A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

1.INTRODUCTION
The growing demand and the aging of network smoke it desirable to control the
power flow in power-transmission systems fast and reliably. The flexible ac-transmission
system (FACTS) that is defined by IEEE as a power-electronic based system and other static
equipment that provide control of one or more ac-transmission system parameters to enhance
controllability and increase power-transfer capability, and can be utilized for power-flow
control. Currently, the unified power-flow controller (UPFC) shown in Fig. 1.1, is the most
powerful FACTS device, which can simultaneously control all the parameters of the system:
the line impedance, the transmission angle, and bus voltage.

Fig.1.1 Simplified representation of a UPFC.

The UPFC is the combination of a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and
a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC), which are coupled via a common dc link, to
allow bidirectional flow of active power between the series output terminals of the SSSC and
the shunt output terminals of the STATCOM. The converter in series with the line provides
the main function of the UPFC by injecting a four-quadrant voltage with controllable
magnitude and phase. The injected voltage essentially acts as a synchronous ac-voltage
source, which is used to vary the transmission angle and line impedance, thereby
independently controlling the active and reactive power flow through the line.
The series voltage results in active and reactive power injection or absorption between
the series converter and the transmission line. This reactive power is generated internally by
the series converter (see e.g., SSSC), and the active power is supplied by the shunt converter
that is back-to-back connected. The shunt converter controls the voltage of the dc capacitor
by absorbing or generating active power from the bus; therefore, it acts as a synchronous

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

source in parallel with the system. Similar to the STATCOM, the shunt converter can also
provide reactive compensation for the bus.
The components of the UPFC handle the voltages and currents with high rating;
therefore, the total cost of the system is high. Due to the common dc-link interconnection, a
failure that happens at one converter will influence the whole system. To achieve the required
reliability for power systems, bypass circuits and redundant backups (backup transformer,
etc.) are needed, which on other hand, increase the cost. Accordingly, the UPFC has not been
commercially used, even though; it has the most advanced control capabilities.
1.1.

Objective of the project

In this project a new concept, called distributed power-flow controller (DPFC) that is

derived from the UPFC. The same as the UPFC, the DPFC is able to control all system
parameters. The DPFC eliminates the common dc link between the shunt and series
converters.
The active power exchange between the shunt and the series converter is through the
transmission line at the third-harmonic frequency.
1.2.

Outline of the project

Chapter 2 explains Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the

recent years a well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of
power electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various
applications worldwide. A number of new types of devices are in the stage of being
introduced in practice.
Chapter 3 explains the growing demand and the aging of network smoke it desirable
to control the power flow in power-transmission systems fast and reliably. The flexible actransmission system (FACTS) that is defined by IEEE as a power-electronic based system
and other static equipment that provide control of one or more ac-transmission system
parameters to enhance controllability and increase power-transfer capability, and can be
utilized for power-flow control.

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

In chapter 4, the principle of the DPFC is presented, followed by a steady-state
analysis of the DPFC. During the analysis, the control capability and the influence of the
DPFC on the network are investigated. The principle and analysis of another device that
emerges from the IPFC, the so-called Distributed Interline Power Flow Controller (DIPFC),
is also introduced.
Chapter 5 explains about improvement of power quality by using various methods and
it also gives benefits of power quality.
To control the multiple converters, DPFC consists of three types of controllers; they
are central controller, shunt control, and series control. Chapter 6 explains about those
controllers and also gives basic idea of PWM.

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

2.CLASSIFICATION OF FACTS DEVICES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well
known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic
devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A
number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or
landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of
substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying
operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications
of FACTS-devices are:
Power flow control,
Increase of transmission capability,
Voltage control,
Reactive power compensation,
Stability improvement,
Power quality improvement,
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Power conditioning,
Flicker mitigation,
Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.
The basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems as shown in below figure. The
usage of lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits.
Voltage and stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS
devices. It can be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets
more and more important.
The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as
fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short
reaction times down to far below one second.

