Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………1
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………2
The structure of the atom………………………………………………………………………..3
Mass measurements……..………………………………………………………………………..4
Einstein’s Theory…………………………………………………………………………………….5
What kind of “fuels” should we use?...........................................................6
Conditions for fusion……………………………………………………………………………….8
Magnetic Confinement…………………………………………………………………………….9
The particle’s trajectories………………………………………………………………………..9
Plasma heating……………………………………………………………………………………..10
ITER Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………….13
History of ITER……………………………………………………………………………………...14
Time table…………………………………………………………………………………………....15
Energy production………………………………………………………………………………….15
Safety……………………………………………………………………………………………………16
Fusion economics…………………………………………………………………………………..17
The energy now…………………………………………………………………………………….17
Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………………………….19
Glossary……………………………………………………………………………………………….20
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………….21
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………22
Abstract

ITER

Nowadays the worldwide society as the technology goes on and the

population is increased demands more and more energy. For this reason
scientists imported a new type of energy fusion which is cleaner and more
profitable.
Many experiments have been developed to study fusion. However the
most significant effort which is going to last 30 years and to cost 10 million
dollars is ITER (International Experimental Fusion Reactor) an international
project that includes participants from all over the world and uses the most
high tech knowledge.
Here you may read about the whole program and the technologies
which are used to heat (Ohmic heating, neutral beam injection) and stabilize
the plasma. (Magnetic confinement). You can also learn what is fusion and
what fuels are more efficient.
This project is written quite comprehensively and I suggest you study it
in order to learn the fundamental technology of fusion and plasma.

1
Introduction

Nowadays as the population has increased and the technology has

developed all the conventional kinds of energy are unable to cover our needs.
For this reason scientists investigated how they can benefit from the energy
which is hidden in the matter.
The story begins from the alchemists who were trying to interfere in the
structure of the substances by converting the lead into gold. While the science
was going on, the Rutherford’s (1) inventions about the atom and the
Einstein’s (1) theory about the equivalence of Energy and mass created the
know-how in order to develop applications that would be able to manipulate
nuclear energy. This is an issue of great interest even today and I will
approach it in simple terms mainly by focusing on nuclear physics.
The main idea is that the principles that compose the matter are kept
together by strong nuclear forces. When we distinguish them (fission) or
merge them (fusion) energy is released. This vast amount of energy that is
given is used in order to produce electricity.
The implementation of this idea is the nuclear power plants. However in
this project I am not going to present you the fission ones because they
have many disadvantages in comparison to the fusion units (they are less
profitable and more harmful to the environment). Many attempts have been
made such as Jet reactor in UK and JT-6OU in Japan. The next step is going to
be ITER (International Thermonuclear experimental Reactor) a worldwide
project which is going to be ready in 2016 and it will provide energy equal to
400 MV. (2)

2
The structure of the atom

In ancient Greece Democritus proposed that matter was composed of

tiny particles named atoms. His theory was not accepted for many years until
the beginning of 19th century when Dalton restored this idea in order to
explain laws of chemistry. Later after some unsuccessful attempts by
Thomson, Rutherford discovered that the nucleus of the atom was an
individual positively charged particle and that it was separate from the
opposite charged electrons.
To continue scientists tried to find why some elements which were
named isotopes had the same properties but different atomic weight . After
precise measurements James Chadwick in 1932 (1) concluded that this
happens because the nucleus of an atom hosts another kind of particles
neutron which exists in greater quantity inside the isotopes 1.
To sum up, the nucleus is composed of protons which are positively
charged particles and neutrons which are neutral. They have about the same
weight (the mass of a neutron is about 1.00138 times the mass of a proton
(1) ) and they define the properties of each element, as it is described by the
Russian Dmitri Mendeleev 1869 (1) in the periodic table where they are
organized depending on their atomic weight.

1
Deuterium ( 1 proton 1 neutron) and tritium ( 1 proton 2 neutrons) are two very common isotopes of
Hydrogen and they are widely used as “fuels” in nuclear fusion

3
Mass measurements

Initially the chemists had developed techniques in order to measure the

average mass of an atom. The fact that some atomic weights where multiplies
of the atomic mass of hydrogen lead them to the conclusion that the bigger
atoms where composed of hydrogen ones. This wrong impression was
disapproved by Francis Aston during 1918-1920 when he built the mass
spectrograph, an instrument that could measure the exact mass of an atom
which is considered to be one of the most important appliances in the history
of science. (1)

mass spectrograph

Firstly the atoms of the element are ionized2 and they are accelerated in
an electric field with energy :

(1/2)mv2=eV=E (1)

Then they get in a magnetic field where they execute rotative motion with
specified radius.

mv2/r=BeV (2)

We can understand that if we know the characteristics of the mechanism :

V : The voltage of the electric field

B : The intense of the magnetic field

We may find the mass of the atom m. (1)

2
Ionized atoms are charged particles because they have no electrons.

4
Einstein’s theory
Aston’s measurements showed that the sum of the mass of 4 individual
hydrogen atoms was 0.03 times greater than the mass of a Helium atom. The
significance of this result was pointed out by the astrophysicist Arthur
Eddington who realized that there was a mass loss between the two elements.
Here comes Albert Einstein with his famous theory about the
equivalence of mass and energy ( ΔΕ=Δm c2 ) who says that this mass defect
(loss) is actually an energy defect (It is said that the energy is frozen mass).
This can be understood if we think that the nucleons (protons and neutrons)
inside the nucleus are kept together by a strong nuclear force. Supposing that
we could separate the nucleons we would consume energy in order to make it
equal to ΔΕ=Δm c2.

Each element has in its atom a different amount of nuclear energy

stored that holds the nucleons together. This energy depends on the mass
defect per nucleon as we observe in the following graph:

The iron has the least mass defect per nucleon. From this we can understand
that the iron nucleus has the least energy. Therefore it is the most stable
which means that the closer is an element on this, the more difficult we can
reform it.

5
 Light nucleus Heavy nucleus

In fusion what we do is to join light nuclei before Fe like hydrogen’s and

make bigger like Helium’s. In fission we spilt heavy ones like Uranium and
produce smaller. From both procedures we gain energy. In the first case we
merge two light atoms with great energy to a bigger one with less in order
that we gain the energy and in the second case we distinguish a big atom with
greater energy (after Fe) in order to get two with less again to gain energy.

What kind of “fuels” should we use?

Theoretically, there are many reactions that make fusion but if we want
to develop an industrial application we should use the proper elements in order
to maximize the profitability and usability of the vessel. This query was set
from the age of Rutherford, however, during World War II the research did not
focus on how we can make controlled nuclear fusion. Later scientists started
by fusing deuterium atoms which are isotopes of hydrogen. (1)

There were two main reactions:

 In the first one we join two deuterium atoms and we get an atom of
tritium (an isotope of hydrogen which is 3 times heavier than it) and a
proton.
3
 In the second we join two deuterium atoms and we get an atom of He
(Which is a rare form of helium) and a neutron.

The products of the reactions above (T and 3H) were fused again with
deuterium forming 4He (α particles) and a proton or a neutron.

6
 He3

Currently, scientists have come up with the result that the most efficient
reaction is the fusion between Deuterium and Tritium, because it is the fastest
and the one that demands the lowest temperature. Additionally, it is the most
probable reaction:

Cross-section

fix

“Bringing two nuclei together is rather like trying to roll up a ball and put it
into a hole on the top”. The bigger the hole the more potential is that you find
the target. (1) In quantum mechanics, this probability is named cross-section
and it depends on the energy of the colliding nuclei. As we observe in the
diagram the DT reaction has the greatest cross-section with the less energy
so it would be the most efficient.

