Fluid mosaic model In the year 1972 Singer and Nicolson proposed a model for explaining the membrane

structure, taking into account all the known facts. According to this model, cell membrane consists of a highly viscous fluid matrix of a bilayer of phospholipids having globular proteins associated with them. This model came to be known as fluid mosaic model. The phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane have their polar, hydrophilic heads towards outer surface and the nonpolar, hydrophobic tails towards inner surface. This arrangement forms a water resistant barrier through which only lipid soluble substances can pass through The proteins in cell membrane are of two kinds. Some of the proteins are found at the periphery, partly projecting out of the lipid layer. These are the extrinsic proteins. These proteins can be easily extracted. Some of the protein molecules are found totally embedded in the phospholipid matrix. Those are the intrinsic or integral proteins, which represent nearly 70% of the membrane proteins. These proteins cannot be extracted. Some of the integral proteins have very large molecules that extend throughout the phospholipid matrix, projecting out on both surfaces. These proteins are called tunnel proteins or transmembrane proteins. They are believed to have channels for the passage of water-soluble substances. The scattered arrangement of protein molecules in the phospholipid matrix gives the appearance of a mosaic pattern. Hence, the name to the model.

fig. 15.2 - Fluid Mosaic Model A few molecules of oligosaccharides are found attached to the free ends of protein molecules on the outer surface of the membrane. Sometimes they are also found attached to phospholipid layer.

In 1957, J.D. Robertson, by using the electron microscopy, proposed a modified version of the sandwich model of Davson and Daniellis model, named unit membrane. Under the electron microscope, he could identify a trilaminar structure of the membrane, which he interpreted as being an internal lipid bilayer with two flanking protein layers on the exterior. This model was accepted between 1960-1970. This model had, however, a short life, because in early 1970s, Singer and Nicholson proposed a different model of the cell membrane structure. Moreover, the models of Davson, Danielli, and Robertson couldn't explain some important experimental observations, such as why different membranes differed in structure and function, and how the proteins can form the exterior of the membrane while they contain large hydrophobic regions. S.J. Singer and Garth L. Nicholson proposed in 1972 the currently accepted model of the cell membrane, named the "fluid mosaic model" (Figure 2). This model retains the bilayer structure proposed by the two Dutch scientists E. Gorter and F. Grendel. The proteins are, however, in the bilayer and can move due to the membrane fluidity. They proposed that the lipid bilayer is organized in such a way that the hydrophylic part of the phospholipids are on the exterior of the lipid bilayer in contact with the water, while their hydrophobic tails face inward. The proteins float in this bilayer, and can form pores and channels. Membrane proteins have been studied by many investigators since then. Unwin and Henderson (1984) found that the portion of the proteins from the lipid bilayer is hydrophobic and often is arranged in a form of alpha-helix. This fluid mosaic model has remained the base of our understanding of the structure of the cell membrane since 1972. The freeze-fracture method of examining cells microscopically showed that the fluid mosaic model is an accurate description of cell membranes (Figure 3). The fluid mosaic model continues to be refined. For example, the existence of membrane compartmentalization is also important for cell function (Figure 2). It is now well established that the plasma membranes contain protein-protein complexes, lipid rafts, and pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton, and can be polarized (apical and latero-basal compartmentalization in the epithelial cells).

Eukaryotic cell organelles and function

Eukaryotic cells are a type of cell more complex than their counterparts, prokaryotes. Prokaryotes include the simplistic bacteria and archaea, while eukaryotes make up allfungi, animals, plants, and protists such as amoeba. Together with viruses and other snippets of genetic material, prokaryotes and eukaryotes make up all known terrestrial life. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by internal membranes and a strong cytoskeleton. A cytoskeleton is a framework of proteins, such as actin and keratin, which help hold a cell together and differentiate its organelles. Eukaryote means "true nut," referring to the fact that eukaryotic cells possess an internal nucleus whereas prokaryotes (meaning "before nut") do not. In prokaryotes, the genetic material floats freely in the cytoplasm (cellular blood), while in eukaryotes, it is protected in a special nucleus. Eukaryotic DNA is organized into chromosomes whereas prokaryotic DNA is not. Eukaryotes are more recent in the history of life than prokaryotes, and the typical eukaryotic cell is larger than a typical prokaryotic cell. Whereas prokaryotic life emerged as long as 3.8 billion years ago, eukaryotes only evolved between 1.6 and 2.1 billion years ago. One of the first eukaryotic organisms was red algae, whose form has barely changed in 1.2 billion year