Fig 2.1 Operational limits of transmission lines for different voltage levels
The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of
power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in
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converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network
elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system.
Figure 2.1 shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the
FACTS-devices.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF MAJOR FACTS-DEVICES

For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some
explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices
provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the
conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like
mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTSdevices can equally be static and dynamic.

Fig 2.2 Overview of FACTS-Devices

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

The left column in Figure 2.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with
transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power
electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching
patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses
Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several
years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the
converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage
source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or
Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free
controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or
IGCTs.
High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even
to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an
increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of
the converters are required to compensate this.
2.3 CONFIGURATIONS OF FACTS-DEVICES:
2.3.1 SHUNT DEVICES:
The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks
are:
Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.
Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.
Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge
demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground
train systems.

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Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.
Improvement of static or transient stability.
Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power
quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes
due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations
require SVCs or STATCOMs.
2.3.2 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC)
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load
varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as
well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage
depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse.
A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the
reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system
conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability.
Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems:
a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin
b. To damp power oscillations
c. To achieve effective voltage control
In addition, SVCs are also used
1. in transmission systems
A. To reduce temporary over voltages
B. To damp sub synchronous resonances
C. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems
2. in traction systems
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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

a. To balance loads
b. To improve power factor
c. To improve voltage regulation

3. In HVDC systems
2.3.3 SVC USED IN VARIOUS TYPES
a. To provide reactive power to acdc converters
Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer
capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different
network conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through
voltage amplitude modulation.
SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the
Thyristor valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide
controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power
elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to
the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

Fig 2.3 SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristic

In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor
Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of
these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure.
The first commercial SVC was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On
transmission level the first SVC was used in 1979. Since then it is widely used and the most
accepted FACTS-device.
2.4 SVC USING A TCR AND AN FC
In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR
(thyristor controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is
chosen larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging
vars that have to be absorbed from the system.
By changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from 90 to 180,
the reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading
vars that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.

Fig 2.5 SVC using a TCR/FC type

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2.4.1 SVC of the FC/TCR type:

The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be
generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal
steady-state operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAr.
These harmonics are filtered in the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled
by arranging the TCR and the secondary windings of the step-down transformer in delta
connection.
The capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh,
and other higher-order harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due to the
circulating current between the reactor and capacitor banks.

Fig 2.6 Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSCTCR, TCRFC compensators

and synchronous condenser

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These SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors are
usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be
designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be
employed.

2.4.2 SVC USING A TCR AND TSC:

This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators by
reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system
disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor
bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing the harmonics
generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a
small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the TCR.

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Fig 2.7 SVC using a TCR and TSC type

2.4.3 STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATOR (STATCOM):

In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM (Static
Compensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to the
synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the
synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and
lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build with Thyristors with turn-off
capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between
the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the
voltage.
The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent
from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the
maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means,
that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability.
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In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid
interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the
combination with energy storages on the DC-side.
The performance for power quality and balanced network operation can be improved
much more with the combination of active and reactive power.

Fig 2.8 STRUCTURE OF STATCOM

2.5 SERIES DEVICES:
Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even Voltage
Source Converter based devices.
The main applications :
Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power
transmissions,
Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,
Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,

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Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.

2.5.1 THYRISTOR CONTROLLED SERIES COMPENSATOR (TCSC):

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) addresses specific dynamical
problems in transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems
are interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance
(SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and
series compensated transmission systems.
The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling
line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows
for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC
also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.
From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional
series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including
the Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise
the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary
systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing
angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational
diagram.

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A FACTS DEVICE: DISTRIBUTED POWER-FLOW CONTROLLER(DPFC)

Fig 2.9 Structure of thyristor controlled series capacitor(TCSC)

Advantages
Continuous control of desired compensation level
Direct smooth control of power flow within the network
Improved capacitor bank protection
Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher levels of
compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations
or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.
2.6 Shunt and Series Devices
2.6.1Basic concept of Dynamic Power Flow Controller

A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow
Controller (DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer
(PST) and switched series compensation.