7
Moreover it is the cheapest as deuterium can be found in sea where 6, 7 kg of
water gives us 1 gram of deuterium.
The Tritium does not exist in the natural environment so we use Lithium
(a common element that is used widely for example in lithium batteries) to
produce it. There are two main forms of Lithium in nature 6Li and 7Li (The
Lithium consists of 92, 6% 7Li and 6, 4% 6Li). When the neutrons of D-T
reactions fall on the lithium, tritium and helium is released:

6,7
Li + n → 4He + T

This reaction offers us 105GJ of energy per gram of Lithium. (1)

Conditions for fusion

The process of making fusion is rather easy. We can achieve that for
example by accelerating particles in high voltages and throw them on solid
targets. Nevertheless, these methods were not efficient because most of the
particles did not find their target, so a new need was created to develop
systems that would recycle the unused particles until they succeed.
The solution was to give energy to these particles by heating them in
great temperatures during a process called thermonuclear fusion. For this to
happen the gas of the element is heated in 200.000.000oC where it exists in a
form called plasma. This is the most common state of matter in the universe
there all the atoms have lost all their electrons which are ionized and they
move individually at a random track. (1)
This perpetual motion had to be controlled in order to make a vessel
because there is not a material that may handle these temperatures (even the
most compact material would evaporate). Scientists exploited the fact that
plasma is a very good conductor (ex. The hydrogen in the form of plasma is 10
times better conductor than the copper in the normal form) as it is comprised
of ions and electrons. This property of plasma enables us to handle it via
magnetic fields. This method is known as magnetic confinement.

8
Magnetic confinement

The magnetic fields are created by superconducting coils or by current

that passes through the plasma. Many efforts had been made in order to find a
proper shape for the fusion reactor. Scientists tested flat plates, spherical, 8-
shaped vessels, but they came up to the conclusion that those which had the
least losses were cylindrical. However, the disadvantage of this was that there
were too much loss from the edge of the cylinder so they solved the problem
by connecting the two sides of the cylinder and make a “Torus-shaped
configuration” in which the flow could be continuous (The most well-known of
them are Tokamaks).This of course does not mean that the other vessels are
useless because with them we study other sections in plasma physics. (3)
In tokamaks the magnetic confinement systems are the following:
 In the main mechanism which we use we pass very strong current through
plasma and we create a poloidal field which constricts the plasma and gives
it shape.
 However, the plasma is very unstable and it tries to escape every time.(1)
Moreover the strong poloidal field may pinch the plasma and force it to get
away. The solution to the problem is a toroidal filed which is made by
magnets or supper conducting cables that surround the plasma. Even if the
plasma escapes from this field it is cooled immediately and the operation of
the vessel stops.(4)

The particle’s trajectories

The trajectory of the particles depends on the magnetic field and the
track that they have owing to the warming. As a result, they make a
combination of a circular and a rectilinear motion (cycloid). (6) The radius of
their orbit is named Larmor radius or cyclotron radius and it depends on the
magnetic field the mass, the charge and the velocity of the particle. The
electron’s Larmor radius is: ρe=1.07x10-4Te0.5/B where Te is the temperature of
the plasma in KeV and B the magnetic field. The ion’s radius is : ρi=4,57x10-
3(A05/Z)Ti0.5/B A is the mass number and Z the atomic number. As we
understand the stronger the magnetic field the smaller the radius. (1)

9
Plasma heating

The plasma is heated by inner procedures (Ohmic heating, α particle

heating) but these are not enough. For that reason we should support them
with external sources like Neutral beam injection or Radiofrequency heating:

Ohmic heating
As we said in order to confine plasma we lead current through it. Its
resistance which is owned to the collisions between the electrons and the ions
does not allow all of the electricity to pass and therefore the lost energy is
released as thermal energy (Joule effect). In order to understand that we can
thing of a lump that gets hot when current flows in its wire. (10)
Nevertheless, this technique is insufficient as it can only give the device
10 million oC from the 200 million oC that is needed. Someone would think that
we can increase the plasma current but this is technically difficult for two
reasons. Firstly, when we increase the current its resistance falls thus then we
need more power to heat it. Secondly, the magnetic field is increased vastly
and it is difficult to confine it (1)

α particle heating

The helium nuclei or α particle that rest from the reactions between D
and T or neutrons and Lithium are still moving before they are absorbed by a
divertor. This means that they still have energy to collide with other particles
and give them energy. However this procedure does not provide enough heat
to the plasma.

