Glossary

cells Acetylcholine Acetylcholinesterase Actin Action potential Cells in the islets of Langerhans that release glucagon in response to low blood glucose levels. A neurotransmitter (transmitter substance) found in cholinergic synapses. An enzyme in the synaptic cleft that breaks down the transmitter substance acetylcholine. A protein found in muscle cells. It is the main component of the thin filaments. A brief reversal of the resting potential across the cell surface membrane of a neurone. All action potentials have a value of !"m#. $he enzyme found inside cells% associated with hormone receptors% that converts A$& to cA'&. Incoming or leading towards. An alternative version of a gene. (efers to the fact that a neurone either conducts an action potential or it does not. $ransplantation of organs between individuals of the same species% for e)ample transplantation of a human heart into another human. $he making of multiple copies of the same short section of *+A. $he process of &C( is used in automatic amplification of *+A sections. *rugs that mimic the action of steroid hormones and increase muscle growth. $ype of metabolism, biochemical reactions that synthesise large molecules from smaller molecules. $his re-uires energy.A$&. /orking against each other in a pair. $he term used to describe hydrogen0bond formation between complementary base pairs when sections of single0stranded *+A or (+A 1oin together. Annealing is seen when complementary sticky ends 1oin and where *+A probes attach to a complementary *+A section.

Adenyl cyclase Afferent Allele All or nothing Allotransplantation

Amplification (DNA)

Anabolic steroids Anabolism

Antagonistic Annealing

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Apical dominance Apoptosis Ascending limb Asepsis

$he hormone made in the hypothalamus and released from the pituitary gland that acts on the collecting ducts in the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of water into the blood. $he growing apical bud at the tip of the shoot inhibits growth of lateral buds further down the shoot. &rogrammed cell death. An orderly process by which cells die after they have undergone the ma)imum number of divisions. $he limb of the loop of 2enle that carries fluid from the medulla towards the corte) of the kidney. Literally means without contamination. In biotechnology% this refers to lack of contamination by foreign% unwanted microorganisms. Any techni-ues.manipulations of e-uipment or materials that are designed to prevent contamination by foreign and unwanted microorganisms. A region of the cerebral corte) where the information in the form of impulses from sensory areas is made sense of by comparison with previous e)perience. 'olecule (nucleotide derivative) found in all living cells and involved in energy transfer. /hen it is hydrolysed energy is released. 3nzyme associated with stalked particles in mitochondria and chloroplasts. It catalyses the 1oining of A*& and inorganic phosphate to make A$&. See photosynthometer. $he system of motor neurones that controls the non0conscious actions of the body. $he autonomic system controls the actions of involuntary muscles and glands 4rganism that makes its own food using simple inorganic molecules% such as carbon dio)ide and water% and energy. &hotoautotrophs (plants% some protoctists and some bacteria) use light as the source of energy. Chemoautotrophs (some bacteria) use chemical energy. Cells in the islets of Langerhans that release insulin in response to high blood glucose levels. A layer of connective tissue 5 mostly collagen 5 that holds an epithelium in place. A culture of microorganisms that takes place in a single

Aseptic techniques

Association area

AT

AT synthase

Audus microburette Autonomic ner!ous system Autotroph

" cells #asement membrane #atch culture

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

fermentation. &roducts are separated from the mi)ture at the end of the fermentation process. #ilirubin #iodi!ersity #iofortified 4ne of the waste products produced from breaking down haemoglobin. $he number and variety of living things to be found in the world% an ecosystem or habitat. Any food substance in which a particularly valuable nutrient is in higher than usual levels. Golden Rice6 is biofortified with the accumulation of vitamin A. 7se of microorganisms to remove waste products from a location or substance. $he most important e)ample is waste water (sewage) treatment. 7se of microorganisms or biochemical reactions to generate useful products. &air of synapsed (1oined) homologous chromosomes during prophase and metaphase of meiosis I. $he cup0shaped end of a nephron tubule. A mass of undifferentiated plant cells formed by meristem tissue e)tracted from the plant and grown in tissue culture. (egion in the medulla oblongata of the brain that controls heart rate. $he ma)imum population size that can be maintained over a period of time in a particular habitat. $ype of metabolism, biochemical reactions that produce small molecules by hydrolysis of larger molecules. $he result of all the chemical reactions taking place in the cell cytoplasm. $he brain and spinal cord. It has overall control over the coordination of the nervous system. $he flow of hydrogen ions (protons) through A$& synthase enzymes. $he force of this flow allows the production of A$&. 4ccurs across the thylakoid membranes during the light0 dependent stage of photosynthesis. Also occurs across the inner mitochondrial membrane during o)idative phosphorylation (in respiration). See autotrophs.

#ioremediation

#iotechnology #i!alent #o%man&s capsule 'allus 'ardio!ascular centre 'arrying capacity 'atabolism 'ell metabolism 'entral ner!ous system 'hemiosmosis