Organelle

Function The brains of the cell, the nucleus directs cell activities and contains Nucleus genetic material called chromosomes made of DNA. Mitochondria Make energy out of food Ribosomes Make protein Golgi Make, process and package proteins Apparatus Contains digestive enzymes to help Lysosome break food down Called the "intracellular highway" Endoplasmic because it is for transporting all sorts Reticulum of items around the cell. Used for storage, vacuoles usually contain water or food. (Are you are Vacuole thirsty? Perhaps your vacuoles need some water!) Plant cells also have: Use sunlight to create food Chloroplasts byphotosynthesis Cell Wall For support Prokaryotic Cells Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotes (from the Greek meaning before nuclei). These cells have few internal structures that are distinguishable under a microscope. Cells in the monera kingdom such as bacteria and cyanobacteria (also known as blue-green algae) are prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells differ significantly from eukaryotic cells. They don't have a membrane-bound nucleus and instead of having chromosomal DNA, their genetic information is in a circular loop called a plasmid. Bacterial cells are very small, roughly the size of an animal mitochondrion (about 1-2m in diameter and 10 m long). Prokaryotic cells feature three major shapes: rod shaped, spherical, and spiral. Instead of going through elaborate replication processes like eukaryotes, bacterial cells divide by binary fission.

Prokaryotic Plasma Membrane Prokaryotic cells can have multiple plasma membranes. Prokaryotes known as "gram-negative bacteria," for example, often have two plasma membranes with a space between them known as the periplasm. As in all cells, the plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells is responsible for controlling what gets into and out of the cell. A series of proteins stuck in the membrane (poor fellas) also aid prokaryotic cells in communicating with the surrounding environment. Among other things, this communication can include sending and receiving chemical signals from other bacteria and interacting with the cells of eukaryotic organisms during the process of infection. Infection is the kind of thing that you don't want prokaryotes doing to you. Keep in mind that the plasma membrane is universal to all cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Because this cellular component is so important and so common, it is addressed in great detail in its own In Depth subsection. Prokaryotic Cytoplasm The cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells is a gel-like, yet fluid, substance in which all of the other cellular components are suspended. Jello for cells. It is very similar to the eukaryotic cytoplasm, except that it does not contain organelles. Recently, biologists have discovered that prokaryotic cells have a complex and functional cytoskeleton similar to that seen in eukaryotic cells.2 The cytoskeleton helps prokaryotic cells divide and helps the cell maintain its plump, round shape. As is the case in eukaryotic cells, the cytoskeleton is the framework along which particles in the cell, including proteins, ribosomes, and small rings of DNA called plasmids, move around. The "highway system" suspended in Jello. Prokaryotic Ribosomes

Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller and have a slightly different shape and composition than those found in eukaryotic cells. Bacterial ribosomes, for instance, have about half of the amount of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and one third fewer ribosomal proteins (53 vs. ~83) than eukaryotic ribosomes have.3 Despite these differences, the function of the prokaryotic ribosome is virtually identical to the eukaryotic version. Just like in eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic ribosomes build proteins by translating messages sent from DNA. Prokaryotic Genetic Material All prokaryotic cells contain large quantities of genetic material in the form of DNA and RNA. Because prokaryotic cells, by definition, do not have a nucleus, the single large circular strand of DNA containing most of the genes needed for cell growth, survival, and reproduction is found in the cytoplasm. The DNA tends to look like a mess of string in the middle of the cell: