Brill's Companion to Heordotus CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE THE PERSONALITY OF XERXES, KING OF KINGS * Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg To Louis Vanden Berg

e! "i# "ar$ gra#i#ude A %irs# glance a# # e curren# $anuals on Persian is#or& "ould sugges# # a# "e are "ell ac'uain#ed "i# # e (ersonali#& o% )er*es! +ing o% # e Ac ae$enid e$(ire %ro$ is accession in ,-. #ill is $urder in ,./0 Born # e son o% A#ossa! # e daug #er o% C&rus # e 1rea#! during # e +ings i( o% is %a# er 2arius e "as raised $os#l& in # e are$ 3Pla#o Leges .4,250 His %a# er no$ina#ed i$ as is successor 3)P% 67-68! Hd#0 90:-85 ei# er %or d&nas#ic reasons or because o% # e in%luence o% is $o# er a# cour#0 Soon a%#er is accession #o # e # rone e ad #o co(e "i# rebellions in Eg&(# and Bab&lonia0 T e Bab&lonian re;ol# in (ar#icular "as # e (relude #o a ne" (olic& #o"ards sub<ec# (o(ula#ions= )er*es did no# a##e$(# #o con#inue # e "ell-+no"n Ac ae$enid (olic& o% res(ec#ing na#ional and religious %eelings re%lec#ed in #i#les suc as >+ing o% Bab&lon! +ing o% lands!> bu# ence%or# called i$sel% $erel& >+ing o% lands!> # us s o"ing o;er# disregard %or Bab&lonian na#ional (ride $os# clearl& de$ons#ra#ed b& # e re$o;al o% # e cul#-s#a#ue o% ?ardu+ %ro$ i#s sanc#uar& 3Hd#0 :0:-650 A %e" &ears la#er e ;en#ured on an e*(edi#ion agains# 1reece a# # e ead o% an enor$ous ar$& # a# "as broug # #oge# er a%#er # ree &ears o% (re(ara#ions0 No#"i# s#anding # e uge e*(edi#ion-%orce and a %e" ini#ial successes! )er*es> %lee# "as de%ea#ed a# Sala$is and # e +ing de(ar#ed as#il& %ro$ 1ree+ soil! lea;ing be ind is general ?ardonius and a nu$ber o% (ic+ed #roo(s0 ?ardonius did no# %are be##er # an is $as#er and in ,94 # e re$ainder o% # e Persian ar$& "as des#ro&ed a# Pla#aea0 Bac+ in is o"n #erri#or& )er*es a((aren#l& ga;e u( @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ A T is c a(#er "as originall& (ublis ed in L0 de ?e&er and E0 Haerinc+ 3eds05 Arc aeologia Iranica e# Brien#alis ?iscellanea in Honore$ Louis Vanden Berg e Pee#ers! 1en#! :4-4! /,4-/.70 /-7 (lans %or a con'ues# o% 1reece and de;o#ed is #i$e #o #"o $a##ers= building and "o$en0 Bn # is second $a##er! "e are a((aren#l& >"ell-in%or$ed>= a(ar# %ro$ Herodo#us> $en#ion o% # e in#er;en#ion o% A#ossa in # e succession #o # e # rone 39065! and ano# er re%erence #o # e be a;iour o% A$es#ris! )er*es> "i%e! " o ad sacri%iced in old age se;en &oung Persian $en and se;en girls #o # e god o% # e under"orld as a subs#i#u#e %or ersel% 3Hd#0 90::,5! "e a;e # e %a$ous e(isode o% )er*es> in%a#ua#ion "i# is niece Ar#a&n#e! a dra$a#ic s#or& # a# resul#ed in # e dea# o% )er*es> %ull bro# er Masistes and is " ole %a$il& 340:7--::650 )er*es> building-ac#i;i#ies are ;er& "ell +no"n! bo# %ro$ # e e*#an# re$ains and %ro$ a nu$ber o% inscri(#ions0 ?uc o% " a# is no" s#ill ;isible a# Perse(olis! "as co$(le#ed or cons#ruc#ed during )er*es> reign! in (ar#icular # e $os# i$(ressi;e (alace! # e A(adana! "as %inis ed b& i$0 His (or#rai# once adorned # e cen#ral and $os# cons(icuous (lace on # e relie%s bu# "as re$o;ed #o # e Treasur& a# so$e (oin# a%#er is dea# ! (ossibl& as a resul# o% # e con%used si#ua#ion a# cour# a%#er # e (alacecons(irac&