A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure
2.10. The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:

A standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)

Series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors

(TSC / TSR)

A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is

Optimal depending on the system reactive power requirements)

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Fig 2.10 the structure of DFC

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or
TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support
in case of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of reactors and the
capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance
variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the
half of the smallest one can be added.

The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics.
However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be
applied for a continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the
following rules:

TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.

The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.

The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the
currents higher than normal loading.

The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the
two parts of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed
of control, influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading
the two parts of the series voltage has quite different characteristics.

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The steady state control range for loadings up to rated current is illustrated in Figure
2.11, where the x-axis corresponds to the throughput current and the y-axis
corresponds to the injected series voltage.

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through
the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to
increasing the power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the
origin (at which the tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short
circuit reactance of the PST.

Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an
injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in
and/or the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the
DFC decreases (and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point
moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows
depends on the size of the parallel reactance.

The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps
are switched in and the tap is at its maximum.

Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases
(due e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease.

At zero current, it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will
not contribute to the series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current
corresponds to rated PST series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the
operating range will be limited by the line corresponding to maximum tap and the
capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the
capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit reactance of the PST,
giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.

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Fig 2.11 Operational diagram of a DFC

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3.UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER(UPFC)

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. It
acts as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

Fig 3.1 Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two
voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor.
The DC-circuit allows the active power exchange between shunt and series
transformer to control the phase shift of the series voltage. This setup, as shown in Figure 3.1,
provides the full controllability for voltage and power flow.
The series converter needs to be protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the high
efforts for the Voltage Source Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite

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expensive, which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is
required simultaneously.

3.2 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC

The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing a
common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling
transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt
transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer.
A basic UPFC functional scheme is shown in fig.1

Fig 3.2 Operating principle of UPFC

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system
(Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and
reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and
reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series
inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is
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operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the
line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power
absorbed from the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their
transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive
power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point.
The two VSIs can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in
that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive
power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is
operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and
hence the power low on the transmission line.
The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is
operating in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The
shunt inverter can be controlled in two different modes:
VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request.
The shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current
request and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of
control a feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required.
Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically
regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference
value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end
bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer.
The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series
with the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage
can be obtained in several ways.
Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and
phase angle of the series voltage.
Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement
between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance Emulation
mode: The reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance

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Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q to
maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.
3.3 BASIC CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT
In the presently used practical implementation, The UPFC consists of two switching
converters, which in the implementations considered are voltage source inverters using gate
turn-off (GTO) thyristor valves, as illustrated in the Fig 3.3 These back to back converters
labeled Inverter 1 and Inverter 2 in the figure, are operated from a common dc link
provided by a dc storage capacitor.
This arrangement functions as an ac to ac power converter in which the real power
can freely flow in either direction between the ac terminals of the two inverters and each
inverter can independently generate (or absorb) reactive power at its own ac output terminal.

Fig 3.3 Basic circuit arrangement of unified power flow controller

3.4. OPERATION OF UPFC CIRCUIT

Inverter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting an ac voltage Vpq
with controllable magnitude Vpq (0VpqVpqmax) and phase angle (0360), at the power
frequency, in series with the line via an insertion transformer. The injected voltage is
considered essentially as a synchronous voltage source. The transmission line current flows
through this voltage source resulting in real and reactive power exchange between it and the
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ac system. The real power exchanged at the ac terminal (i.e., at the terminal of insertion
transformer) is converted by the inverter into dc power that appears at the dc link as positive
or negative real power demanded. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal is
generated internally by the inverter.
The basic function of inverter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by
Inverter 2 at the common dc link. This dc link power is converted back to ac and coupled to
the transmission line via a shunt-connected transformer. Inverter 1 can also generate or
absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired, and there by it can provide independent
shunt reactive compensation for the line.
It is important to note that where as there is a closed direct path for the real power
negotiated by the action of series voltage injection through Inverters 1 and 2 back to the line,
the corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by inverter 2 and
therefore it does not flow through the line.

3.5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER CONTROL

Consider Fig 3.5 At (a) a simple two machine (or two bus ac inter-tie) system with
sending end voltage Vs, receiving-end voltage Vr, and line (or tie) impedance X (assumed, for
simplicity, inductive) is shown. At (b) the voltages of the system in the form of a phasor
diagram are shown with transmission angle and Vs=Vr=V. At (c) the transmitted power
P (P=V2/X sin) and the reactive power Q=Qs=Qr (Q=V2/X (1-cos)) supplied at the ends of
the line are shown plotted against angle . At (d) the reactive power Q=Q s=Qr is shown
plotted against the transmitted power corresponding to stable values of (i.e., 0<=
<=90o).

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Fig 3.5 Simple two machine system (a) related voltage phasors (b)Real and reactive power
verses transmission angle (c) sending end/receiving end reactive power verses transmitted
real power(d).
Basic power system of fig 3.5 with the well known transmission characteristics is
introduced for the purpose of providing a vehicle to establish the capability of the UPFC to
control the transmitted real power P and the reactive power demands, Qs and Qr, at the
sending end, respectively, the receiving end of the line.
Consider Fig 3.6, the simple power system of Fig 3.5 is expanded to include the
UPFC. The UPFC is represented by a controllable voltage source in series with the line
which, as explained in the previous section, can generate or absorb reactive power that it, or
absorbed from it, bye the sending end generator. The UPFC in series with the line is
represented by the phasor Vpq having magnitude Vpq(0 Vpq Vpqmax ) and angle (0
360) measured from the given phase position of phasor Vs, as illustrated in the figure. The
line current represented by the phasor I, flows through the series voltage source, V pq and
generally results in both reactive and real power exchange. In order to represent UPFC
properly, the series voltage source is stipulated to generate only the reactive power Q pq it
exchanges with the line. Thus the real power Ppq it negotiates with the line is assumed to be
transferred to the sending-end generator excited.

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This is in arrangement with the UPFC circuit structure in which the dc link between
the two constituent inverters establish a bi-directional coupling for real power flow between
the injected series voltage source and the sending end bus.
As Fig 3.6 implies, in the present discussion it is further assumed for clarity that the
shunt reactive compensation capability of the UPFC not utilized. This is the UPFC shunt
inverter is assumed to be operated at unity power factor, its sole function being to transfer the
real power demand of the series inverter to the sending-end generator. With these
assumptions, the series voltage source, together with the real power coupling to the sending
end generator as shown in fig 3.6, is a an accurate representation of the basic UPFC.

Fig 3.6 Two machine system with UPFC

It can be observed in Fig 3.6 that the transmission line sees V s+Vpq as the effective
sending end voltage. Thus it is clear that the UPFC effects the voltage (both its magnitude
and angle) across the transmission line and therefore it is reasonable to expect that it is able to
control, by varying the magnitude and angle of Vpq, the transmittable real power as well as
the reactive power demand of the line at any given transmission angle between the sendingend and receiving-end voltages.
3.6 UPFC ADVANTAGES
1. Upfc is a most powerful facts device it is control all the parameters of the system
it is controlled the line impedance , transmission angle , and bus voltages
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3.7 Disadvantages
1.The components of the UPFC handle the voltages and currents with high rating; therefore,
the total cost of the system is high.
2.Due to the common dc-link interconnection, a failure that happens at one converter will
influence the whole system.
3.To achieve the required reliability for power systems, bypass circuits and redundant
backups (backup transformer, etc.) are needed, which on other hand, increase the cost.
4.Accordingly, the UPFC has not been commercially used, even though; it has the most
advanced control capabilities.
To avoid these problems introduce a new concept called as a disrtributed power flow
controller .