10
Neutral beam injection

In this method a beam of high kinetic energy particles enters into the
plasma and collides with the particles in it (ions and electrons). Then each
particle crashes the other particles (ions – electrons, ions – ions) and heating
is released. In order to do that we have to take into account some factors. To
begin with the magnetic field encloses charged particles and it does not let
others to get in, consequently we have to insert neutral particles which are
going to be ionized inside the plasma. Furthermore, neutral beams can not be
accelerated so firstly we have to accelerate an ion beam (charged particles)
and then to neutralize it. To do that we use the following mechanism:

As we may see deuterium is inserted in the form of gas and then it is ionized it
loses its electrons . The ions are accelerated in high voltage and they acquire
great energy in JET their velocity is 3600 km/sec almost 5 times the velocity of
the particles inside the plasma. Then, they are neutralized by passing through
a “cloud of gas” where they acquire electrons again.
Continuing the beam passes through a magnetic field where the ions
that have not been neutralized change their track because they are charged
and they fall into a dump. Moreover, the particles that come from the
neutralizer and have not been accelerated are captured by a vacuum pumping.
(5 p 4) However, during the neutralization the efficiency is about 30% (1) so
many injectors have to be used.

11
Radiofrequency heating

As like in other fluids plasma and especially the

confined one may host a vast range of waves in
it. The charged particles like electrons and ions
are enabled by them and as a result they acquire
great energy and enough velocity to heat the
plasma “individually” or by colliding with other
particles. (5) In a microwave oven we can use
any type of wave to warm our food, however in
plasma physics we have a more complicated
procedure. In order to have the most satisfying efficiency we should use the
specific radiofrequency which is absorbed better by each kind of particle inside
the reactor (1 p 108). For this reason we use different heating systems:

Heating at the electron cyclotron frequency

The highest radio frequency which is needed to heat the plasma is

given by the electron cyclotron resonance. This quantity is symbolized by ω
and it depends on the toroidal magnetic field. In most experiments ω is 28
GHz/T and the frequency 60-120 GHz, however in a fusion power plant the
demand is about 200 GHz. The radiation is launched into the plasma with
metal antennas which are installed in the borders between the plasma (after
the magnetic field) and the reactor. Although this method was not considered
to be reliable, newer research has found ways to enhance it and it is possible
that it will be very important in the future.

Heating at the ion cyclotron frequency

This is another technique where we use ions instead of electrons. Here

ω depends on the ratio of mass number/atomic number of the ion and the
toroidal magnetic field. If we take into account the fact that the frequency is
about 40-70 MHz we can understand that the production of this kind of waves
is common in radio signal so they are widely studied. Lately a new method is
promoted where we use this system in combination with neutral beam heating
which is much more flexible. (1)

12
Heating at the ion hybrid frequency

The frequency in this case is between the electron’s cyclotron and the
ion’s cyclotron one (1-8GHz). This way of heating is not very efficient however
it is very useful in driving the currents in plasma as it has “a magnetic
component parallel to magnetic field lines”. This means that we can have
Landau type absorption where the particle propagates at the same speed as
the wave you can think a particle which is “surfing” on the electromagnetic
wave. Either the particle has greater velocity than the wave or not it will
acquire the same one. Nevertheless, only a few electrons loose energy and
finally electric current is produced. (7)

ITER Objectives
As we said, there have been many experiments before ITER that gave
us the know-how about the materials which are going to be used in the next
generation reactor and plasma engineering (Plasma heating, magnetic
confinement, appliances that measure plasma). For example, Jet, a vessel in
UK obtained high quality of plasmas for a short period of time. In Tore Supra
managed to make plasma for more time but with less performance. (11)

13
History of ITER
In 1985, after a lot of years of tokamaks operating, the Russians
proposed to the international scientific community the construction of a larger
experiment of fusion. This idea was widely acceptable by E.U., USA, Japan
and Canada, under the procuration of AIEA (International agency for atomic
energy). The initial studies about the project were made during 1988 and 1990,
however a more detailed approach became in the 90’s. For major reasons at
that time USA decides to get of the party and this enforces the other countries
to lessen the project’s budget by achieving fewer targets. Nevertheless USA
will join again later. Finally as we can see in the following map Korea, China
and India also joined the club. (11)

All these counties contributed financially (to cover the needs of 4, 57

billion euros) and technically in the project as each laboratory had developed
its own know-how in a specific part of the vessel. Europe is going to offer
almost the half amount of the money and the other participants about 10%
each one. Of course as we understand the site of ITER would have great
importance for the country which would host it so there was a very
competitive climate. There were three of them that contested for the site: 1)
Canada in Clarington 2) Japan in Roccansco Murra and France in Cadarache.
In 2003 Canada opts out and after a tough negotiation they decided to build it
in Cadarache on condition that the provisions would be 20% Japanese and
that Europe would buy 20% supplies from Japan. Additionally, it was decided
that the president would be Chinese! Cadarache proved to be an excellent
option as: 1) the laws that there allow the proper works that affect the
environment. 2) Nearby there is Supper Tore, a very famous fusion
experiment 3) Therefore there are the proper facilities around (nuclear plants).
(2)

14
Time table
As we referred ITER, as well as and its precursors (JET, Tore supra), is an
experimental reactor, nevertheless its size will be much greater than them. As
a result they will produce more plasma and more energy. Its designing is going
to last 10 years and its operation at least 30. After that if the operation is
successful DEMO (Demonstration) a new vessel will be constructed in which
the feasibility of building a fusion power plant will be proven. (11)

Energy production

The question is how will ITER produce energy? The energy which is
released due to fusion is given to neutrons (80%) (1), which acquire great
velocity. The fact that they are neutral allow them to pass through the
magnetic field and fall on the walls of the reactor and heat the reactors. Then
the classical procedure follows where water is warmed, steam is produced and
an alternator is activated to produce electricity. The energy of the other
particles is 20% and as we said it is used in order to heat the plasma.
(FAQ) The difficulty in these attempts is to produce more energy thay it
is consumed. Of course the nuclear one proved that this is possible, however
the target is to make controlled fusion. Now this problem hasn’t been solved
yet. The best power that JET reactor produces is 16 MW for 1-2 sec for
injected power 24 MW.
ITER will produce 500 MW for 400s and additionally 20% due to the
exothermic reactions of the materials. Nevertheless, there is going to be too
much waste during the convention to electricity as the efficiency is only 40%
so the final gaining is going to be 1 MW. This is not a large amount of energy
but it is enough to prove that energy can be produced. Further more, we
should not forget that ITER is an experiment in a small scale that needs to
comply with today’s standards for safety. Therefore, if ITER is a successful
project, DEMO (Demonstration) will be constructed in 2040 which is going to
be much more efficient. All these steps will enable us to erect safe and
profitable plants. (8)

15
Safety

The scientists in ITER have carefully analyzed all the factors like
weather conditions, terrorism, accidents etc (9) that may harm the facilities in
order to make a reliable vessel. The conclusion from this research is that even
in the worst scenarios the plant will be destroyed and the most affected
citizens will have 1% more radiation than they do.
First of all the possibility of explosions is not alarming because any time
in the reactor has less than a gram of fuel which feeds the fusion. This means
that the reaction can not continue unless we give fuel. Fission plants, use
radioactive materials like Uranium and Plutonium, which are very dangerous
and they have to be kept for tenths of thousands of years in safety. Unlike
them, fusion factories use only Lithium and water which are completely
nonradioactive and abundant in the natural environment.
The fact that Tritium is appearing in the procedure is not apprehensive
because it only has 12.3 years half life so it is destroyed quickly. Neverthe-
less it is considered that the next generation of reactors will only use
Deuterium as fuel. The offals of the installation are the materials suck as
advanced steels that compose the reactor which are going to be
removed when its operation finishes. These will be kept safe for 100
years or less as they are all carefully chosen to have the least
radioactivity possible.
This is not that dangerous if we think that after a decade the radiation
will be the same as in a coal power plant. This happens owing to the Uranium
and other harmful elements which are contained in this. To sum up, a coal
factory that produces 1GWatt of energy per year releases 5 tons of Uranium,
lot less than the amount which is needed in a fission power plant.
Finally, in comparison to the other plants no green house gasses are
released and generally nothing that may harm too the environment
excessively. (1)

16
Fusion Economics

In order to use a kind of energy in our every day life it should be cheap
and competitive to the other types of energy. The fact that fusion will get widely
in use in 2050 does not allow us to predict exactly the cost of the other power
plants. This happens because some roles change in the economy and the
environment. (1)
For example we know well the standard costs to operate a coal plant.
However we do not know:

 What resources of fuel we will have in the future and which is going to be
their price.
 Today some filters have been developed that reduce the emission of the
greenhouse gases but are very expensive. Will the factories be obliged to
use them?
 The consequences of the environment’s distraction are not visible yet. What
is going to be their cost?
 What will the taxes be in the future?

Besides all these, some models which are satisfyingly acceptable have shown
that the energy from nuclear fusion will be feasible because:

 The cost of the fuels will be only 1% of the total and the fuels exist widely in
any place on earth so there is no country that may capitalize them.
 The cost of a big part of the installation is already known (generators,
turbines).
 From the current cost of the tokamaks we assume that the confinement
cost will be high, however the produced power will be 1000 MWatt very
must bigger than the conventional vessel’s efficiency.

The energy now

Today two billion people do not have access to electricity. Nevertheless,

in the industrialised countries energy is essential. In the most sectors of our life
such as lighting, transportation, heating we rely on electricity and the other
forms of energy in order to survive. Research has shown that in the
industrialised world people use 10 times more energy than in the pour
countries. Many years before the population was limited so the energy demand
was not so high. Nowadays the energy consumption is more than ever and
research has shown that the following years, When the population will be
reached, the 12 billion in 2030 as we can see in the following diagram) there is
going to be a great energy crisis.

17
 Currently, many types of energy are used in order to cover our needs.
Depending on its resources (Petrol, coal, gas, even wood or animal dung). Its
requirements and its alliances, each country uses different energy production
systems. The dominant countries like USA and the European Union consumes
mainly petrol and as a result of this the 80% of world-wide energy is taken out
from it. However, oil stores are gradually reduced. Although it is said that many
reserves have not been discovered yet, owing to the scientists, the current are
going to last approximately from 20 to 40 years as the consumption is going to
be greater due to the population increase. Additionally the prices are going to
be so high, so the purchase of petrol completely will be inefficient. To continue,
coal is another solution as we have resources for 200 years, coal may be
found almost in every country on earth so we can not have a monopoly.
Nevertheless, fossil fuels are very harmful to the environment. For
instance, an energy production plant that uses coal, for each tone of fuel
releases 3.5 tones of CO2. If we consider the fact that an annual operation
demands 5 billion tones of coal we can understand that the offals exist in a
dangerous quantity in the air. As a result, abnormal phenomena are observed
like the greenhouse effect and acid rain. Beyond the infection of the natural
environment all these also affect the temperature on earth and cause unusual
weather conditions and ice melting in the poles. Finally, an attempt that was
made to replace the coal with “the more ecological” gas was not viable
because gas does not exist in a large quantity on earth.
Electricity is a very clear and easy to use form of energy which
comprises the 13% of the total energy that we consume. Its disadvantage is
that it cannot be produced directly therefore it has to be made by processing
“other kinds of fuels” like coal, petrol, hydroelectric and fission. Fission is
widespread in France 80% of electric energy is produced by fission and 30% in

18
Japan. Both countries have reduced the greenhouse effect emissions, however
the safety of the factories’ facilities remains controversial.
Conclusively, the hydroelectric plants are not completely harmless and
we do not know if the rivers have water in the future in order to operate. The
other conventional types of energy such as solar power, wind, energy are not
so efficient as they do not offer continually and they are too expensive facilities.
(1)