#o " ic no# onl& )er*es! bu# also is designa#ed successor and eldes# son 2arius %ell ;ic#i$0 T e Sources T ese biogra( ical ou#lines are based on a ;arie#& o% sources= # e $os# i$(or#an# and $os# elabora#e being Herodo#us> descri(#ion o% )er*es> ca$(aign in boo+s si* #o nine o% # e His#ories0 E;idence %ro$ o# er sources! ro&al inscri(#ions! Bab&lonian docu$en#s and arc eological e;idence co$(le$en#s or con%ir$s # e (ic#ure0 As a resul#! our conclusions on # e (ersonali#& o% )er*es! is c arac#er and (s&c ological de$eanor see$ "ell es#ablis ed= e "as a bigo#! (assiona#e and a neuras# enic 32unlo( :4:8= 9,5! e "as sel%-rig #eous 3Coo+ :4-6= :885! e "as ;er& $uc in # e s ado" o%! and under # e in%luence o% is %a# er 3Fr&e :4-6= :8.5! a so;ereign o% indolen# na#ure 3Arborio ?ella :494= 985! no eas& $as#er 3Burn :4-/= 66:5! a "o$aniser " ose $os# i$(ressi;e cons#ruc#ion "as # e are$building 3N&berg :4/,= 4-5! a crea#ure $o#i;a#ed b& (assion ra# er # an b& reason 3I$$er"a r :4..= :9950 In s or#! )er*es "as a "ea+ (ersonali#& " ose %aul#s s o"ed $os#l& in is religious %ana#icis$! in is aes# e#ic en<o&$en# o% beau#i%ul surroundings and e "as#ed is #i$e on "o$en o% (ernicious in%luence a# # e cos# o% s#a#e-a%%airs0 /-: T ese s#a#e$en#s on )er*es> c arac#er are #a+en %ro$ bo# sc olarl& and $ore (o(ular discussions o% # e Persian e$(ire0 I# is no# di%%icul# #o e*(and # is rando$l& c osen s$all collec#ion o% sa$(les= : T ere see$s #o be al$os# general agree$en# as #o is#or&>s ;erdic# on )er*es= a second ra#e (ersonali#& and no# reall& "or# & o% # e # rone o% is %a# er0 I# is re$ar+able # a# # is (ic#ure o% )er*es! based %or # e larger (ar# on 1ree+ sources! " ose ellenocen#ric bias "as recognised long ago! under"en# no c anges a%#er # e disco;er& o% inscri(#ions b& )er*es i$sel%! # e 2ai;a and # e Hare$-inscri(#ion in :46/ and )P: in :4.90 Bn # e con#rar&! # ese ne" docu$en#s see$ed #o con%ir$ # e <udg$en# o% religious in#olerance and o% inade'uac& in co$(arison #o is %a# er 2arius0 Ta+ing #oge# er all # e e;idence i# see$s as i% # ere are %e" $onarc s in # e ancien# "orld " ose (ersonali#& and (s&c ological $o#i;a#ions are so "ell +no"n #o us as )er*es0 In recen# &ears so$e cri#icis$ as been (ro%%ered o% # is #radi#ional! ;ir#uall& unc anging (or#rai# o% )er*es0 T e e;idence %or a c ange o% religious (olic& in )er*es> reign is %ar less %ir$ # an as been concluded generall&= # e %a$ous (assage o% Herodo#us on # e re$o;al o% # e cul#-s#a#ue o% ?ardu+ as been $isread 3Cu r# D S er"in-W i#e :4-9= 9: %05! # ere is 3ne" as "ell as o;erloo+ed5 e;idence # a# # e #i#ular& in Bab&lon did no# c ange in as dras#ic a "a& as as o%#en been assu$ed 3ibid0= 98 %05! # e %a$ous 2ai;a-inscri(#ion is no# a co$(le#e no;u$ bu# an elabora#ion o% s#a#e$en#s alread& %or$ula#ed in 2B V 3Sancisi-Weerdenburg :4-7= :. %%050 In o# er res(ec#s #oo! si$ilar cri#icis$s $a& be $ade0 T is could resul# in so$e s$all correc#ions o% # e (re;ailing ideas on )er*es> c arac#er bu# i# $a& be $ore a((ro(ria#e #o in;es#iga#e o" # is i$age origina#ed! on " a# sources i# is based and " a# +ind o% reliable in%or$a#ion

# ese sources are li+el& #o &ield0 T is is a 'ues#ion # a# is e'uall& rele;an# #o $uc o# er in%or$a#ion on # e Persian e$(ire0 For $an& c ronological and %ac#ual da#a "e a;e #o rel& on 1ree+ sources0 Cno"ledge anded do"n %ro$ an#i'ui#& as ac'uired # e sanc#ioning o% #radi#ion= # e 1ree+s ad been # ere! ad obser;ed and ad co$e in#o close con#ac# "i# # e Persians0 T eir re(or#s are #rea#ed as (ri$ar& e;idence! " ile neglec#ing one o% # e $os# @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ : C%0 Sancisi-Weerdenburg :4-7= 66 %or %ur# er e*a$(les0 /-8 %unda$en#al is#orical rules o% dealing "i# sources0 In # e case o% )er*es # e usual (rocedure is as %ollo"s= corrobora#ion is soug # in Persian sources %or " a# "e +no" %ro$ Herodo#us # a# )er*es $us# a;e been li+e! and no# # e o# er "a& round0 I% "e +no" %ro$ a 3clearl& no;elis#ic5 #ale in # e His#ories # a# )er*es ad a lo;e-a%%air 3and so " a#= are # ere an& $onarc s " o a;e ne;er used # eir e*al#ed (osi#ion in order #o seduce a beau#i%ul girlE5 # is >%ac#> can be used #o in#er(re# )er*es> building (olic& " ic leads %ur# er$ore #o # e >conclusion> # a# is unders#andable # a# # e >Hare$> "as )er*es> $os# i$(ressi;e building 3i% # e usuall& so-called building "as indeed a are$! c%0 2e Franco;ic :4..