'hemoautotrophs

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

'hiasmata (sing) chiasma) 'hi*squared ( 2) test

$he points where non0sister chromatids within a bivalent 1oin% where they cross over. 8tatistical test that can be carried out on data that are in categories. It enables the investigator to determine how closely an observed set of data corresponds to the e)pected data. 4rganelles% in plant and some protoctist cells% where photosynthesis occurs. A 1unction between neurones that uses acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter. A hormone released by the cells of an embryo. A chart produced when substances are separated by movement of a solvent along a permeable material such as paper or gel. (andom change to the structure of a chromosome. $here are different types, inversion (a section of chromosome turns through 9:";)< deletion (a part is lost)< translocation (a piece of one chromosome becomes attached to another)< non0 dis1unction (homologous chromosomes fail to separate properly at meiosis 9 or chromatids fail to separate at meiosis =< if this happens to a whole set of chromosomes% polyploidy results). $he shuffling of alleles in prophase 9 is not an e)ample of mutation. A monophyletic ta)onomic group< that is% a single ancestor and all its descendants. A method of classifying living organisms based on their evolutionary ancestry. A form of learning in which two unrelated stimuli are applied to an animal% one a >normal response? (for e)ample salivation in the presence of food) another unrelated (for e)ample the ringing of a bell). After repeated e)posure to both stimuli together the animal will eventually respond with the normal response to the unrelated stimulus. A culture of microorganisms set up in a reaction vessel and then allowed to grow without the addition of nutrients or the removal of products or wastes. A characteristic where both alleles contribute to the phenotype. A coenzyme that carries acetate from the link reaction of

'hloroplasts 'holinergic synapse 'horionic gonadotrophin 'hromatogram

'hromosome mutation

'lade 'ladistics 'lassical conditioning

'losed culture

'odominant 'oen+yme A

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

respiration to @rebs cycle. 'oen+ymes 'olecules that help enzymes carry out o)idation or reduction reactions. $hey work like shuttles% carrying atoms or molecules from one enzyme0controlled reaction to another. 'any important coenzymes are involved in respiration and photosynthesis. In respiration% many coenzymes are concerned with removing hydrogen atoms from substrates. All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time% and who can interact with each other. $he comparison of *+A se-uences coding for the production of proteins.polypeptides and regulatory se-uences in the genomes of different organisms of different species. Comparisons include the search for se-uences that make some organisms pathogenic whilst related organisms are not. A struggle between individuals for resources (like food or water) that are not present in amounts ade-uate to satisfy the needs of all the individuals who depend on those resources. Aenes that interact together to govern the e)pression of a single characteristic. Bacterial cells can 1oin together and pass plasmid *+A from one bacterial cell to another. $his process can take place between bacteria of different species and is of concern in terms of passing plasmid0located genes for antibiotic resistance. 'aintenance of biodiversity% including diversity between species% genetic diversity within species% and maintenance of a variety of habitats and ecosystems. Living organisms that feed on other living organisms. A culture of microorganisms set up in a reaction vessel to which substrates are added and from which products are removed as the fermentation process continues. Aenetic variation% also called -uantitative variation% where there is a wide range of phenotypic variation within the population. $here are no distinct categories. It is controlled by many genes. 3)amples include height in humans. Cutting a tree trunk close to the ground to encourage new growth. &roteins in the cell surface membrane that allow the facilitated diffusion of simple ions to be accompanied by transport of a

'ommunity 'omparati!e genome mapping

'ompetition

'omplementary genes 'on-ugation (in bacteria)

'onser!ation

'onsumers 'ontinuous culture

'ontinuous !ariation

'oppicing 'o*transporter proteins

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

larger molecule such as glucose. 'otyledons Cood store in seeds of dicotyledonous plants. In some plants% these appear above the soil after germination and act as the first leaves. In voluntary muscle% the 1oining of a myosin head group to an actin thin filament in the presence of calcium ions. /here non0sister chromatids e)change alleles during prophase I of meiosis. Cell0signalling molecules. $he removal of the amine group from an amino acid to produce ammonia. 4rganisms that feed on dead organic matter% releasing molecules% minerals and energy that then become available to other living organisms in that ecosystem. (emoval of hydrogen atoms from a substrate molecule. $he loss of polarisation across a membrane 5 when the membrane loses its resting potential. $he limb of the loop of 2enle that carries fluid from the corte) towards the medulla of the kidney. Conversion of to)ic substances% such as alcohol% to less to)ic substances. A condition in which the patient is unable to control blood glucose levels. $reatment for patients with kidney failure% in which metabolic wastes and e)cess salts and water are removed from the blood. $he fluid used in dialysis< it consists of a comple) solution that matches the composition of body fluids. A partially permeable membrane that separates the dialysis fluid from the patient?s blood in a dialysis machine. 'ovement of molecules down their concentration gradient. It may be through a partially permeable membrane. 2ydrolyse a large molecule to smaller molecules. 2aving two sets of chromosomes (eukaryotic cell or organism). *enoted by =n.

'ross*bridge 'rossing o!er 'yto/ines Deamination Decomposers

Dehydrogenation Depolarisation Descending limb Deto0ification Diabetes mellitus Dialysis

Dialysis fluid Dialysis membrane Diffusion Digest Diploid

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

Discontinuous !ariation Also called -ualitative variation. Aenetic variation where there are distinct phenotypic categories. 7sually controlled by one gene. 3)amples include cystic fibrosis% shape of earlobes in humans and height in pea plants. Distal con!oluted tubule DNA ligase $he coiled portion of the nephron between the loop of 2enle and the collecting duct. An enzyme capable of catalysing a condensation reaction between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar group of another. $his results in *+A backbone molecules being 1oined together and is an essential part of recombinant *+A procedures. A change to the *+A structure. 'ay be substitution of one base pair for another< inversion of a base triplet< deletion of a base pair or triplet of bases (on both strands)< addition of a base pair or triplet of bases (on both strands)< or a triple nucleotide repeat 5 a stutter. Characteristic in which the allele responsible is e)pressed in the phenotype even in those with heterozygous genotypes. Aene that codes for a dopamine receptor molecule. All the living organisms and all the non0living components in a specific habitat% and their interactions. 4rganisms that rely on e)ternal sources of heat and behavioural activities to regulate their body temperature. 4utgoing or leading away from. Chemicals that accept electrons from another compound. $hey are reduced while acting as o)idising agents. 'olecules that transfer electrons. A method used to separate molecules in a mi)ture based on their size. $he method relies on the substances within the mi)ture having a charge. /hen a current is applied% charged molecules are attracted to the oppositely charged electrode. $he smallest molecules travel fastest through the stationary phase (a gel0based medium) and in a fi)ed period of time will travel furthest% so the molecules separate out by size. $he method is particularly important in separating *+A fragments of different sizes in *+A se-uencing and profiling (fingerprinting) procedures. A gland that secretes hormones directly into blood capillaries.

DNA mutation

Dominant DRD4 2cosystem 2ctotherms 2fferent 2lectron acceptors 2lectron carriers 2lectrophoresis

2ndocrine gland

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

2ndocytosis

$he transport of large molecules or fluids into the cytoplasm of the cell% by the invagination (folding inwards) of the cell surface membrane to form a vesicle. $he tissue which lines the inside of a blood vessel or nephron. 4rganisms that can control production and loss of heat to maintain their body temperature. $he ability to do work. Crom the Areek energos% meaning active work. *ouble membrane. *ouble lipid bilayer. $he combined action of biotic and abiotic factors that limits the growth of a population. $he interaction of genes concerned with the e)pression of one characteristic. 4ne gene may mask the e)pression of another gene. $he tissue that covers the outside of a structure. 4rganisms with eukaryotic cells 5 protoctists% fungi% plants and animals. $he process of gradual change in the inherited traits passed from one generation to the ne)t within a population. It results in the formation of new species. $he removal of metabolic waste (waste from the reactions inside cells) from the body. Chemical or biochemical reaction that releases heat energy. A gland that secretes substances into a duct. A mechanism of secretion from a cell involving vesicles that fuse to the cell surface membrane and release their contents to the outside. It uses A$&. A piece of tissue taken from a particular plant (which includes meristematic tissue) then sterilised in order to grow a callus in tissue culture micropropagation. *iffusion that is enhanced by the action of protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane. (9) $he process of anaerobic respiration in microorganisms% used to yield specific products. Cor e)ample% the anaerobic respiration of yeast is used in the fermentation of grapes to produce wine.

2ndothelium 2ndotherms 2nergy 2n!elope 2n!ironmental resistance 2pistasis

2pithelium 2u/aryotes 2!olution

20cretion 20ergonic 20ocrine gland 20ocytosis

20plant

4acilitated diffusion 4ermentation

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

(=) $he process of culturing any microorganism in order to generate a specific product% either aerobically or anaerobically. All industrial biotechnological processes using whole microorganisms are referred to as fermentation. 4ertilisation 4ight or flight response Cusion of male and female gamete nuclei. $he set of responses in an animal that accompany the perception of threat. $he response is driven by the sympathetic nervous system and sets the body at a higher level of capacity to respond to the threat< for e)ample increased respiration rate in muscles and increased blood flow to muscles to prepare for e)plosive muscle action necessary to fight or run away. A hormone that acts as a message in the bloodstream. 8pecialised se) cells. In many organisms the gametes are haploid and are produced by meiosis. A techni-ue used to separate substances in a gaseous state. A length of *+A that codes for one (or more) polypeptides.proteins. 8ome genes code for (+A and regulate other genes. $otal genetic information possessed by the reproductive members within a population of organisms. In humans% any therapeutic techni-ue where the functioning allele of a particular gene is placed in the cells of an individual lacking functioning alleles of that particular gene. Can be used to treat some recessive conditions but not dominant conditions such as 2untington disease. A small depolarisation of the membrane in a receptor cell. Also called allelic drift. $he change in allele fre-uency in a population% as some alleles pass to the ne)t generation and some disappear. $his causes some phenotypic traits to become rarer or more common. $he branch of biotechnology characterised by the obtaining of a particular gene% either by removal from a donor organism?s genome using restriction enzymes or by manufacture% usually from m(+A transcript using reverse transcriptase enzyme. 4nce obtained% the gene is inserted into the genome of a recipient organism 5 often of a different species from the donor organism. $he inserted gene is transcribed into protein% so giving the recipient organism a characteristic.capacity that it did not have previously. 8uch organisms are referred to as being

4irst messenger 6ametes 6as chromatography 6ene

6ene pool 6ene therapy

6enerator potential 6enetic drift

6enetic engineering

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

transgenic or genetically modified. 6enetic fingerprinting (genetic profiling) $he use of *+A fragmentation and electrophoresis gives banding patterns that are uni-ue to each individual. 8amples of *+A% for e)ample from crime scenes% are fragmented using a range of restriction enzymes% and% because each individual?s *+A has differences% the number and size of fragments produced is slightly different. 3lectrophoresis and staining of the *+A gives a banded pattern that can be compared with other samples of *+A treated with the same set of restriction enzymes. Antibiotic resistance genes held on bacterial plasmids are used as genetic markers to identify the bacteria that have taken up the re-uired gene. $he gene is inserted into a plasmid that carries a resistance to a particular antibiotic. If a bacterium can grow on the particular antibiotic% then the plasmid% and so the re-uired gene% is present in the bacterium. #ariation of genetic information in a gene pool. All the genetic information within an organism.cell. $he techni-ue used to give the base se-uence of *+A of a particular organism. $he se-uencing reaction can only identify up to around 9""" base pairs of se-uence in a fragment. In order to se-uence the whole genome% overlapping fragments are se-uenced% then reassembled by computer software in order to generate the original se-uence detail. $he study of the whole set of genetic information in the form of the *+A base se-uences that occur in the cells of organisms of a particular species. Alleles present within cells of an individual% for a particular trait.characteristic. $his involves placing the gene into embryonic cells. $his techni-ue is not currently legal and is deemed unethical. A small network of capillaries found inside the Bowman?s capsule. A hormone released by the D cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas 5 it causes the blood glucose level to rise by converting glycogen in liver cells to glucose. Intermediate compound produced during the Calvin cycle in the light-independent stage of photosynthesis.

