predicted the granule diameter and granule
microbial compositions as functions of the operational
parameters. The other models do not consider the effect of
operational parameters on granule size and composition.
Details on automation models can be found in the excellent
review paper by Wimpenny and Colasanti (1997).
Even though different authors have presented good
experimental t for their models, a unied approach is
lacking. The above kinetic models, in general, assume
external mass transfer to be negligible. Some of the
assumptions may lead to poor predictions. For example,
the assumption of Monod kinetics, spherical shape and
uniform density of the granules may not be true in actual
reactors. The lack of versatile models in the literature
shows that a lot of improvements can be made in future
models. Some of them could be
1. Incorporation of the variation of density within the
biolm/granule.
2. Kinetic expressions, which include inhibition terms.
3. Kinetic expressions, which include the non-uniform pH
prole inside the biolm.
4. Diversity in the bacterial population distribution
inside the granule in terms of the predominant species/
groups.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
3. Proposed models for the structure of the biolm
In an anaerobic reactor, under favourable conditions,
bacterial cells can attach to each other and grow as a
granule. This granule has a 3-D structure. When some inert
carrier particles or surfaces are introduced in the system,
cells grow on the carrier particles/surfaces forming a
biolm. Depending upon the structure of the carrier
material the resulting biolm will have a 2-D or 3-D
structure. Microbial composition and their distribution
inside the granules play an important role in substrate
conversion. Conversion could be limited by the process of
diffusion of the substrate within the biolm as well as the
concentration of biomass bringing about the conversion.
This information is very essential to develop the biolm
model. Many authors have reported that the structure of
the granule/biolm is mainly determined by the substrate
degradation kinetics rather than the geometry with which it
is formed (Batstone et al., 2004; Fang et al., 1995; Guiot et
al., 1992). Batstone et al. (2004) have developed a biolm
structure model which predicts the structure of a 2-D
biolm. This model has been formulated based on
substrate degradation and diffusion kinetics. They exam-
ined four different types of granules obtained from UASB
reactors treating wastewaters from a cannery, a slaughter-
house, and two breweries. The microbial structures of these
granules were assessed by uorescence in situ hybridization
probing with 16S rRNA-directed oligonucleotide probes,
scanning electron microscope and transmission electron
microscope. The biolm model could exactly predict the
structures of different types of granules observed through
the experiments when the model was simulated for the
same operating conditions. This proves that the structure
of the biolm is inuenced by the substrate kinetics and not
by the geometry of the biolm. Van Loosdrecht et al.
(2002) has shown that a 2-D model is sufcient to represent
a 3-D structure. Picioreanu et al. (2001) also has supported
the same. Hence, the different models proposed for the
biolm structure in this section are applicable to both
granules and 2-D biolms.
3.1. Multi-layer model
MacLeod et al. (1990) and Guiot et al. (1992) proposed a
three-layered structure for the bacterial aggregates treating
carbohydrates in a UASB reactor. According to this
model, the microbiological composition of granules is
different in each layer. The inner layer mainly consists of
methanogens that may act as nucleation centres necessary
for the initiation of granule development. H
2
-producing
and H
2
-utilizing bacteria are dominant species in the
middle layer, and a mixed species including rods, cocci and
lamentous bacteria takes the predominant position in the
outermost layer (Fig. 6).
To convert a target organic compound to methane, the
spatial organization of methanogens and other microbial
species in the granules (such as those in a UASB reactor) is
essential. The layered structure of UASB granules is
supported by the works of Arching et al. (1993) and Lens
et al. (1995) with immunological and histological methods.
The dynamic model proposed by Arcand et al. (1994) also
supports this structure. Similar support for the layered
structure is found in reports from Santegoeds et al. (1999)
using microelectrodes. Sekiguchi et al. (1998, 1999) and
Tagawa et al. (2000) also conrmed this structure by
uorescence in situ hybridization using 16S rRNA targeted
oligonucleotides. A distinct layered structure was also
found in the methanogenicsuldogenic aggregates, with
sulfate-reducing bacteria in the outer 50100 mm and
methanogens in the inner part (Sekiguchi et al., 1998).
Unlike the initial multi-layer model proposed by MacLeod
et al. (1990) recent research showed that UASB granules
have large, dark, non-staining centres, in which neither
archaeal nor bacterial signals could be found (Rocheleau
et al., 1999). In fact, the non-staining centre in the UASB
granules might be the result of the accumulation of
metabolically inactive, decaying biomass and inorganic
materials (Sekiguchi et al., 1998).
The importance of ECP in anaerobic granulation has
been observed by Schmidt and Ahring (1994, 1996). They
conclude that ECP may play an important role in building
spatial structure and maintaining the stability of UASB
granules, but are unsure of its contribution to the initiation
of anaerobic granulation. A large quantity of ECP is
unnecessary for making up active granules since it
decreases the porosity and thereby increases the diffusional
resistance for substrate to penetrate the granule. Too much
ECP could even cause deterioration of oc formation
(Schmidt and Ahring, 1996).
3.2. Syntrophic microcolony model
According to the syntrophic microcolony model, a close
synergistic relationship among different microbial groups is
essential for efciently breaking down the complex organic
compounds. In fact, the syntrophic microcolonies provide
the kinetic and thermodynamic requirements for inter-
mediate transference and therefore efcient substrate
conversion (Schink and Thauer, 1988). They state that
the synergistic requirements would drive bacteria to form
granules, in which different species function in a synergistic
way and can easily survive.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Acidogens
Methanothrix
H
2
producing Acetogens and
H
2
consuming organisms
Fig. 6. Three-layered structure of the bacterial aggregates (MacLeod
et al., 1990).
3.3. Non-layered structure model
Contrary to the multi-layer model, anaerobic granules
with non-layered structure have also been reported (Fang et
al., 1995; Grotenhuis et al., 1991; Wu et al., 2001).
There is evidence that a layered structure of the UASB
granules would be developed with carbohydrates and a non-
layered one using substrates having a rate-limiting hydrolytic
or fermentative step (e.g. proteins) (Fang, 2000; Fang et al.,
1995). This is probably due to different initial steps in the
degradation of carbohydrate as compared
to that of proteins. Degradation of carbohydrates to
small molecules is faster than the subsequent degradation
of the intermediates, whereas the initial step in protein
degradation is a rate-limiting step. That is, the protein
degradation step is slower than the steps which follow it.
Results from uorescence in situ hybridization com-
