A2 Biology

Module 2804: Central Concepts

Module 2804: Central Concepts

5.4.1 Energy and Respiration
(a) outline the need for energy in living organisms as illustrated by anabolic reactions, active transport, movement and the maintenance of body temperature. Energy needed to perform work in living organisms: Anabolic reactions: making big molecules from small ones Active transport: need energy as against concentration gradient Movement: mechanical work Maintenance of body temperature: thermal energy (b) describe the structure of ATP as a phosphorylated nucleotide. X: Adenine (base) Y: Ribose (pentose sugar) P: Phosphate (c) describe the universal role of ATP as the energy currency in all living organisms. ATP made, moved around and used in most cells: ATP produced using energy from respiration reactions Breaks down to release energy when required ATP ADP + Pi + energy It is an immediate source of energy released in small packets Rapid turnover of ATP with anabolic and catabolic processes Uses eg. active transport/Na pump/cell division/phosphorylation (d) explain that the synthesis of ATP is associated with the electron transport chain on the membranes of the mitochondrion. Any reduced NAD/FAD formed during glycolysis/link reaction/krebs cycle is used in oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) to generate ATP across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion

A2 Biology

Module 2804: Central Concepts

(e) outline glycolysis as phosphorylation of glucose and the subsequent splitting of hexose phosphate (6C) into two triose phosphate molecules which are then further oxidised with a small yield of ATP and reduced NAD. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm: ATP is used in the first two steps to phosphorylate glucose to hexose bisphosphate ATP is made later in glycolysis Reduced NAD (NADH2) is made as H is removed from triose phosphate Net gain from glycolysis: 2 x ATP 2 x reduced NAD Glucose (6C hexose) (ATPADP) Hexose Phosphate (6C) (ATPADP) 2 x Triose Phosphate (3C) (4 x ADPATP) (2 x NADreduced NAD) 2 x Pyruvate

(f) explain that, when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted into acetyl (2C) coenzyme A, which then combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C). Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (actively using ATP) across the membranes using protein carriers (glucose cannot enter mitochondrion) The link reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix: Pyruvate + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO2 + reduced NAD This reaction uses decarboxylation to remove C as CO2 Also uses dehydrogenation to remove H to reduce NAD (g) outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that citrate is reconverted to oxaloacetate in a series of small steps in the matrix of the mitochondrion. (No further details are required.) The Krebs cycle is a series of steps catalysed by enzymes in the matrix: 2C Acetyl CoA enters the cycle and accepted by 4C oxaloacetate to form 6C Citrate as the first intermediate Cycle turns twice for each original glucose molecule (2 x pyruvate etc) A series of reactions cycle back to 4C oxaloacetate 1 x ATP is produced directly by phosphorylation of ADP Decarboxylation as 2 x C atoms are released in 2 x CO2 molecules Dehydrogenation as 4 pairs of H atoms are removed 3 x NAD and 1 x FAD act as hydrogen acceptors and become reduced H in reduced NAD/FAD will be released in oxidative phosphorylation Amino acids and fatty acids can be broken down and fed into cycle Intermediates of the cycle can form other molecules

A2 Biology

Module 2804: Central Concepts

(h) explain that these processes involve decarboxylation and dehydrogenation, and describe the role of NAD. Decarboxylation: Removal of a carbon from a molecule forming CO2 Dehydrogenation: Removal of hydrogen NAD: Can accept hydrogen (reversible) to form reduced NAD (NADH2) (i) outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation, including the role of oxygen. (No details of the carriers are required.) Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the inner mitochondrial membrane: Dehydrogenase enzymes remove the hydrogen from reduced NAD/FAD and split it into H+ (proton) and e- (electron) e- flow through the cytochrome carriers (redox reactions) releasing energy at each lower energy level H+ pumped across inner membrane (proton pump) into inter membrane space creating an electrochemical gradient (chemiosmosis) H+ diffuse back through protein channels with stalked particles containing ATP synthase forming ATP from ADP + Pi O2 acts as the final H+ and e- acceptor forming H2O (j) explain the production of a small yield of ATP from anaerobic respiration and the formation of ethanol in yeast and lactate in mammals. Under anaerobic conditions the reduced NAD cannot be oxidized using oxygen. But, without it being oxidized, glycolysis will stop and no ATP formed. Need to recycle the reduced NAD back to NAD for glycolysis to continue. Oxidation of NAD in muscle tissue: H from reduced NAD (NADH2) combines with pyruvate (3C) to form lactate (3C) Enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase Oxidation of NAD in yeast: Pyruvate (3C) converted first to ethanal (2C) with the loss of CO2 (decarboxylation) H from reduced NAD (NADH2) combines with ethanal (2C) to form ethanol (2C) Enzyme is alcohol dehydrogenase Pyruvate (Reduced NAD NAD) Lactate Pyruvate (CO2) Ethanal (Reduced NAD NAD) Ethanol

A2 Biology

Module 2804: Central Concepts

(k) explain the relative energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein as respiratory substrates. The Greater number of hydrogens present, the greater the energy value. Lipids have higher energy density than carbohydrates. Could use a calorimeter to burn different substrates to compare the rise in water temperature. (l) define the term respiratory quotient (RQ). Ratio of the volume of CO2 give out to O2 taken in: RQ =CO2/O2 Calculate from respiration equation Respiration of Glucose: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6O2 so RQ= 6/6 = 1 Lipid: eg. C18H34O2 + 25.5O2 18CO2 + 17H2O RQ= 18/25.5 = 0.7 Protein=0.9 Anaerobic respiration (no O2 used): eg fermentation of glucose RQ = High RQ value indicates increased anaerobic respiration (m) carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to measure RQ and the effect of temperature on respiration rate. Respirometer: measures volume of O2 used by organism: Soda lime absorbs CO2 produced by aerobic respiration Volume of O2 used is measured in manometer capillary tube Measure distance traveled by meniscus over time. As area of capillary tube is known, can calculate mean rate of O2 uptake in mm3min-1 Important to equilibrate equipment/organism to temperature Use a control to make sure differences not due to temperature/pressure If testing plants, then need to be in dark to prevent photosynthesis