6enetic mar/ers

6enetic !ariation 6enome 6enome sequencing

6enomics

6enotype 6erm line gene therapy 6lomerulus 6lucagon

6lycerate*$*phosphate (6 )

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

17

6lycolysis

'etabolic pathway. $he first stage of respiration. It is anaerobic and occurs in the cytosol (cytoplasm). Although anaerobic% it involves o)idation as substrate molecules are dehydrogenated. A variety of rice that is genetically engineered to carry large amounts of the vitamin A precursor beta0carotene. $he rice appears golden brown% unlike its non0engineered relative% which is white in colour. 8tacks of thylakoid membranes% found in a chloroplast. $he place where an organism or population of organisms lives. A form of treatment for kidney patients in which blood is taken from a vein and passed through a dialysis machine so that e)change can occur across an artificial partially permeable membrane. An arrangement of a tubule or blood vessel involving a 9:"; bend so that the fluid in one end of the tubule flows back past the fluid at the other end. $his arrangement facilitates the e)change of materials by ensuring that there is a concentration gradient all along the tubule. $he time taken for the concentration of a substance to drop to half its original value. 3ukaryotic cell or organism having only one set of chromosomes. *enoted by n. $he concept that both genotype fre-uencies and gene fre-uencies will stay constant from generation to generation% within a large interbreeding population where mating is random% there is no mutation and no selection or migration. $he number of times that a normal body cell divides before undergoing apoptosis. $he number of divisions is about E". Cell or individual having only one allele for a particular gene. An unusual blood vessel that has capillaries at both ends 5 it carries blood from the digestive system to the liver. Liver cells. 4rganism that gains its nutrients from comple) organic molecules. It digests them to simpler% soluble molecules and then respires some of them to obtain energy% or uses the products of digestion to synthesise the organic molecules it

6olden 8ice9

6rana (sing) granum) Habitat Haemodialysis

Hairpin countercurrent multiplier

Half*life Haploid Hardy:;einberg principle

Hayflic/ constant Hemi+ygous Hepatic portal !ein Hepatocytes Heterotroph

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

11

needs. 2eterotrophs are consumers in food chains. &arasites and saprotrophs are also heterotrophs. Animals% some bacteria and some protoctists are heterotrophs. Hetero+ygous Hierarchy (social) 3ukaryotic cell or organism that has two different alleles for a specific gene. /ithin a group individuals have a place in the order of importance within the group. $his is often shown by individuals higher up in the hierarchy receiving more food or having rights of access to mate with other individuals. Aenes that control the development of the body plan of an organism. $he maintenance of a constant internal environment despite e)ternal changes. $hese direct the development of individual body segments. $hey are master genes that control other regulatory genes. 3ukaryotic cell or organism that has two identical alleles for a specific gene. A molecule released into the blood that acts as a chemical messenger. Aroups of homeobo) genes. 'ore comple) organisms have more 2o) clusters. $his is probably due to a mutation that duplicated the 2o) clusters. A hormone released by the human embryo. Its presence in a pregnant woman?s urine can be detected to confirm pregnancy. 8plitting of large molecules into smaller molecules with addition of water. A high blood glucose concentration. $he condition of a membrane that is more highly polarised than the usual resting state. $he resting potential is lower than usual. A condition in which the resting blood pressure (particularly the diastolic pressure) is raised for prolonged periods. A low blood glucose concentration. /here two alleles interact to control the e)pression of one characteristic one is epistatic and one is hypostatic. /here a homozygous recessive allele at the first locus (place on a

Homeobo0 genes Homeostasis Homeotic selector genes Homo+ygous Hormone Ho0 clusters

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (h'6) Hydrolysis Hyperglycaemia Hyperpolarised

Hypertension Hypoglycaemia Hypostasis

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

12

chromosome) prevents the e)pression of another allele at a second locus% the alleles at the first locus are epistatic and the alleles at the second locus are hypostatic. Hypothalamus A portion of the brain that contains various receptors that monitor the blood. Also involved in controlling the autonomic nervous system. A behaviour that an animal is capable of from birth without any learning or practice. 8uch behaviours appear to be very infle)ible in their operation although they may often be slightly modified in individuals by some elements of learning. A hormone released by the F cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas 5 it causes the blood glucose level to fall. &atches of endocrine tissue in the pancreas 5 they consist of D and F cells. 'echanism that divides populations of organisms into subgroups. $he term used to describe a method of human infant care which involves e)tended skin0to0skin contact and breastfeeding on demand. $hird stage of respiration. It is aerobic and in eukaryotes it occurs in the matri) of the mitochondria. 8pecialised macrophages that move around in the sinusoids and are involved in the breakdown and recycling of old red blood cells. A pair of membranes that contain chlorophyll. Intergranal lamellae in the chloroplasts link the thylakoids of one granum with the thylakoids of another granum. Cirst stage of photosynthesis. 4ccurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. It involves using light energy to make A$&. 4ther products are reduced +A*& and o)ygen. 8econd stage of photosynthesis. 4ccurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts. Involves using A$&% reduced +A*& and carbon dio)ide to make organic molecules. A measure of the amount of energy associated with light. $he relative light intensity of a source can be calculated using the formula I G 9.d= where d is the distance between source and ob1ect receiving the light.