= 87450 T is #&(e o% reasoning consis#s o% a nu$ber o% doub#%ul lin+s0 Firs#! i# is b& no $eans cer#ain i% 1ree+ descri(#ions o% )er*es (ro;ide us "i# ard %ac#s abou# # e +ing>s c arac#er0 Bn # e con#rar&! # ere is su%%icien# reason #o # in+! as I "ill discuss belo"! # a# # is is no# # e case0 Secondl&! # e building o% a ro&al residence is # e resul# o% a grea# nu$ber o% %ac#ors! including ancien# cul#ural #radi#ions! ne"l& in#roduced ele$en#s %ro$ surrounding cul#ures! # e a;ailabili#& o% $odels! $a#erial and cra%#s$en! ad$inis#ra#i;e! bureaucra#ic! bu# also ideological and legi#i$ising needs0 In s or#! a +ing can e*(ress is "is es or e;en i$(ose is " i$s! bu# # is is ardl& $ore # an one %ac#or in a ;er& co$(le* s&s#e$ and rarel& # e de#er$ining one0 In # e su(er%icial connec#ion! #radi#ionall& $ade be#"een # e (ersonali#& o% )er*es and # e docu$en#s %ro$ # e ear#land o% # e e$(ire! # e s#a#e is usuall& regarded as a one-$an-s o" and # e %orces and $o$en#u$ o% # e Iranian and ?eso(o#a$ian #radi#ions are o%#en co$(le#el& o;erloo+ed0 T is # ird (oin# ;iola#es one o% # e $os# %unda$en#al is#orical rules! na$el& # a# eac source s ould (ri$aril& be e;alua#ed on i#s o"n $eri#s and "i# in i#s cul#ural surroundings0 T e case o% )er*es is (ar#icularl& illu$ina#ing as i# de$ons#ra#es o" (er;asi;e # e o%#en $en#ioned ellenocen#ric bias in our ;ie"s o% ancien# Persia reall& is0 T e (s&c ological (or#rai# o% )er*es in Herodo#us is used as a collec#ion o% es#ablis ed %ac#s " ic $oreo;er are s'ueeFed %ar be&ond # eir original e*#en#0 W a# is essen#iall& a 1ree+ (ic#ure o% an orien#al $onarc is #rans%or$ed! b& reading in#o # e Persian e;idence # is (re;ious >+no"ledge!> in#o a descri(#ion o% a Persian +ing0 I# is a((ro(ria#e #o 'ues#ion # e " ole (rocedure and #o a##e$(# #o assess " a# our sources are "or# 0 As I "ill argue in # is (a(er! al# oug Herodo#us> (or#ra&al o% )er*es is (ersuasi;e and beau#i%ull&

/-6 elabora#ed! i# con#ains ;er& li##le # a# a is#orian could use as ard e;idence %or # e c arac#er o% # e +ing and i# s ould # ere%ore no# be used #o elucida#e enig$a#ic (oin#s in # e Persian sources0 Else" ere I a;e discussed )er*es> inscri(#ions 3Sancisi-Weerdenburg :4-7! c 0 :50 In # is (a(er I "ill concen#ra#e on # e 1ree+ side o% # e s#or&0 Herodo#us Herodo#us! on " ose in%or$a#ion "e are $os#l& de(enden# %or )er*es> reign! "as ardl& a con#e$(orar& o% # e 1rea# Cing0 He collec#ed is in%or$a#ion in # e (eriod a%#er # e Persian "ars and (robabl& a%#er # e dea# o% )er*es as "ell0 I# s ould be s#ressed # a# # ere is e;er& reason #o agree "i# ?o$igliano>s <udg$en# 3:494= :/75 o% Herodo#us as a is#orian "i# %ar $ore >in#ellec#ual generosi#&> # an an& o% is la#er %ello"-1ree+s0 Co$(le#e i$(ar#iali#& is be&ond an& is#orian! bu# Herodo#us a# leas# $ade a ;er& serious a##e$(# #o gi;e # e Persians a %air deal0 He "as! o"e;er! a is#orian and ad #o #ell is s#or&= e collec#ed! organised and arranged is $a#erial0 I% one realises # e condi#ions under " ic e acco$(lis ed # is #as+! one canno# bu# ad$ire # e i$(ressi;e resul#s0 S#ill! as in an& "or+ o% is#oriogra( &! # e "a& in " ic in%or$a#ion is c osen! elabora#ed and inser#ed a%%ec#s # e reliabili#& o% # e e;idence0 Herodo#us is b& no $eans # e #eller o% an unorganised nu$ber o% s#ories and # e