bined with confocal scanning laser microscopy clearly
showed that protein-fed granules possess non-layered
structure with a random distribution of Methanosaeta concilii
(Rocheleau et al., 1999). However, granules, which differ in
their composition in terms of the predominant microbial
species, can still be formed from the same substrate
(Daffonchio et al., 1995; Schmidt and Ahring, 1996).
Based on microscopic examination of the UASB
granules, recently Fang (2000) proposed that the microbial
distribution of the UASB granules strongly depends on the
degradation thermodynamics and kinetics of individual
substrate. Therefore, it appears that different dominating
catabolic pathways may give rise to granules, which are
different in their structure. Spontaneous and sudden
washout of the established granular sludge bed, as a result
of a change in wastewater composition, is a common
problem encountered in the operation of UASB systems.
So far, none of the individual models for the granule
structure can explain this phenomenon. If a factor that is
independent of the wastewater composition can initiate the
formation of UASB granules, a change in the wastewater
composition should not lead to the washout of the entire
granular sludge bed. Thus, it is a reasonable speculation
that there should be a substrate composition-associated
factor that highly contributes to the formation of UASB
granules, but is not yet included in the present models of
granule structure (Liu et al., 2003).
Liu et al. (2003) proposed a general model for anaerobic
granulation in UASB reactors. This model consists of four
steps for granulation.
1. Physical movement to initiate bacterium-to-bacterium
contact or bacterial attachment onto nuclei.
2. Initial attractive forces to keep stable multi-cellular
contacts, e.g. physical, chemical and biochemical forces.
3. Microbial forces to make cell aggregation mature, e.g.
production of ECP.
4. Hydrodynamic shear force shaping 3-D structure of
microbial aggregates.
3.4. Granule cluster structure
Recently the structure of anaerobic granules of an
expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB) reactor was studied
by Gonzalez-Gil et al. (2001b). They found black spherical
granules having numerous whitish spots on their surfaces.
Cross-sectioning these aggregates revealed that the whitish
spots appeared to be white clusters embedded in a black
matrix (Fig. 7). High magnication electron microscopy
showed that the white clusters mainly consisted of acetate
utilizing methanogens (Mathanosaeta spp.) and the black
matrix consisted of syntrophic species and hydrogenotrophic
methanogens (Methanobacterium like and Methaospirillum
like organisms). Fluorescent in situ hybridization using 16s
rRNA probes of crushed granules showed that 70% of the
cells belonged to the archaebacterial domain and 30% to
eubacterial domain. The authors have provided a very logical
explanation as to why a cluster structure, as observed, is
advantageous over a layered structure. Acetate produced in
the black zone is transported by random diffusion in all
directions and thus penetrates the Methanosaeta clusters from
all sides. Hence, substrate depleted zones are circumvented,
which allows the growth of more active biomass per unit area
of aggregate.
Batstone et al. (2004) studied the inuence of substrate
degradation kinetics on the microbial community structure
in granular anaerobic biomass. The granules, which were
grown in the efuent containing soluble as well as
particulate protein, had homogeneous structure. The
primary cause of this structure was assessed through
biolm modelling. They postulate that the particulate
nature of the wastewater and the slow rate of particulate
hydrolysis, rather than the presence of proteins in the
wastewater, was responsible for the homogeneous structure
of the granules. Because solids hydrolysis was rate limiting,
soluble substrate concentrations were very low (below
Monod half-saturation concentration), which caused low
growth rates.
From the above information it can be concluded that
there are two key factors which determine the structure of a
granule (i.e. the organization of the microbial community
within a granule). They are
1. The nature of organic compounds present in the
wastewater.
2. The kinetics of substrate degradation.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Methanosaeta clusters
Zone with syntrophic
eubacteria and
hydrogenotrophic
methanogens
Seed aggregate
Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the architecture of anaerobic
aggregates (Gonzalez-Gil et al., 2001b).
The relative concentrations of different microbial species
within a granule is another important factor required in
developing a biolm model. This seems to depend on the
concentration of the substrate. Since there could be
concentration gradients with respect to substrate concen-
tration within the same reactor, the composition of the
granule in terms of the microbial species may vary from
granule to granule obtained from different parts of the
same reactor. Hence a robust model, capable of incorpor-
ating the structure as well as composition of the granules in
terms of the different microbial communities present, is
required. Such a model for the biolm/granule can be used
in developing reactor models which are more versatile as
well as reproducible with a higher level of accuracy.
4. Models for AFBR
The AFBR uses inert carrier particles to provide
mechanical support for growth of the biolm. These
biogranules are maintained in a uidized state by using
the energy of the inuent liquid. Such a uidized bed
system is free from the channelling problems encountered
in other biolm reactors. A serious operational problem
associated with the AFBR is that when the biolm grows
on the carrier surface, the composite density of the lm-
covered particle decreases, ultimately resulting in the carry
over of the lm-covered particles out of the reactor. Full-
scale application of AFBRs is not common due to lack of
sound design principles. Many attempts have been made to
study the process kinetics and the factors affecting process
performance.
In general, models for AFBRs include the following
elements:
1. A bed uidization model which describes the size and
number of bioparticles per unit uidized bed volume.
2. A biolm model which describes the rate of substrate
conversion per individual granule.
3. A reactor ow model, which links the biolm and bed
uidization models to yield substrate concentration as a
function of axial position within the AFBR.
4.1. Bed uidization model
Hydrodynamic behaviour of carrier supported biogra-
nules plays an important role in designing AFBRs. When
the granules grow, their size, shape and composite density
change. This has an impact on the hydrodynamic
behaviour of the granules. Information on settling and
uidization characteristics, such as uidized bed-height, as
a function of liquid velocity is required for the designing of
AFBRs. Information on uidized-bed height is important
because it establishes the solids residence time and the
specic biolm surface area in the biologically active zone.
The relationships valid for uidization of rigid particles,
readily available in the chemical engineering literature (e.g.
Di Felice, 1995), have to be modied to take into account
the effect of the biolm layer on the rigid particles
(Nicolella et al., 2000).
4.1.1. Terminal settling velocity
The terminal settling velocity of a single spherical
particle in an innite expanse of uid is
u
t

4gr
s
r
l
3C
D
r
l
_ _
0:5
. (4.1)
Depending on the biolm thickness and on the carrier
type, values for the equivalent density of biolm particles
(r
s
) range typically from 1100 to 1500 kg/m
3
. The drag
coefcient C
D
is a function of the particle Reynolds
number dened as
Re
t

r
l
d
s
u
t
m
l
. (4.2)
Biolm particles are in the intermediate ow regime
(1oRe
t
o100) for the vast majority of cases, obtained
when sand (0.51 mm) or carrier materials with densities in
the same range are used as the inert support. In the
intermediate ow regime, the drag coefcient for a smooth,
rigid sphere is (Perry and Green, 1997)
C
D
18:5Re
0:6
t
. (4.3)
This correlation cannot be used for carrier-supported
granules, since they are neither smooth nor rigid. For this
reason, empirical correlations have been suggested for the
estimation of C
D
for biolm particles:
C
D
17:1Re
0:47
t
; 50oRe
t
o100 (4.4)
Hermanovicz and Ganczarczyk (1983),
C
D
36:66Re
0:67
t
; 40oRe
t
o90 (4.5)
Mulcahy and Shieh (1987),
C
D

24
Re
t
21:55Re
0:518
t
; 15oRe
t
o87 (4.6)
Ro and Neethling (1990),
C
D

24
Re
t
14:55Re
0:48
t
; 40oRe
t
o90 (4.7)
Yu and Rittmann (1997),
C
D
29:6Re
0:6
t
; 7oRe
t
o90 (4.8)
Nicolella et al. (1999).
The drag coefcient of the biolm covered carrier
particle is generally found to be more than that of smooth,
rigid spheres. Surface roughness has generally been
considered as the reason for the increase in the drag
coefcient of biolm covered carrier particles (Hermano-
vicz and Ganczarczyk, 1983; Mulcahy and Shieh, 1987).
The above correlations are all empirical since they were
obtained by tting experimental data generated by
different groups, who employed uidized bed systems,
which differed from one another in one or more aspects.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
The deformable nature and surface roughness of the
biolms and the type of carrier particle used play a major
role in determining the hydrodynamic nature of the biolm
covered particle. Hence, bed uidization models should be
able to incorporate those parameters which have an
inuence on the hydrodynamic behaviour of the biolm
covered particles. It may not be feasible to have an
analytical expression for this purpose, given the complexity
and variability inherent to the system. While an empirical
relationship is acceptable, it should be able to cater to a
wider range of operational parameters normally encoun-
tered rather than a narrow set of operating conditions.
4.1.2. Fluidization mechanics
In a uidized bed anaerobic reactor, the lm-covered
particles are kept in a uidized state by the incoming liquid.
The bed porosity and biomass concentration in the bed are
determined by the mechanics of uidization. Hence, a
realistic mathematical expression for the bed uidization is
necessary.
For a bed of uniform spherical particles, the following
relation was proposed (Richardson and Zaki, 1954):
u
s
u
i
e
n
, (4.9)
where u
s
is the supercial liquid velocity, e porosity and
u
i
u
t
10
d=D
, (4.10)
where u
t
is the terminal settling velocity of particle, d the
particle diameter and D the diameter of bed, n is a constant
given by
n 4:65 20d=DRe
t
o0:2, (4.11)
n 4:4 18d=DRe
t
0:03
0:2oRe
t
o1, (4.12)
n 4:4 18d=DRe
t
0:1
1oRe
t
o200, (4.13)
n 4:4Re
t
0:1
200oRe
t
o500, (4.14)
n 2:4500oRe
t
. (4.15)
Whether this equation can be applied directly and in its
entirety to a biological uidized bed is a controversial
subject. Richardson and Zaki have derived the equation for
a bed of uniform spherical particles, which are hard and
have a smooth surface. But the biological lm covered
particles seldom have these characteristics.
Andrews and Tien (1979) related the bed height to the
amount of biomass in the bed. The uidized bed tends to
stratify vertically based on the settling velocity of the
bioparticles. If no stratication is assumed, the bed height
is related to average biolm thickness x by
H
H
c
1 e
c
1 x
1 e
c
1 x
1=3
=1 A x
1=n
. (4.16)
In the case of complete stratication
H
H
c
1 e
c
_
x
max
0
1 x
1 e
gx dx. (4.17)
A practical working expression was derived based on the
above two expressions by Andrews and Tien (1979) as
follows:
H
H
c
1 1 B x, (4.18)
where
B
e
c
D
31 e
c
3 x
0
2 D
1 e
c
1 e
c
_ _

1 3A
2
1 3A
_ _ _ _
D
1 3A
3n
,
where H is the bed height, e the bed porosity, x the lm
volume/clean particle volume, x the mean value of
distribution function of bacterial lm gx, A the buoyant
density of bacterial lm/buoyant density of clean particle, n
the exponent in the RichardsonZaki correlation. The
subscript c denotes the bed of clean particles.
This expression was found to predict the experimental
data well.
Mulcahy and La Motta (1978) have developed specic
correlations to determine u
t
and n for the case of
bioparticles in a uidized bed as follows:
u
t

r
s
r
l
gd
1:67
p
27:5r
0:33
l
m
0:67
_ _
0:75
, (4.19)
n 10:35 Re
0:18
t
40oRe
t
o90, (4.20)
where r
s
is the density of bioparticles; r
l
the liquid density;
m the liquid viscosity.
Ngian and Martin (1980) found that the Richardson and
Zaki correlations gave a satisfactory estimate for u
i
for
small support particles whereas u
i
was 3070% below the
experimentally determined value for larger support parti-
cles. Nicolella et al. (1999) found u
i
to be only 80% of the
unhindered settling velocity. They recommend that the
correlation should be used with caution while determining
the constant u
i
.
In general, the Richardson and Zaki correlation is found
to describe the bed expansion characteristics of a uidized
bed. But the values of the constants n and u
i
seem to be a
function of the property of the biolm covered particles.
The application of these correlations to a full-scale reactor
containing a wide size distribution of biolm covered
particles needs to be veried.
4.1.3. Effect of gas production on hydrodynamics
The effect of gas production on hydrodynamics of
uidized beds is an important factor to be studied for
design and scale-up of AFBRs. Many investigations on the
ow pattern in an AFBR suggested that an axially
dispersed plug ow model can be used for the ow model
(Hirata et al., 2000; Seok and Komisar, 2003). In these
studies the effect of gas production on the ow pattern was
not considered. Diez-Blanco et al. (1995) have studied the
effect of gas production on the hydrodynamic behaviour of
an AFBR. In this study, the bed contraction due to biogas
production in a uidized bed of 6 m height was estimated to
ARTICLE IN PRESS
be less than 6%. Based on this, the investigators considered
the effect of biogas on the hydrodynamic behaviour to be
negligible. In contrast, Bufere et al. (1998a) reported that
the effect of biogas on bed height could be negligible. But
the biogas effervescence affects the phase hold-ups (which
affects the liquid solid contact time) and liquid mixing of
the reactor system. The experimental study of Bufere et al.
(1998b) compared the hydrodynamic behaviour of a gas
producing uidized bed with a classical gas injected three
phase uidized bed reactor. The overall gas hold up was
found to be more in the case of the gas producing uidized
bed than the gas injected one. They also observed axial
variation of phase hold-up.
4.1.4. Bed stratication
Schreyer and Coughlin (1999) reported a stratication of
biolm coated sand particles in a uidized bed reactor.
Stratication can be attributed to the inuence of a biolm
on a particles settling velocity. The presence of a biolm
cover decreases a particles overall density, thereby
increasing its buoyancy. The biolm also increases the
particles size thereby increasing the drag force exerted on
it by the liquid owing upward. The particles in a uidized
bed are expected to segregate according to size and mean
density (Ro and Neethling, 1994; Safferman and Bishop,
1996; Trinet et al., 1991).
Bed stratication has many negative effects on the
performance of the reactor. Thicker biolms pose diffusion
limitation and wash out problems. Hence, to prevent
stratication and to maintain uniform particle size, efforts
have been made to remove excess biolm from larger
particles (Ruggeri et al., 1994; Safferman and Bishop, 1996;
Shieh et al., 1981; Trinet et al., 1991). Examples of such
efforts include external sand-biomass separators (screens),
operation of an impeller at the top of the bed and internal
screen cleaning devices. Many researchers have examined
the effect of shear on biolm and biolm detachment rate,
mainly as a tool to control biolm thickness (Chang and
Rittmann, 1988; Chang et al., 1991; Gjaltema et al., 1997;
Peyton and Characklis, 1992; Rittmann, 1982; Safferman
and Bishop, 1996; Stewart, 1993; Trinet et al., 1991).
Biolm detachment rate appears to depend on turbulence
and particle concentration; an increase in either increases
detachment rate. Biolm has been observed to be relatively
smoother and more homogeneous under conditions of high
shear (i.e., high liquid velocity) than under low shear
conditions (Lau, 1995; Zhang and Bishop, 1994). The study
by Schreyer and Coughlin (1999) showed that the
introduction of a thinner to increase the shear resulted in
a non-stratied bed.
Bed stratication could occur due to differences in the
biolm thickness or differences in the carrier particle size or
both. But bed stratication is most common when carrier
particles are not of uniform size. A completely mixed bed
(i.e. no stratication) was observed by Andrews and Tien
(1979) when uniform carrier particles were used.
4.2. Kinetic and reactor sub-models
Substrate removal within a biological lm of uniform
thickness attached to a spherical particle is described by
D
r
2
d
dr
r
2
ds
dr
_ _
R
t
, (4.21)
where D is the effective diffusion coefcient of substrate
within the biological lm; r the radial coordinate measured
from the centre of the support particle; s the substrate
concentration within the biolm and R
t
the intrinsic rate of
substrate consumption per unit volume of biological lm.
It is generally accepted by many authors that substrate
removal kinetics can be modelled using the microbial
growth model proposed by Monod. Many researchers
(Grady, 1982; Henze and Harremoes, 1983; Iwai and
Kitao, 1994) have suggested that depending on the values
of the model constants, reaction rate can be represented by
rst- or zero-order kinetics. For AFBRs, many authors
demonstrated that zero-order kinetics provide an adequate
description of substrate consumption (i.e. considering the
acidogenesis and methanogenesis phases together) (La
Motta and Patricio, 1996; Mulcahy and La Motta, 1978;
Mulcahy et al., 1980; Shieh et al., 1982).
For zero-order reaction, the reaction rate term is
R
t
rk
0
. (4.22)
The solution of Eq. (4.21) for complete substrate
penetration inside the biolm and for the partial penetra-
tion has been presented by Mulcahy et al. (1980).
For fully penetrated biolm:
Observed rate
4
3
prk
0
r
3
p
r
3
m
. (4.23)
For partial substrate penetration:
Observed rate 1:76rk
0
1:45
r
3
p
r
3
m
1:9
s
0:45
b
r
3
p
r
3
m
1:9
r
1:8
p
D
0:45
.
(4.24)
r
m
is the radius of support particle; r
p
the radius of
biological particle; s
b
the concentration of substrate in the
bulk of the liquid within the uidized bed.
A simple plug ow model was used to describe dissolved
substrate transport in the axial direction in a uidized bed
reactor (Mulcahy and La Motta, 1978):
U
ds
b
dz
R
v
0. (4.25)
With the boundary condition
z 0; s
b
s
0
where U is the average liquid velocity in the longitudinal
direction; s
b
the substrate concentration in the bulk of the
liquid; s
0
the inuent substrate concentration; R
v
the rate
of reaction.
For fully substrate penetrated biolm, the concen-
tration prole along the reactor was given by Mulcahy
ARTICLE IN PRESS
et al. (1980) as
s
e
s
0
rk
0
V
m
Q
r
p
r
m
_ _
3
1
_ _
, (4.26)
where s
e
is the concentration of substrate in the efuent
stream. La Motta and Patricio (1996) tested this model by
conducting experiments. This test showed a reasonable
agreement between the zero-order kinetic model with
complete substrate penetration and the experimental data.
Hirata et al. (2000) used a different approach to evaluate
the kinetic parameters of the biochemical reactions taking
place in a three phase uidized bed reactor. Using the
substrate balance at steady state and assuming Monod
kinetics, an equation relating the substrate consumption
rate to substrate concentration (expressed as Biochemical
Oxygen Demand, BOD
5
) and total biolm surface area was
established. The following assumptions were made in
formulating the model:
1. Reactor system is completely mixed.
2. Total organic carbon (TOC), which is expressed in terms
of BOD
5
, is the only rate-limiting substrate. Other
substrates are in excess.
3. The reaction follows Monod kinetics and substrate
inhibition is negligible.
4. Reaction occurs at constant volume.
Performing a substrate balance at steady state yielded
Fs
in
s
ss