<nnate beha!iour

<nsulin <slets of =angerhans <solating mechanism >angaroo mother care

>rebs cycle >upffer cells

=amellae

=ight*dependent stage

=ight*independent stage =ight intensity

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

1$

=imiting factor

A variable that limits the rate of a particular process. If the factor is increased then the process will take place at a faster rate. /here the rate of a natural process is affected by a number of factors% the limiting factor is the one whose magnitude limits the rate of the process. Aenes for different characteristics that are present at different loci on the same chromosome are linked. 8tage of aerobic respiration that links glycolysis with the @rebs cycle. In eukaryote cells it occurs in the mitochondrial matri). 'ovements of ions along a neurone close to the cell surface membrane% caused by influ) or efflu) of ions through the membrane. 8pecific position on a chromosome% occupied by a specific gene. 'ember of a homologous pair of chromosomes that originally came from the female gamete. A portion of the brain (the brain stem) that contains centres for the control of various unconscious bodily functions and via the autonomic nervous system. $ype of nuclear division. A reduction division. $he chromosome number is halved. It involves two divisions. It produces cells that are genetically different from each other and from the parent cell. Arowth points in a plant where immature cells are still capable of dividing. /aste substances that may be to)ic or are produced in e)cess by the chemical reactions inside cells. A form of artificial vegetative propagation using sterile e)plant tissue grown to form a callus culture from which many new plants are grown by separation and growth of small parts of the callus. &articularly useful in generating vast numbers of genetically identical plants following the genetic engineering of a particular gene into the callus. 'icroscopic folds of the cell surface membrane that increase the surface area of the cell. Antibodies that are identical because they have been produced by cells that are clones of one original cell.

=in/age =in/ reaction =ocal currents

=ocus ?aternal chromosome ?edulla oblongata

?eiosis

?eristem ?etabolic %aste ?icropropagation

?icro!illi ?onoclonal antibodies

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

1(

?onogenic ?onophyletic ?orphogen

Characteristic coded for by one gene. A monophyletic group is one that includes an ancestral organism and all its descendent species. A substance that controls the pattern of tissue development. It is produced in a particular region of a developing organism. It diffuses to other cells% which then enter a specific developmental pathway. An area of the cerebral corte) within which the neurones are responsible for driving motor functions. (efers to the innervation of a cluster of muscle fibres by a single motor neurone. $he number of muscle fibres within a motor unit is governed by the level of manipulation re-uired in the muscle. 'uscles responsible for very fine motor functions have as few as three muscle fibres in a motor unit. 'uscles re-uiring less fine motor control may have over ="" muscle fibres in a motor unit. 8tructural change to genetic material 5 either to a gene or to a chromosome. A relationship between two organisms from which both benefit. A fatty sheath around a neurone that consists of many layers of the plasma membranes of 8chwann cells. Contraction of the muscle is generated from within the muscle itself. $he term is used to describe the contraction of the heart% which is controlled by the action of the sinoatrial node. $he protein that forms the thick filament in muscle cells. $his protein has head groups that form the cross0bridges associated with muscular contraction. Coenzyme involved in respiration. It removes hydrogen atoms from substrates. It becomes reduced +A*% which carries hydrogen atoms (protons and electrons). Coenzyme involved in photosynthesis. It accepts hydrogen atoms from photolysis of water during the light0dependent stage and carries them to the light0independent stage. 'echanism for evolution. 4rganisms that are well adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce% passing on the alleles for the favourable characteristics. *isorderly% often accidental cell death.

?otor area ?otor unit

?utation ?utualism ?yelin ?yogenic

?yosin

NAD

NAD

Natural selection

Necrosis

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

1,

Negati!e feedbac/ Nephrons Neurosecretory cells

A process in which any change in a parameter brings about the reversal of that change so the parameter is kept fairly constant. $ubules in the kidney that are used to produce urine. Cells in the hypothalamus that are similar to neurones but release a hormone into the blood instead of a transmitter substance into a synapse. A transmitter substance 5 a chemical that is released from the presynaptic membrane of one neurone to pass a signal to another neurone. $he role that a species plays in an ecosystem. Conversion of nitrogen gas into a form which is usable by plants% such as nitrate or ammonium ions. Cailure of members of a homologous pair of chromosomes% or of a pair of chromatids% to separate during nuclear division. Also known as therapeutic cloning. $he use of stem cells in order to generate replacement cells% tissue or organs% which may be used to treat particular diseases or conditions of humans. Cor e)ample% the use of stem cells to generate replacement heart cells in patients suffering from myocardial infarction (heart attack). Also known as trial0and0error learning. $he term is used to describe learning that takes place in animals given punishment or reward to reinforce the performance of a particular operation. 'ost famously% this type of learning is seen in rats and pigeons in a >8kinner bo)?% where operation of a lever rewards the animal with a food pellet. A unit consisting of genes that work together under the control of an operator gene. An e)ample is the lac operon% which consists of two structural genes and an operator gene. 4perons were first discovered in prokaryotes but later found in eukaryotes. 8tructures within cells. 3ach carries out a specific function. A process that occurs inside liver cells to convert ammonia to urea. (eceptor cells that monitor the water potential of the blood and detect any changes. $he control and regulation of the water potential of the blood and body fluids.

Neurotransmitter

Niche Nitrogen fi0ation Non*dis-unction Non*reproducti!e cloning

@perant conditioning

@peron

@rganelles @rnithine cycle @smoreceptors @smoregulation

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

1.

@0idation @0idati!e phosphorylation @0ytocin ancreas ancreatic duct araphyletic group artially permeable membrane aternal chromosome eripheral ner!ous system eritoneal dialysis

Chemical reaction involving loss of electrons% gain of o)ygen or loss of hydrogen atoms. $he formation of A$&% in the presence of o)ygen% by chemiosmosis. A hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland to facilitate birth and breastfeeding. A small organ in the abdomen that secretes digestive fluids and hormones. A duct leading from the pancreas to carry digestive 1uices to the small intestine. A classification group for living organisms that includes the most recent ancestor but not all of the descendants. A membrane that is permeable to certain substances% such as water% but is not permeable to other substances. 'ember of a pair of homologous chromosomes that originally came from the male gamete. $he sensory and motor neurones connecting the central nervous system to the sensors and effectors around the body. A form of treatment for kidney patients in which dialysis fluid is pumped into the body cavity so that e)change can occur across the peritoneal membrane. 3ndocytosis of large solid molecules into a cell. 4bservable characteristics of an organism. See Autotroph. 3nzyme0catalysed reaction where water molecules are split% using light energy. It occurs in photosystem II% during the light0 dependent stage of photosynthesis. Cormation of A$& in the presence of light energy. It takes place in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts% during the light0 dependent stage of photosynthesis. $here are two types, cyclic photophosphorylation and non0cyclic photophosphorylation. Chemicals that absorb light energy. Cound in thylakoid membranes% in photosystems. 3ach pigment absorbs energy associated with light of a specific wavelength. 3)amples include chlorophyll a% chlorophyll b% carotenoids and

hagocytosis henotype hotoautotroph hotolysis

hotophosphorylation

hotosynthetic pigments

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

11

)anthophylls. hotosynthometer hotosystems hylogenetic group odocyte Apparatus to measure rate of photosynthesis by collecting and measuring the volume of o)ygen produced in a certain time. Aroup of photosynthetic pigments in the thylakoid membrane. Consists of a primary reaction centre and accessory pigments. Aroup of organisms that share evolutionary ancestry. A specialised cell that makes up the lining (endothelium) of the Bowman?s capsule. &odocytes have finger0like processes. $hey aid ultrafilitration as fluid entering the renal capsule from the blood goes through the gaps in these processes% making ultrafiltration more efficient as the podocytes do not provide a barrier to filtration. 'embrane with a potential difference across it. Characteristic coded for by many genes. 3)amples include height and intelligence in humans. &olygenic characteristics are more influenced by environmental factors than are monogenic characteristics. Large polymer molecule made of many amino acids 1oined by peptide bonds. 3ukaryotic organisms or cell with more than two sets of chromosomes. All of the organisms of one species% who live in the same place at the same time% and who can breed together. $he study of the gene pools and the allele and genotype fre-uencies of populations of organisms. A process in which any change in a parameter brings about an increase in that change. $he hind part of the pituitary gland% which releases A*2. $he term describes the action of the myosin head in muscular contraction. $he head group attached to the actin filament tilts backwards% pulling the thick filament to overlap further with the thin filament. 3nergy from A$& is used up in the power stroke. Literally means >coming before?. In biology% a precursor molecule is one which is used in order to form another more useful molecule. Cor e)ample% beta0carotene is the precursor

olarised olygenic

olypeptide olyploid opulation opulation genetics ositi!e feedbac/ osterior pituitary gland o%er stro/e

recursor

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

13

molecule for vitamin A. rimary metabolite Any metabolite which is formed as part of the normal growth of a microorganism. *uring growth the lipids% proteins% carbohydrates and waste products generated by the microorganism in order to grow in numbers are described as primary metabolites. The primary photosynthetic pigments in a photosystem act as reaction centres. In PSI the primary pigment reaction centre is a molecule of chlorophyll a that has a peak absorption of !" nm. This means that its greatest absorption is of light with a wavelength of !"nm. In PSII the primary pigment reaction centre is a molecule of another type of chlorophyll a that has an absorption peak of #""nm. 8hort single0stranded se-uences of *+A% around 9" bases in length. $hey are needed% in se-uencing reactions and polymerase chain reactions% to bind to a section of *+A because the *+A polymerase enzymes cannot bind directly to single0stranded *+A fragments. Autotrophic organisms (plants% some protoctists and some bacteria) that convert light energy to chemical energy% which they then supply to consumers. &rimary productivity is the rate of production of new biomass by producers. It is the energy captured by their chlorophyll and used to synthesise organic molecules. $his minus the energy released via their respiration is the net primary productivity 5 the energy available to heterotrophs through consumption of producers? biomass. See apoptosis. A macromolecule. A polymer of many amino acids 1oined by peptide bonds. 'ay also be called a polypeptide. 3ukaryotic organism classified as belonging to the kingdom &rotoctista. $his kingdom includes organisms that do not fit into.cannot be classified as belonging to the other four kingdoms. It includes algae% protozoa and slime moulds. 8ome members of this phylum are photosynthetic. 8ome have undulipodia and some have cilia. Corce produced as hydrogen ions flow% through A$& synthase channels% down their concentration gradient. $he force causes A*& and &i to combine and form A$&. Aene that can undergo mutations to become an oncogene%

rimary pigment reaction centre

rimer (DNA)

roducers

roducti!ity

rogrammed cell death rotein rotoctist

roton moti!e force

roto*oncogene

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

15

which induces tumour formation (cancer). Auadrat 8ecessi!e 8ecombinant DNA 8eduction 8efractory period 8eplica plating A s-uare frame used for sampling in fieldwork. Characteristic in which the allele responsible is only e)pressed in the phenotype if there is no dominant allele present. A section of *+A% often in the form of a plasmid% which is formed by 1oining *+A sections from two different sources. Chemical reaction involving the gain of electrons% gain of hydrogen atoms or loss of o)ygen atoms. $he short period of time after firing during which it is more difficult to stimulate a neurone. $he process of growing bacteria on an agar plate% then transferring a replica of that growth to other plates using a sterile velvet pad. $he replica plates usually contain different antibiotics. Analysis of growth patterns on the replica plates gives information about the genetic properties of the growing bacteria. $he reaction to a stimulus. $he potential difference or voltage across the neurone cell membrane while the neurone is at rest. An enzyme originally derived from bacteria% in which it has a role in defence against infection by viruses. $he enzymes catalyse a hydrolysis reaction that breaks the phosphate5sugar backbone of the *+A double heli). $he two backbones are usually broken at slightly different points on the restriction site% leaving a staggered cut known as a sticky end. $he restriction site for each restriction enzyme is uni-ue. $he specific location on a stretch of *+A which is the target site of a restriction enzyme. (estriction sites are around eight bases long. An enzyme originally derived from retroviruses. $he enzyme catalyses the construction of a *+A strand using an m(+A strand as a template. 3ffectively the reverse of transcription. E0carbon compound% present in small amounts in stroma of chloroplasts. It is a carbon dio)ide acceptor. It is regenerated from triose phosphate. 3nzyme that catalyses the carbo)ylation (addition of carbon dio)ide) to ribulose bisphosphate.

8esponse 8esting potential 8estriction en+yme

8estriction site

8e!erse transcriptase

8ibulose bisphosphate (8u# ) 8ibulose bisphosphate carbo0ylase (rubisco)

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

27

8NA interference

*escribes the process in which short fragments of single0 stranded (+A bind to complementary regions on m(+A molecules and in doing so form sections of double0stranded m(+A which cannot be translated. $he binding of the interfering (+A section often triggers cellular destruction of the m(+A. $he term gene silencing is used to mean that (+A interference can prevent the formation of the product of a particular gene within a cell.organism. (+A interference has been shown to operate in natural regulation of gene e)pression as well as in the targeted silencing of genes in the laboratory. (efers to way in which the action potential appears to 1ump from node to node. 4rganisms (like bacteria and fungi) that feed by secreting enzymes onto food% and absorbing digested nutrients across their outer walls. In voluntary muscle% the span between one H0line and the ne)t H0line. $he H0line is the central part of the I band% which alternates with the A band. $he sarcomere is the smallest unit of contraction of voluntary muscle% consisting of the thick and thin filaments responsible for muscular contraction. A chemical inside the cell released in response to a hormone binding to the cell surface membrane% e.g. cA'&. A metabolite produced by a microorganism% usually in the latter stages of growth as the culture ages. 8econdary metabolites are not specifically re-uired for the organism to grow. $hey usually have antibiotic properties. Aenes that control the development of polarity (which end is head and which end is tail) in organisms. 3nvironmental factor that confers greater chances of surviving and reproducing on some members of the population than on others. $he absorption of certain selected molecules back into the blood from the fluid in the nephron tubule. An area of the cerebral corte) within which the neurones associated with receiving sensory information from the receptors are found. $hese neurones often pass information to association areas in order to make sense of the incoming information. Aene with its locus on one of the se) chromosomes% I or J. As there are few genes on the J chromosome% in humans% most

Baltatory Baprotrophs

Barcomere

Becond messenger Becondary metabolite

Begmentation genes Belection pressure

Belecti!e reabsorption Bensory area

Be0 lin/age

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

21

se)0linked genes are on the I chromosome. 2owever% there are some genes on the J chromosome% notably the gene 8(y that stimulates development of the testes and subse-uent development of the embryo into a male. $here is also a J 8$( (short tandem repeat on the J chromosome) used in genealogy *+A testing. (+ote that in some organisms it is not the presence of a J chromosome that controls development into a male. Cor e)ample in Drosophila it is the number of I chromosomes% 9 for male and = for female. In turtles% se) is determined by incubation temperature of the eggs.) In birds% butterflies and moths% males are II (or HH) and females are IJ (H/). In grasshoppers and crickets females are II and males are I4 (1ust one I chromosome). In bees and wasps% diploid individuals are female and haploid individuals are male. 3arthworms and some snails are hermaphrodite (have both male and female anatomies). 8ome organisms% such as oysters and some fish% can change se) during their life cycle. Be0ual reproduction &roduction of new organisms involving fusion of nuclei from male and female gametes% usually from unrelated individuals. Increases genetic variation in the population. $he region of the heart right atrial muscle wall% about K mm wide% 9Emm long and 9mm deep% which consists of specialised muscle fibres (cells) that have no contractile filaments but connect directly to atrial muscle fibres. Any e)citation (electrical activity) starting in the 8A+ spreads immediately to the rest of the atrial wall. 2ence the pacemaker controls the synchronised rate of beating of the whole heart. (Artificial pacemakers are battery0powered devices% usually inserted under the skin and connected via wires in the subclavian vein and vena cava to the heart muscle.) Behaviour of organisms of a particular species living together in groups with relatively defined roles for each member of the group. &rotein carriers embedded in the membranes of some cells% which use energy from A$& to move sodium ions and potassium ions in opposite directions simultaneously% against their concentration gradients. $hey are chemically gated ion channels. Involves the placing of the gene in adult differentiated cells. 3)amples include the placing of CC$( genes into the respiratory system cells of individuals with cystic fibrosis. $he techni-ue of cloning organisms involving the removal of the nucleus from an adult% differentiated cell% which is then

Binoatrial node (BAN) or sinus node

Bocial beha!iour

Bodium:potassium pumps

Bomatic cell gene therapy Bomatic cell nuclear transfer

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

22

placed into the enucleated egg cell taken from a donor organism. $he cell formed is placed into a surrogate mother in order to develop. $he resulting organism is a clone of the organism which provided the adult% differentiated cell nucleus. Bpecies $he biological species concept is a group of similar organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. $he phylogenetic species concept is a group of organisms with similar morphology% physiology% embryology and behaviour% and that all occupy the same ecological niche. A type of natural selection in which the allele and genotype fre-uency within populations stays the same because the organisms are already well adapted to their environment. 7ndifferentiated cells. 3mbryonic stem cells are totipotent and are able to differentiate into any type of specialised cell found in organisms of that species. 7mbilical stem cells and adult stem cells may become specialised into a more limited range of cell types. Any change in the environment of an organism that causes a response. &ores between guard cells in the epidermis of leaves. Cluid0filled matri) of chloroplasts. $his is where the light0 independent stage of photosynthesis takes place. Cormation of A$& from A*& and &i during glycolysis and the @rebs cycle. A directional change in a community of organisms over time. $he way that several small potential changes can combine to produce one larger change in potential difference across a neurone membrane. $he swelling at the end of a neurone where it forms a 1unction (synapse) with another neurone. A type of 1oint in the skeleton characterised by the presence of a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid to lubricate the 1oint. 8ynovial 1oints are found where a large movement range is re-uired% such as the elbow and the hip. Cells that have receptors embedded in the plasma membrane that are complementary in shape to specific hormone molecules. 4nly these cells will respond to that specific

Btabilising selection

Btem cells

Btimulus Btomata (sing) stoma) Btroma Bubstrate*le!el phosphorylation Buccession Bummation

Bynaptic /nob Byno!ial -oint

Target cells

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

2$

hormone. Ta0on (pl) ta0a) Threshold potential Aroup of organisms used in a hierarchical classification. 3)amples are @ingdom% &hylum% Class% 4rder% Camily. A potential difference (usually 5E"m#)across the membrane. If the depolarisation of the membrane does not reach the threshold potential then no action potential is created. If the depolarisation reaches the threshold potential then more sodium ion channels open and an action potential is created. Inner membrane in chloroplast. 8ite of photosystems and A$& synthase. A group of cells% with a common origin and similar structures% which performs a particular function< for e)ample% blood% bone% epithelium% muscle% nervous tissue% )ylem and phloem. Also called micropropagation. $he cloning of isolated cells or small pieces of plant tissue in special culture solutions% under controlled aseptic conditions. 8tem cells that can differentiate into any type of specialised cells found in organisms of that species. $he formation of an (+A molecule% using a length of *+A as a template. Complementary base pairing is used. $he enzyme (+A polymerase catalyses the reaction. A line taken through a habitat% which helps with systematic sampling of changes across a habitat. Bacteria that take up *+A from their surroundings (e.g. from dead bacteria) are transformed. 8tage of protein.polypeptide synthesis in which the amino acids are assembled at ribosomes. $he order in which the amino acids are 1oined together% by peptide bonds% is determined by the se-uence of codons on the m(+A% which is itself determined by the se-uence of nucleotide triplets on the coding strand of a length of *+A (gene). $he genetic code is translated. K0carbon compound formed when a molecule of glycerate phosphate is reduced% during the Calvin cycle in the light0 independent stage of photosynthesis. $he level at which an organism feeds in a food chain. A directional growth response in which the direction of the

Thyla/oid Tissue

Tissue culture

Totipotent stem cells Transcription

Transect Transformation Translation

Triose phosphate (T )

Trophic le!el Tropism

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

2(

response is determined by the direction of the e)ternal stimulus. Cltrafiltration Ciltration at the molecular level in the glomerulus of kidneys. 8ome molecules are filtered out of the blood of the glomerulus into the renal capsule. 'olecules with relative molecular masses above LM""" are retained in the blood capillaries. An e)cretory product formed from the breakdown of e)cess amino acids. Carrier. In *+A technology% refers to the agent that carries a piece of *+A from one cell into another% e.g. a bacterial plasmid. Ase)ual reproduction in plants making use of specialised vegetative structures that grow to form new and separate individual organisms. Channels in plasma membranes that allow the passage of ions. $hey respond to changes in potential difference (voltage) across a membrane and% as a result% open or close. $he transplantation of cells or organs from one species into the body of an organism of another species. Cell formed% during se)ual reproduction% from the fusion of two gametes.

Crea Dector

Degetati!e propagation

Doltage*gated channels

Eenotransplantation Fygote

Pearson Education Ltd 2009 This document may have been altered from the original

2,