indiscri$ina#ing re(or#er o% a consecu#i;e series o% earsa& accoun#s0 His (resence as a narra#or is clearl& e;iden# # roug ou# is "or+! e;en i% in so$e (ar#s $ore $ar+edl& so # an in o# ers 3I$$er"a r :499G ?arincola :4-9G 2e"ald :4-950 In # e lig # o% # e ini#ial 'ues#ion "i# " ic Herodo#us o(ens is "or+ H#o (reser;e # e $e$or& o% # e (as# b& (u##ing on record # e as#onis ing ac ie;e$en#s bo# o% our o"n and o% # e Asia#ic (eo(lesG secondl& and $ore (ar#icularl&! #o s o" o" # e #"o races ca$e in#o con%lic#I 3Hd#0 :0:5! # e +ing o% Persia " o ac#uall& led is ar$& #o # e ba##le "i# # e 1ree+s is gi;en an i$(or#an# (lace in # e s#or&0 Herodo#us! o"e;er! is %ar $ore cau#ious # an so$e o% is $odern co$$en#a#ors= )er*es is no# # e onl& (erson res(onsible %or # e ca$(aignG # e course o% is#or& is no# de#er$ined b& (ersonal decisions or indi;idual ac#ions alone0 Al# oug so$e (ersons $a& /-, a;e $ore in%luence on " a# is going #o a((en # an o# ers! $uc a##en#ion is (aid #o %ac#ors # a# are be&ond # e gras( o% indi;idual u$an beings0 In # e discussion be#"een )er*es and is councillors on # e (lans %or # e ca$(aign agains# 1reece! i# is di;ine in#er;en#ion in # e %or$ o% a drea$ " ic %inall& con;inces )er*es #o ac# 390:-50 S#ill! because o% is e*al#ed (osi#ion! # e +ing o% Persia as grea#er %reedo$ o% ac#ion # an an& o% # e o# er (ersonali#ies0 T is! i# s ould be realised! is Herodo#us> ;ision= )er*es! li+e # e o# er c arac#ers in # e His#ories! are (ieces on Herodo#us> c essboard # a# e $o;es according #o # e rules! bu# # e resul#ing ga$e is Herodo#us>

o"n0 To e*#end # is $e#a( or! "e $ig # as+ " ic are Herodo#us> (ieces! " a# are # e rules o% # e ga$e and " a# $o;es e $a+es #o ob#ain # e desired resul#0 ?uc a##en#ion as been (aid #o Herodo#us> sources0 T ere is no need #o discuss # is (roble$ ere in de#ail0 Judged b& # e "a& in " ic Herodo#us (resen#s is in%or$a#ion! i# can be di;ided in#o roug l& # ree +inds= a5 co$(le#e #ales " ic (robabl& reac ed Herodo#us as suc 3e0g0 # e P&# ios s#or& and # e Masistes-#ale5! b5 ac#ions o% )er*es based on earsa& or on re(or#s o% e&e"i#nesses 3e0g0 )er*es> be a;iour a# Ab&dos! a# T er$o(&lae and during # e ba##le o% Sala$is5 and c5 discussions o% )er*es "i# is ad;isers suc as Ar#abanus! 2e$ara#us! Ar#e$isia e#c0 I% our in#eres# is $ainl& in )er*es> (ersonali#&! # e ;alue o% # ese di%%eren# #&(es o% in%or$a#ion is ra# er ;ariable0 W a#! %or ins#ance does a no;elis#ic #ale sa& abou# # e real c arac#er o% one o% i#s $ain ac#orsE Ho" "ell "ere # e 1ree+s able #o dis#inguis be#"een # e role o% an eas#ern $onarc ! %ar $ore surrounded b& ri#ual and cere$onial (rescri(#ions # an # e& "ere accus#o$ed #o in # eir o"n surroundings! and # e (ersonali#& o% # e incu$ben# o% # e o%%iceE 2oes # e %ac# # a# )er*es "i#nessed # e sea-ba##le a# Sala$is sea#ed on is c air and no# ac#i;el& engaged in co$ba# as a 1ree+ co$$ander $ig # be! sa& an&# ing abou# is c arac#er or does i# ra# er re;eal so$e# ing o% # e role a Persian +ing "as e*(ec#ed #o (er%or$E As #o # e discussions be#"een )er*es and is c ie% councillors! i# is clear # a# i% e&e-"i#nesses ad been (resen# a# all! # e re(or# # e& $ig # a;e gi;en "ould a;e beco$e ra# er dis#or#ed in # e course o% # e %i%#& &ears be#"een # e Persian "ars and # e co$(osi#ion o% # e His#ories0 In # ese cases es(eciall& i# is $os# li+el& # a# Herodo#us direc#l& re$oulded or recrea#ed is $a#erial0 T e 1ree+ in%or$a#ion "e a;e o% )er*es> c arac#er # us consis#s o% e&e-"i#ness re(or#s /-/ " ic in all (robabili#& con#ain an e# nocen#ric bias= i# is ard enoug #o <udge # e c arac#er and (ersonali#& o% so$eone in o%%ice "i# in one cul#ure! bu# i# is nearl& i$(ossible #o $a+e si$ilar e;alua#ions i% one does no# a;e a solid gras( o% # e cul#ural codes and # e ins#i#u#ionalised be a;iour re'uired in an en#irel& di%%eren# cul#ure0 T e %a$ous e(isode o% )er*es c as#ising # e Helles(on# as usuall& been in#er(re#ed as (roo% o% )er*es> ;iolen# and irascible #e$(er= our +no"ledge o% ri#ual and religious be a;iour o% Persian +ings is so li$i#ed # a# # e assu$(#ion o% )er*es ac#ing ou# is (ersonal anger is aFardous! e;en i% Herodo#us clearl& describes )er*es ac#ing in suc #er$s0 Bu# e;en " en Herodo#us e*(lici#l& $en#ions a Persian cus#o$! i# is o%#en in#er(re#ed as a (ersonal ac#ion as! %or e*a$(le! in # e case o% # e u$an sacri%ice o% A$es#ris in 90::,0 8 )er*es and "o$en T e >s or# s#ories> in # e His#ories in " ic )er*es %igures are e'uall& (roble$a#ic sources %or # e (erson o% # e +ing= # e& (robabl& origina#ed in a (o(ular narra#i;e #radi#ion and # ere is no reason #o su((ose # a# # e& con#ain $uc solid e;idence0 It has been argue !"r "ther si#i$ar st"ries that the %attern &as #u'h "$ er than the

!igures na#e in it 3Lord :497= 89 KLord! A0 B0 3:49750 >Tradi#ion and # e Bral Poe#0> In La (oesia e(ica e la sua %or$aFione! Accade$ia naFionale dei Lincei0 Proble$i a##uali di scienFa e di cul#ura! 'uaderno :640 Ro$e0LG see also c 0 :6! # is ;olu$e050 In ano# er con#e*#! # e #er$ gene-(ool o% s#or&-$o#i%s as been used 31ri%%i# s :4-9= 6950 So$e o% # ese #ales con#ain a nu$ber o% $o#i%s # a# can be %ound in si$ilar s#ories abou# o# er (ersons0 The !a#"us st"r( "! Xer)es* $"+e !"r his nie'e Arta(nte has s"#e %ara$$e$s in the ,""- "! Esther 3c%0 Sancisi-Weerdenburg :4-7= .65 an a +er( stri-ing %ara$$e$ in the st"r( "! Her" ias 3?a## e" :,! :-:850 I# is # is #ale # a# is res(onsible %or )er*es> re(u#a#ion as a sensual (erson! easil& carried a"a& b& is (assions and abo;e all a "o$aniser H" o "as unable #o con#rol is en#ourage %ir$l&I 3Higne## :4.6= -450 His#or& <udges easil&! al# oug i# s ould be no#ed # a# Herodo#us is $ore (ruden# # an $an& o% is la#er colleagues0 His (or#rai# o% )er*es is %ar re$o;ed %ro$ # e si$(lis#ic de(ic#ion o% a #&ran# 31a$$ie :4-.= :-650 Herodo#us s o"s o" # e +ing is caug # in a @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 8 C%0 Legrand! co$$0 on Hd#0 40:74= HA$es#risM de;ai# <us'u>N ses ;ieu* <ours %aire (reu;e d>une i$(i#o&able cruau#OI0 /-. #ragic en#angle$en# be#"een # e (rescri(#ions o% is o%%ice! # e la" # a# # e +ing s ould gi;e " a#e;er e is as+ed %or! and # e (ar#l& un%oreseen conse'uences o% # e %ul%il$en# o% # is rule0 Bne could sa& # a# )er*es> generosi#& #o is niece in # is #ale is #oo unreser;ed! bu# # ere is! as %ar as I can see! no ele$en# in # e s#or& " ic "arran#s a <udg$en# o% # e +ing as an abuser o% is ro&al (o"er #o seduce "o$en0 Bn # e con#rar&! in # e (rologue #o # e $os# dra$a#ic (ar# o% # e s#or&! )er*es> in%a#ua#ion "i# Ar#a&n#e and i#s subse'uen# disas#rous resul#s! # e +ing uses nei# er # rea#s nor ;iolence bu# a((aren#l& acce(#s is re<ec#ion b& is sis#er-in-la"! " o originall& "as # e ob<ec# o% )er*es> lo;e0 T is s#or& and # is s#or& alone as earned )er*es # e re(u#a#ion o% being a "ea+ling " o "as con#rolled b& # e "o$en around i$0 E;en i% # e #ale could be de$ons#ra#ed #o be a (iece o% is#oriogra( & i# see$s a bi# ars #o base a bad re(u#a#ion on a single inciden# and %ur# er$ore #o de%ine i# as # e cause o% # e gradual decline o% a " ole e$(ire0 T ere are # ree o# er inciden#s in;ol;ing "o$en in # e recorded e;en#s o% )er*es> li%e= one in;ol;es is $o# er! #"o is "i%e0 T us! is accession #o # e # rone is su((osed #o be due #o # e in%luence o% A#ossa! is $o# er0 Ye#! no" ere else does Herodo#us $en#ion A#ossa as s#ill ali;e during # e la#er (ar# o% )er*es> li%e and e gi;es no clue as #o # e rela#ions i( be#"een $o# er and son0 T ere is e'uall& no #race in # e His#ories o% # e in%luence o% 'ueen A$es#ris on er usband0 Ra# er # e o((osi#e= in # e Ar#a&n#e e(isode s e as #o "ai# %or a %or$al occasion #o ob#ain # e re;enge s e desires0 Proo% o% er ;indic#i;e na#ure is ra# er (oor= $o#i;es %or u$an sacri%ice! o"e;er ab orren# # e& $a& see$ #o us! are $ore %re'uen#l& # e resul# o% religious codes # an (ersonal %eelings o% ;ani#& and cruel#&0 )er*es> rela#ions "i# "o$en! as re(or#ed b& Herodo#us! is $uc $ore a #ragic s#or& o% a +ing caug # be#"een du#& and %a#e! # an o% # e lec erous $onarc $odern co$$en#a#ors a;e %ound in # e Ar#a&n#e-s#or&0 In # e si#ua#ion described i# is no# so $uc # e seduc#i;e (o"ers o% "o$en " ic (lace )er*es in a di%%icul# si#ua#ion! bu# # e obliga#ion #o ad ere #o is ro&al du#& and no# #o go

bac+ on is (ro$ise0 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 6 Flor&>s conclusion # a# )er*es His e;en less in#elligen# # an Candaules %or e #"ice $a+es dangerous (ro$ises and is unable #o learn %ro$ # e un%or#una#e resul#s no# #o $a+e # e secondI 3:49-= :/85 underes#i$a#es # e %ac# # a# # e occasion o% A$es#ris> re'ues# "as a cus#o$ar& one 340:::5 and # a# )er*es "as co$(elled b& la" 3P(Q #oR nS$ou T<ergS$eno"50 He no# onl& could no# a;e re%used! e;en a;oidance o% # e occasion "as be&ond is (o"er! as Herodo#us recognises0 /-9 )er*es> (ersonali#& in Herodo#us Al# oug Herodo#us> sources clearl& did no# (ro;ide reliable $a#erial #o anal&se )er*es> (s&c ological de;elo($en#! i# is ;er& $uc a (ersonali#& " ic "e $ee# on # e (ages o% # e His#ories0 W ile i# is a $a##er o% deba#e " e# er # e ele$en#s o% )er*es> be a;iour #a+en #oge# er re(resen# a gradual c arac#er-e;olu#ion! i# see$s be&ond doub# # a# in is #e*# Herodo#us as $odelled and scul(#ured # e (erson o% )er*es0 Laug #er a# " a# "e +no" %ro$ indsig # #o be ina((ro(ria#e $o$en#s $ar+s %or ins#ance # ose #ragic si#ua#ions " ere )er*es underes#i$a#es # e (o#en#ial conse'uences o% is ac#ions or orders0 As La#einer as argued= H%e" laug s are recorded %or (os#eri#&0 T e& are $os# o%#en sub- is#orical non-e;en#sI 3:499= :9/50 T e $ain %unc#ion o% suc laug s! " ic una;oidabl& signal disas#er! is #o crea#e a (a##ern " ic H el(s # e accoun# carr& a none*(lici# in#er(re#a#ionI 3ibid0= :-850 In o# er "ords! laug #er and o# er non-;erbal %or$s o% co$$unica#ion are Herodo#us> $eans o% cons#ruc#ing # e #e*# in order #o %or$ a co$(re ensible e*(lana#ion o% " a# ad a((ened " ile a# # e sa$e #i$e crea#ing #ension be#"een # e (ar#ici(an#s> obser;a#ion o% # e e;en#s in # e i$$edia#e %u#ure and is#orical +no"ledge o% " a# reall& a((ened0 A# cer#ain $o$en#s # is #ension is $ade $ore dra$a#ic b& e*(lici# (redic#ions o% doo$ as e0g0 in # e Ar#a&n#e-s#or&= H er " ole %a$il& "as bound #o co$e #o a bad endI 340:7450 W a#e;er Ar#a&n#e does! " a#e;er )er*es re(lies! disas#er is %orecas# and ine;i#able0 Wee(ing $a& also ser;e #o en ance # e discre(anc& be#"een el(less inac#ion and # e course # e e;en#s are #o #a+e= " en )er*es burs#s in#o #ears a%#er is ins(ec#ion o% # e ar$& and %lee# a# Ab&dos 390,/5! Herodo#us> descri(#ion o% # e e;en# and # e subse'uen# con;ersa#ion "i# is uncle Ar#abanus signals less # e &bris#ic $onarc # an a $an " o is (re(ared #o #a+e reasonable ris+s and %ollo" in # e %oo#s#e(s o% is (redecessors on # e Persian # rone 390-50 Fa#e 3dai$onU #i" gUne#ai ir$V5! as Ar#abanus sa&s! 90:-5 $ean" ile as decided # a# # ings "ill a((en di%%eren#l& %ro$ " a# could be %oreseen0 I# is onl& "i# /-indsig # # a# "e +no" is calcula#ions "ere "rongG e;en a nu$ber o% 1ree+ ci#ies a# # e #i$e o% )er*es> ca$(aign "ere no# (ar#icularl& con%iden# o% 1ree+ ;ic#or&0 T is is no# # e rig # (lace #o discuss # e ele$en#s o% )er*es> c arac#erisa#ion in Herodo#us> #e*#0 Ver& o%#en # e e$( asis as been (u# on # e Persian +ing>s &bris#ic be a;iour0 T ere are! o"e;er! se;eral %ac#ors in is (or#rai#ure b& Herodo#us " ic add u( #o a #ragic )er*es! a $an unable #o esca(e %a#e0 A %ur# er anal&sis o% # e #e*# and a close scru#in& o% # e rele;an# (assages $a& resul# in a be##er unders#anding o% Herodo#us> insig # in#o # e in#errela#ion be#"een # e des#ined course o% e;en#s and u$an

in#er%erence in is#or&0 Here i# is onl& necessar& #o no#e # a# # e )er*es o% # e His#ories is as $uc a (roduc# o% Herodo#us> sources as o% # e au# or>s conscious cons#ruc#ion o% is narra#i;e0 I% "e are discussing # e (s&c olog& o% )er*es in Herodo#us> accoun#! "e are in %ac# dealing "i# Herodo#us> is#orical unders#anding and "i# is #ec ni'ues %or "ri#ing u( # e resul#s o% is in;es#iga#ions0 T ere are a# leas# se;eral la&ers be#"een # e (ersonali#& o% )er*es! as +ing o% Persia and as co$$ander o% is ar$ies during # e 1ree+ e*(edi#ion0 T e u((er$os# o% # ese la&ers is Herodo#us> care%ul and con;incing re(resen#a#ion! " ic $a+es us %eel as i% "e are encoun#ering a real li%e (ersonali#&0 Bu# "e s ould be "arned # a# " a# "e read is Hnei# er %ac# nor %ic#ion bu# >#rans%igured #radi#ion>I 3La#einer :4-9= :7650 , T e sources %ro$ Persia T e (ersuasi;eness o% Herodo#us> (or#rai# (lus # e %ac# # a# cen#uries o% is#oriogra( & on # e Persian e$(ire "ere based on # e 1ree+ sources is (robabl& res(onsible %or # e s#range si#ua#ion # a# # e 1ree+ e;idence is used #o e*(lain (uFFles in # e Persian sources! " ic ! i% s#udied on # eir o"n $eri#s! "ould no# a;e been (uFFling a# all0 T is is $os# s#ri+ingl& so in # e case o% )er*es> inscri(#ions " ic a;e been s#udied! anal&sed and co$(le$en#ed in # e cer#ain#& # a# # e 1ree+ sources con#ained >es#ablis ed %ac#s0> T e 2ai;a inscri(#ion read in # is lig # # us (resen#ed con%ir$a#ion o% # e %ac# @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ , La#einer adds= Hin#er(re#a#ion and recons#ruc#ion s#ruc#ure # e a$or( ous da#a o% e;er& is#orical in;es#iga#ionI 3Ibid05 /-4 # a# )er*es " o! in Herodo#us> accoun#! care%ull& lis#ens #o is religious ad;isers! as! i# s ould be no#ed! a +ing oug #! "as a religious %ana#ic and bigo#! " o de;ia#ed %ro$ # e %a$ous religious #olerance (rac#ised b& is (redecessors0 S#udied on i#s o"n $eri#s # e 2ai;a inscri(#ion s o"s a s#ri+ing con#inui#& "i# es(eciall& # e las# colu$n o% 2B= one $ig # conclude # a# ins#ead o% de;ia#ing! )er*es> (olic& "as a %ur# er ar#icula#ion o% # e (rogra$$e se# ou# b& is %a# er 3Sancisi-Weerdenburg :4-7= 6/50 Bn # e " ole! # e %or$ulaic c arac#er o% # e inscri(#ions as been under;alued0 Too o%#en # e& are read as # e (ersonal s#a#e$en#s o% indi;iduals! underes#i$a#ing # e %orces o% a #radi#ion! be i# a "ri##en or an oral li#erar& one! " ic se# cer#ain li$i#s #o (ersonal ideas o% +ings " o! as see$s #o be generall& agreed! "ere # e$sel;es illi#era#e and ad a# leas# #o dic#a#e #o scribes " o +ne" # e a((ro(ria#e "ords and ( rases0 A(ar# %ro$ # e in%luence o% our ellenocen#ric bias! # e i$(or#ance o% ri#ual surrounding # e +ing>s o%%ice is underes#i$a#ed= +ings are +ings in a #radi#ion! # eir o%%ice is based on con#inui#&! # eir sa&ings are no# e*(ressions o% # eir (ar#icular s#a#e o% $ind on a s(eci%ic occasion bu# ro&al declara#ions o% # e s#a#e o% a%%airs0 W en )er*es re(ea#s # e sa$e lines in # e inscri(#ion %ound in :4.9 in Perse(olis as 2arius did in # e inscri(#ion on is #o$b! # e onl& (ossible conclusion is= # is is " a# a Persian +ing oug # #o sa&! # is is " a# Persian +ings i(-and no# # e inciden#al older o% # e o%%ice-s ould loo+ li+e0 / Be%ore assu$ing # a# #"o di%%eren# #&(es o% e;idence con%ir$ eac

o# er! i# s ould be anal&sed " e# er in %ac# # e& do con#ain # e sa$e +ind o% in%or$a#ion0 In # e case o% # e )er*es o% # e inscri(#ions and # e )er*es o% Herodo#us! # ere is no <us#i%ica#ion in using @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ / C%0 Coo+ :4-6= .4 on # e inscri(#ions= HB% all # e +ings 2arius I "as $uc # e $os# lo'uacious in is inscri(#ions! indeed e "as e;en in#ros(ec#i;e0 )er*es ca$e second #o i$G bu# a long #e*# o% is %ound near Perse(olis in :4.9 re(ea#s in is o"n na$e " a# is %a# er ad said in a ;er& (ersonal ;ein abou# i$sel% a# Na's -i Rus#a$ 32Nb5! so i# $a& no# be en#irel& c&nical #o "onder " e# er e;en is celebra#ed >dai"a inscri(#ion> $a& no# also #urn ou# #o be less original # an as been su((osed 3i#al0 H0S0-W050 I# is no# a# all c&nical= a ne" co(& o% )P ! in # e na$e o% )er*es or 2arius "ould onl& be a $issing (ar# in # e de;elo($en# o% a ro&al ideolog&! %or " ic ! a# (resen# "e a;e onl& e;idence %ro$ earl& in 2arius> reign and %ro$ )er*es> reign0 Coo+>s ;erdic# s#e$s %ro$ a $is#a+en belie% in # e indi;idual c arac#er o% # e #e*#s! " ic in #urn de(ends on # e %ac# # a# # e 1ree+ sources (or#ra& # e +ings as indi;idual u$an beings0 E;en an Iranis# suc as Fr&e 3:4-6= :8:5 # us co$es #o # e %ollo"ing s#a#e$en# on )P = HBnl& )er*es a$ong # e Ac ae$enid +ings s o"ed s#rong %eelings abou# religionI0 /47 # e da#a as co$(le$en#ar& #o eac o# er0 T e inscri(#ions (ro;ide in%or$a#ion on # e ro&al ideolog&! # e His#ories gi;e insig # in#o # e 1ree+ ;ision o% an eas#ern $onarc 0 In Persian surroundings "e do no# %ind an& e;idence # a# can be used %or cons#ruc#ing a (s&c ological (or#rai# o% )er*es! or o% an& o% # e o# er rulers o% # e Ac ae$enid e$(ire0 T is is $os# clearl& illus#ra#ed b& # e Perse(olis and # e Na'i HRus#a$ relie%s and # e (roble$s caused in #r&ing #o iden#i%& # e +ings scul(#ured in ;arious (osi#ions and in ;arious (laces0 I% no# b& an acco$(an&ing inscri(#ion or b& # e eadgear # e& are "earing! i# is i$(ossible #o iden#i%& " ic +ing is de(ic#ed0 . T is can ardl& be due #o inabili#& o% # e scul(#ors! " o in all li+eli ood "ere ca(able o% gi;ing so$e indi;iduali#& #o a (or#rai# i% necessar& or re'uired0 Again! # e conclusion is <us#i%ied # a#! i% indi;idual +ings are indeed (or#ra&ed! i# is abo;e all # e unc anging #radi#ional as(ec#s o% +ings i( # a# "ere e$( asised and e*(ressed0 I% "e "an# #o s#ud& # e Ac ae$enid e$(ire on i#s o"n #er$s! i# s ould be a((roac ed %ro$ # is angle= o" are #radi#ion and inno;a#ion re%lec#ed in # e e*#an# docu$en#a#ionE Be%ore connec#ing (rocesses! " ic ad # eir o"n $o$en#u$! "i# # e in#er%erence 3or lac+ o% ac#ion5 o% s(eci%ic +ings! i# s ould be realised # a# $an& o% # e 'ues#ions "e a;e been as+ing s o" # e sa$e elleno-cen#ric bias as our resul#s0 Seen %ro$ a Persian (oin# o% ;ie"! # e reign o% )er*es $a& "ell #urn ou# #o be # e glorious ig (oin# o% Ac ae$enid is#or& and no# # e $o$en# a# " ic decline se# in0 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ . As e0g0 in # e case o% # e Treasur&-relie%s0 Porada 3:4-/= -:.-45 sees 2arius as # e en# roned +ing! $ainl& %or s#&lis#ic reasons! agains# Von 1all 3:49,= :,- %%05 " o as (oin#ed ou# # a# # e +ing on # e # rone does no# a;e # e cro"n "i# crenela#ions " ic is c arac#eris#ic %or 2arius0