1
Y
x=s
r
x
V, (4.27)
where F is the inlet ow rate, V the reactor volume, r
x
the
biolm growth rate, Y
x/s
the yield coefcient mass of
biomass formed/mass of substrate consumed, S
ss
the
steady-state value of the rate limiting substrate concentra-
tion inside the reactor, S
in
the inlet substrate concentration.
If the reaction followed Monod kinetics, then the proposed
rate equation was
r
x
mx
m
max
s
ss
k
m
s
ss
_ _
x, (4.28)
where m is the specic growth rate, m
max
is the maximum
specic growth rate and k
m
the Monod constant.
Substituting r
x
into the substrate balance equation
Fs
in
s
ss

1
Y
x=s
m max s
ss
k
m
s
ss
_ _
V
x
R
t
, (4.29)
V
x
r
b
ds
b
, (4.30)
where r
b
is the biomass dry density, d the effective biolm
thickness and s
b
the total biolm surface area. The total
surface area was computed as follows:
s
b
pD
ave
2
N, (4.31)
where N is the total number of particles inside the reactor
and D
ave
is the average particle diameter. Modifying
Eq. (4.29) gave
R
t
K
s
b
s
ss
k
m
s
ss
_ _
, (4.32)
where K r
b
dm
max
=Y
x=s
:
Transforming the above equation using Lineweaver
Burke linearization,
s
b
R
t
k
m
K
1
s
ss
1
K
. (4.33)
Plotting s
b
/R
t
versus 1/s
ss
gave a straight line with slope
k
m
/K and intercept 1/K. Using the above plot for the
known value of inlet substrate concentration, the steady-
state substrate concentration could be found.
Bufere et al. (1998c) studied the biolm activity along
the reactor height. They developed a biolm model
assuming
1. Homogeneous biolm of uniform thickness.
2. Spherical support media of uniform size.
3. Internal mass transfer described by Ficks law.
4. Liquid phase perfectly mixed with homogeneous con-
centration.
5. No external mass transfer limitation.
The mass balance for a substrate s in the biolm is
expressed by
D
r
2
d
dr
r
2
ds
dr
_ _

i
Vs
i
. (4.34)
The boundary conditions are
r r
p
; s s
0
,
r r
c
;
ds
dr
0,
V
s

x
s
Y
x=s
m
max
s
k
s
s
_ _
. (4.35)
The right-hand side of (4.34) is the sum of all substrate
uptake rates minus the sum of all substrate production
rates.
In the liquid phase, the mass balance for one substrate s
is given by
V
L
ds
dt
Qs
in
s DA
p