Conclusion

As we can understand fusion is a very important upcoming type of

energy which is going to cover our needs for more sources and decrease the
environmental problems. Many reactors have been developed in all over the
world until now (Jet in UK, Tore Supra in France etc) which where used in
order to study the phenomena inside the reactor.
Nowadays the fusion research evolves more quickly than the computer
processors (2). The plasma heating methods were not so efficient because of
the great losses. However, the new techniques which are used (H-mode) and
the enhancement of the current will give a boost to the construction of future
systems. The confinement is gradually improving by the use of advanced
superconducting coils to make magnetic fields and the safety is increased by
the use of non-radioactive materials.
ITER’s role is going to be significant for the economy of and the
technological development of the participants and for that reason there was a
great competition for the country which is going to host the installation. As we
show, the cost was shared between the factors and each country gained from
the project by selling materials and expertise. All these will contribute to the
construction of the Demo and finally the erection of the Next generation fusion
plants.

19
Glossary

α particles are helium nuclei with positive charge as they

Alpha particle have lost all their electrons. They are completely non-
radioactive.
Each particle inside the vessel makes a circular motion
Cyclotron affected by the Lorenz Force due to the magnetic field.
resonance The rounds per second that executes for each Tesla of the
magnetic field is the cyclotron resonance.
The divertor is a device that extracts the helium which is
divertor
produced by the reactions inside the vessel.
As we referred the current heating systems are insufficient
to cover our needs for this reason new methods have
been developed. Scientists during some experiments
H-mode observed that under certain circumstances some
characteristics like plasma’s total energy and plasma’s
density were improved impressively in the edge of the
plasma. This situation is called H-mode.
The nucleons in the nucleus repel each other because
they have opposite charge owing to the electromagnetic
Nuclear force : forces. However they are kept together by a nuclear force
which is much stronger then the electromagnetic and can
act only in very small distances.
neutralisation Neutralization is a charged particle is becoming neutral
The ITER will be probably made by a special steel named
EUROFER. This will be bombed by neutrons and other
particles which are going to change its substance and for
radioactivity that reason it will release other particles, dangerous for
the living creatures. This material will be buried under the
ground and it designed to be kept in safety as less as
possible.
Landau During this procedure the plasma propagates parallel to
Absorption the direction of the particles.
Directions mapping out the magnetic field in space. The
Magnetic field
degree of packing of the field lines indicates the relative
lines
strength of the field.
An atom that has more or fewer electrons than the number
Ion of protons in its nucleus and that therefore has a net
electric charge. Molecular ions also occur.
The radius of the orbit of an electron or an ion moving in
Larmor radius
the magnetic field.
The number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an
Mass number
atom.
Cyclotron The number of circles that the particles make in a second
resonance
Cross Section Is the probability that a nuclear reaction will happen.

20
Bibliography

Books

 G. McCracken et al, © 2005, Fusion, the Energy of Universe. (1)

WebPages

 http://www.efda.org/eu_fusion_programme/r-plasma_physics.htm
From European fusion development agreement site. (3)
 http://www.jet.efda.org/pages/content/fusion3.html
From Jet’s official site. (4)
 httphttp://www.iter.org/pdfs/presskitITEReng.pdf
From the ITER’s official site. (2)
 http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/fusion/physique/trajectoire.htm
F From CEA a French technological research organization. (6)
 http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/fusion/physique/chauffagerf.htm
From CEA a French technological research organization. (7)
 http://www.iter.org/FAQ/EE.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (8)
 http://www.iter.org/FAQ/SA.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (9)
 http://www.iter.org/Conditions.htm
From the ITER’s official site. (10)
 http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/gb/iter/iter.htm
From CEA a French technological research organization. (11)

Articles

 http://www.jet.efda.org/pages/focus/006heating/index.pdf
By Jam Mlynar, From Jet’s official site. (5)
 http://www.iter.org/pdfs/presskitITEReng.pdf
From the ITER ’s official site. (2)

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