ds
dr
rr
p
_ _
, (4.36)
where s is the concentration of component s; s
in
the inlet
concentration of s; Q the input ow rate; r
p
the bioparticle
radius; r the radial distance measured from bioparticle
centre; D the diffusivity of component s in the biolm; m
max
the maximum specic growth rate for s-utilizing bacteria;
Vs
i
the reaction rate of s through reaction I; A
p
the
exchange area of the bioparticles; V
L
the liquid phase
volume; x
s
the s-utilizing bacteria concentration; Y
x=s
the
biomass yield factor for s-utilizing bacteria.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
The substrate gradient at the surface of a bioparticle in
Eq (4.36) is taken from the biolm model. The biomass
composition used in this simulation was averaged from
several studies such as the modelling work of Mosey (1983)
and the experimental investigation of Sanchez et al. (1994)
(Table 1).
A set of batch experiments was conducted using
bioparticles taken from different heights. Glucose, acetate
and propionate were used as substrates. Substrate con-
sumption with time was monitored. Simulation results were
found to give reasonable t for experimentally observed
values. The biomass composition (i.e. the relative concen-
tration of acidogens and methanogens) within the biolm
was manipulated to t the experimental results. This
indicated the crucial role of biomass composition in
substrate kinetics. The specic activity of the biolm was
also measured. The following were the ndings:
1. Thicker lm bioparticles were found on the top of the
reactor and thinner in the bottom.
2. Glucotrophic activity decreased from bottom to top and
methanogenic activity increased from bottom to top.
3. This indicates the change in biomass composition with
biolm size.
Bufere et al. (1998a) developed a model for AFBRs
based on total carbon removal kinetics. They considered
the effects of gas production in their model which were of
two kinds:
1. Gas production modied the degree of axial mixing,
which is responsible for the establishment of a concen-
tration gradient in the reactor.
2. Gas production is responsible for bed contraction,
which reduces the contact between the liquid and
bioparticles.
The TOC removal kinetics were found to be in good
agreement with the Monod model. The TOC uptake rate
can be expressed by
r
TOC
r
max
S
k
s
S
, (4.37)
where S is the TOC concentration in the reactor (the
reactor is assumed to be perfectly mixed). Parameters r
max
and k
s
were found by plotting the inverse of r
TOC
and 1/S.
Bed contraction was found to reduce the liquidsolid
contact by 1025%:
e
s
e
s0
1 0:045U
0:4
g
. (4.38)
Experimental results of gas hold-up in the reactor gave
the following correlation:
e
g
13 1:2d
0:168
p
U
0:7
g
. (4.39)
An axially dispersed plug ow model was found to
describe the liquid mixing in the reactor. The mass balance
of the reactor was given by the equation
1
Pe
d
2
s
dx
2

ds
dx
Da
s
l s
(4.40)
with the following notations:
x
z
H
; s
s
k
s
; Da
r
max
k
s
He
l
U
l
; and Pe
U
l
H
e
l
E
zl
.
The axial dispersion co-efcient was found experimen-
tally using the tracer injection method. The experimental
results were found to t the correlation of Muroyama et al.
(from Fan, 1989) very well:
D
c
U
l
e
l
z
1:01U
0:738
l
U
0:167
g
D
0:583
c
, (4.41)
where d
p
is the particle diameter; D
c
the column diameter;
E
zl
the axial dispersion coefcient; g the gravitational
acceleration; H the bed height; k
s
the half-saturation
concentration in Monod expression; r
max
the maximal
reaction rate in Monod expression; s the substrate
concentration; U
g
the gas supercial velocity; U
l
the liquid
supercial velocity; U
t
the terminal velocity of particles; x
the reduced bed height; e
s
the solid hold up; e
s
0
the solid
hold-up in the liquidsolid uidized bed; e
g
the gas hold-up.
Thus by knowing hold-ups (from Eq. (4.38) and (4.39))
and E
z
(from Eq. (4.41)), the performance Eq. (4.40) was
solved. The model results were found to give a more
realistic picture.
4.2.1. Stratied biolm models
A stratied biolm model was presented by Canovas-
Diaz and Howell (1988). The anaerobic biolm was
modelled as two distinct layers with the inner layer
consisting of methanogens and the outer layer consisting
of acidogens. The substrate is converted to acids in the
outer layers, and is subsequently converted to methane by
the bacteria in the inner layer.
The differential equations for substrate uptake in the two
layers are:
D
1
d
2
G
dz
2
k
1
x
1
, (4.42)
D
2
d
2
F
dz
2
ak
1
x
1

k
2
x
2
1 F=k
i
, (4.43)
where D
1
, D
2
is the diffusivities of substrate through the
acidogenic and methanogenic layer. G, F the concentration
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Table 1
Biomass composition of an anaerobic granule
Type of bacteria Substrates for the
bacteria
%Distribution in the
granule
Acidogens Glucose 65
Acetogens Butyrate 2.5
Propionate 2.0
Methanogens Acetate 7.0
H
2
utilizing bacteria Hydrogen 23.5
of glucose and fatty acids, k
1
the zero-order kinetic
constant with respect to sugar uptake and k
1
the zero-
order rate constant k
2
the kinetic constant for VFA uptake;
k
i
the inhibition constant; z the distance through biolm;
x
1
, x
2
the mass volume densities of acidogens and
methanogens.
The authors also explain why a stratied biolm is
advantageous as compared to an un-stratied biolm.
When the bulk VFA concentration is high, in the case of an
unstratied lm, methanogens will face VFA inhibition. In
the case of stratied biolm, the inhibition level is
minimized by the presence of the outer layer.
Droste and Kennedy (1986) have given a model for
sequential substrate utilization in a biolm. This model
assumes that no interactions occur between the two groups
of microorganisms that will cause kinetic or diffusion
parameters to change from values associated with indivi-
dual cultures of each group. Unstratied biolm and
Monod-type kinetics were assumed.
The governing differential equations are:
D
1
d
2
s
1
dx
2

k
1
x
1
s
1
K
1
s
1
, (4.44)
D
2
d
2
s
2
dx
2

k
2
x
2
s
2
K
2
s
2

Yk
1
x
1
s
1
K
1
s
1
, (4.45)
where D is the diffusivity; k the maximum specic reaction
velocity; K the half-velocity constant; s the substrate
concentration; x the distance; x the active microorganism
concentration; Y the acetate yield coefcient (g acetate/g
primary substrate).
From numerical analysis of the governing equation, it
was found that the production of intermediate substrate in
the biolm increased the conversion of primary substrate to
ultimate product. The increase was not always signicant.
To summarize, two ways of approaching the problem of
modelling substrate uptake kinetics are explained in this
section. In the rst one, TOC is considered as the rate-
limiting substrate. In this case biomass composition,
individual reaction steps and substrate diffusion limitations
are not considered. The parameters involved in the model
are evaluated by tting the model to the experimental
results. Even though this approach seems to be simple, it
does not have a sound theoretical explanation and remains
empirical. In the second approach, the kinetic model is
developed considering the individual substrate kinetics,
biolm composition and diffusion limitations. This seems
to be a more realistic approach. Ultimately the validity of
these models has to be veried for large-scale reactors.
5. The EGSB reactor
The EGSB reactor comes under the family of UASB
reactors. The use of efuent recirculation in a UASB (or a
high height/diameter ratio), resulted in the EGSB reactor
(Seghezzo et al., 1998). Here also, the biomass is present in
a granular form. The higher upow liquid velocity keeps
the granular sludge bed in an expanded condition
(Zoutberg and Frankin, 1996). Reports on models for
EGSB reactors are very scarce. But based on the knowl-
edge of UASB reactors and AFBR models, modelling of
EGSB reactor can be attempted.
1. The biolm model is similar to the UASB reactor
biolm model. The composition and structure of the
biolm is expected to be inuenced by the nature as well
as concentration of the substrate. However, there is no
reason to believe that this inuence will be signicantly
different from what has been observed for biogranules
in the UASB reactor (Section 3.4). The only signicant
difference will be the reduced level of the substrate
concentration gradient along the height of the reactor
due to the effect of recirculation.
2. The liquid ow pattern could be expected to be
somewhere between completely mixed and dispersed
plug ow, the exact pattern depending on the recycle
ratio employed. However, any ow model employed will
need validation through tracer studies or any other
suitable experimental studies.
3. A uidization model which can predict the variation of
bed height with upow liquid velocity has to be
developed based on experimentation.
Tailoring of the above three models could result in a
complete model for an EGSB reactor.
6. The anaerobic biolter
The anaerobic lter is an anaerobic packed-bed biolm
reactor. Though both upow as well as down ow
congurations are possible, the upow mode of operation
is more common. The biomass forms a lm on the surface of
the packing media. The kinetic model of such a biolm
reactor has been studied quite extensively (Chang and
Rittmann, 1987; Hamoda and Kennedy, 1987; Meunier
and Williamson, 1981; Rittmann and McCarty, 1980a;
Rittmann and McCarty, 1980b). Fig. 8 illustrates the ideal
biolm having uniform microbial density (X
f
) and uniform
thickness (L
f
). When the substrate utilization follows the
Monod relationship, the biolm model incorporating the
external mass transfer and internal simultaneous diffusion
and reaction can be derived as follows (Huang and Jih, 1997):
d
2
S
f
dZ
2

kX
f
S
f
D
f
K
s
S
f
. (4.46)
Boundary conditions:
D
f
dS
f
dZ

D
s
L
S
b
S
s
J at Z 0,
dS
f
dZ
0 at Z L
f
,
where S is the biolm substrate concentration, Z is the
distance normal to the biolm surface, D is the diffusivity, D
s
ARTICLE IN PRESS
is the axial dispersion coefcient, X
f
is the microbial density
in the biolm, K
s
is the Monod constant, k is the maximum
specic substrate utilization rate, J is the substrate ux.
Here, the subscripts f and b denote biolm and bulk
liquid, respectively.
The greatest difculty in applying the model is to
measure the biolm thickness (L
f
). Rittmann and McCarty
(1978) and Suidan (1986) imposed another boundary
condition to the model, i.e.S
f
0 at Z L
f
This model is called the deep-biolm model. Another
reported approach for indirectly estimating the steady-state
biolm thickness was by assuming that the biomass growth
equals the biomass decay and/or shear losses in biolm
reactors. For instance, Rittmann and McCarty (1980a)
computed the steady-state biolm thickness using para-
meters of the substrate ux, microbial growth, biomass
decay and sloughing rate (Eq. (4.47)). The model obtained,
called the steady-state biolm model, is given by
L
f

JY
bX
f
, (4.47)
where Y is the biomass yield coefcient and b is the
sloughing rate.
The models mentioned above have been experimentally
veried or simulated using the results reported in the
literature (Chang and Rittmann, 1987; Liu et al., 1991;
Meunier and Williamson, 1981; Rittmann and McCarty,
1980b, Wang et al., 1987). The kinetic parameters included
in the models were either determined by independent
experiments or obtained from published papers. The liquid
ow regime was assumed to be completely mixed or plug-
ow with axial dispersion (dispersion coefcients were
calculated using empirical equations). An axial dispersion
model coupled with deep-biolm kinetics was used by
Huang and Jih (1997). The experimental results and the
calculated values showed good agreement. The tracer study
of Huang and Jih (1997) conrmed that the ow regime is
close to completely mixed.
7. The unied model for anaerobic digestion (ADM1)
The IWA Anaerobic Digestion Modeling Task Group
developed a generalized anaerobic digestion model (Bat-
stone et al., 2002). The biochemical as well as physico-
chemical processes were included in the model. The
biochemical steps include (i) disintegration from homo-
geneous particulates to carbohydrates, proteins and lipids,
(ii) the extracellular hydrolysis of these particulate sub-
strates to sugars, amino acids, and long chain fatty acids
(LCFA), respectively, (iii) acidogenesis from sugars and
amino acids to volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and hydrogen
(iv) acetogenesis of LCFA and VFAs to acetate and (v)
separate methanogenesis steps from acetate and hydrogen/
CO
2
. The physico-chemical equations describe ion associa-
tion and dissociation, and gasliquid transfer. The inhibi-
tion kinetics have been incorporated in the biochemical
process.
7.1. The extension of ADM1 to biolm reactors
The ADM1 model gives a unied approach to anaerobic
digestion. This model was successfully implemented for a
CSTR (Batstone et al., 2002). ADM1 was developed for a
suspended cell system, where there is no mass transfer
limitation for movement of the substrate from the bulk
liquid phase to the cells. On the other hand, in biolm
reactors, the rate of transport of substrate from the bulk
liquid to the microbial population is controlled by diffusion
of substrate within the biolm. Hence to extend the ADM1
for biolm systems, the substrate utilization kinetics of the
single cell system must be replaced with a biolm model.
The biolm models for different biolm reactor systems
have been extensively reported in the previous sections. In
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Sampling port
Inlet
Outlet
Liquid
Phase
S
b

Biofilm
Carrier
material
Gas phase
S
s

L
f
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of an anaerobic lter showing the differential section.
a similar way the reactor ow system of ADM1 (i.e. CSTR
system) also has to be modied. In the case of a UASB
reactor, the reactor ow system will have a combination of
CSTRs and a plug ow system as explained in Section 2.1.
AFBR and EGSB reactors will have axially dispersed plug
ow systems as shown in Sections 4.2 and 5. A biolter
ow system is similar to that of ADM1. The physico-
chemical process system of ADM1 can be directly extended
to the biolm reactor systems. Thus, the modication of
the biochemical processes and the reactor ow system of
ADM1 with that of the biolm system could result in a
unied model for biolm reactors.
8. Summary and conclusions
Development of biolm reactors has made anaerobic
treatment an attractive option to treat wastewaters. For
optimum design and scale-up of these reactors, mathema-
tical models are required. In this paper, various parameters
affecting the performance of anaerobic biolm reactors
were reviewed. The important parameters are:
1. the effect of hydrodynamics/ow pattern on reactor
performance;
2. the mass transfer within granules/biolms;
3. the kinetic effects;
4. the structure and composition of biogranules.
In UASB reactors the different zones are idealized with
different ow patterns. Sludge blankets and sludge beds are
mostly described by a CSTR ow pattern with bypass. The
clarier zone is described by the axially dispersed plug ow
model. The application of these models for actual full-scale
reactors is yet to be studied because these models do not
consider the existence of non-ideal conditions in full-scale
reactors. These non-ideal conditions may include non-
existence of different zones, improper ow distribution and
dead zones.
Reactor models for UASB reactors consider many
questionable assumptions such as spherical granules,
steady-state operation, description of substrate degrada-
tion by simple Monod kinetics, no substrate/product
inhibition and the effect of pH. Further studies are
required to develop models which do not depend too
much on these assumptions for their development.
In developing kinetic models for both UASBs and
AFBRs, granule structure plays an important role. Studies
show that the structure of the granules and bacterial
composition depends on the type of efuent being treated.
Various theories are provided to support the layered and
un-layered structures of the granules. The variation of
granule structure within the same reactor remains un-
explained as of today. Incorporation of this variation in the
models poses a challenge for the modellers.
The hydrodynamics and bed expansion characteristics of
AFBRs have been reported in the literature. It is generally
found that the drag co-efcient of a biolm covered
granule is more than that of a rigid particle of the same
size. The experimental evidence published so far (Andrews
and Tien, 1979; Hermanovicz and Cheng, 1990; Mulcahy
and Shieh, 1987; Ngian and Martin, 1980; Nicolella et al.,
1999) suggests that the uidized bed expansion pattern is
observed to follow the Richardson and Zaki correlation.
The studies show that the expansion index can be
calculated through the Richardson and Zaki correlation
(Nicolella et al., 1999). But the parameter u
i
was found to
be 3080% of the experimentally determined u
t
value.
All these studies were conducted with uniform biogranule
sizes.
Many authors (Ro and Neethling, 1994; Safferman and
Bishop, 1996; Schreyer and Coughlin, 1999; Trinet et al.,
1991) observed that the bed becomes stratied due to the
presence of granules with different biolm thicknesses. In
such a context, the application of the Richardson and Zaki
correlation remains dubious. Hence models considering
expansion characteristics of stratied beds are necessary
for proper process design.
Ideal plug ow and CSTR models were used to describe
the ow pattern inside a laboratory scale AFBR. The use
of this assumption in large scale reactors has to be
investigated. Similar to UASB reactors, while developing
kinetic models for AFBRs, the inuence of pH, substrate
and product inhibition, validity of Monod kinetics,
microbial composition and location and sphericity of the
granules have to be studied. In the case of anaerobic lters,
the deep-biolm model seems to represent the laboratory
scale reactors. But, the assumption of the substrate
concentration reaching zero at the lter media has to be
veried in the large-scale reactor. A realistic model
considering all the above-mentioned short comings is
necessary for proper design and scale up of such reactors.
The integration of the ow model and biolm model for
these biolm reactors with ADM1 can result in a robust
model, which can be a tool for design purposes.
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