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4.DISTRIBUTED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
IN the previous chapter, an overview was given of mechanical- and PE-based PFCDs.
Because of high control capability, the PE-based combined PFCs, specifically UPFC and
IPFC are suitable for the future power system. However, the UPFC and IPFC are not widely
applied in practice, due to their high cost and the susceptibility to failures. Generally, the
reliability can be improved by reducing the number of components; however, this is not
possible due to the complex topology of the UPFC and IPFC. To reduce the failure rate of the
components by selecting components with higher ratings than necessary or employing
redundancy at the component or system levels are also options. Unfortunately, these solutions
increase the initial investment necessary, negating any cost- related advantages. Accordingly,
new approaches are needed in order to increase reliability and reduce cost of the UPFC and
IPFC at the same time.
After studying the failure mode of the combined FACTS devices, it is found that a
common DC link between converters reduces the reliability of a device, because a failure in
one converter will pervade the whole device though the DC link. By eliminating this DC link,
the converters within the FACTS devices are operated independently, thereby increasing their
reliability. The elimination of the common DC link also allows the DSSC to series
converters. In that case, the reliability of the new device is further improved due to the
redundancy provided by the distributed series converters. In addition, series Converter
distribution reduces cost because no high-voltage isolation and high power rating components
are required at the series part. By applying the two approaches eliminating the common DC
link and distributing the series converter, the UPFC is further developed into a new combined
FACTS device: the Distributed Power Flow Controller (DPFC), as shown in Figure 3-1.
4.1 DPFC TOPOLOGY
By introducing the two approaches outlined in the previous section (elimination of the
common DC link and distribution of the series converter) into the UPFC, the DPFC is
achieved. Similar as the UPFC, the DPFC consists of shunt and series connected converters.
The shunt converter is similar as a STATCOM, while the series converter employs the DSSC
concept, which is to use multiple single-phase converters instead of one three-phase

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converter. Each converter within the DPFC is independent and has its own DC capacitor to
provide the required DC voltage. The configuration of the DPFC is shown in Figure 4.2.

Fig 4.2 DPFC configuration

As shown, besides the key components - shunt and series converters, a DPFC also
requires a high pass filter that is shunt connected to the other side of the transmission line and
a

transformer on each side of the line. The reason for these extra components will be

explained later. The unique control capability of the UPFC is given by the back-to-back
connection between the shunt and series converters, which allows the active power to freely
exchange. To ensure the DPFC has the same control capability as the UPFC, a method that
allows active power exchange between converters with an eliminated DC link is required.

4.2 DPFC OPERATING PRINCIPLE

4.2.1 ACTIVE POWER EXCHANGE WITH ELIMINATED DC LINK
Within the DPFC, the transmission line presents a common connection between the
AC ports of the shunt and the series converters. Therefore, it is possible to exchange active
power through the AC ports. The method is based on power theory of non-sinusoidal
components. According to the Fourier analysis, non-sinusoidal voltage and current can be
expressed as the sum of sinusoidal functions in different frequencies with different
amplitudes. The active power resulting from this non-sinusoidal voltage and current is
defined as the mean value of the product of voltage and current. Since the integrals of all the
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cross product of terms with different frequencies are zero, the active power can be expressed
by:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
where Vi and Ii are the voltage and current at the ith harmonic frequency respectively, and
is the corresponding angle between the voltage and current. Equation (4.1) shows that the
active powers at different frequencies are independent from each other and the voltage or
current at one frequency has no influence on the active power at other frequencies. The
independence of the active power at different frequencies gives the possibility that a
converter without a power source can generate active power at one frequency and absorb this
power from other frequencies.
By applying this method to the DPFC, the shunt converter can absorb active power
from the grid at the fundamental frequency and inject the power back at a harmonic
frequency. This harmonic active power flows through a transmission line equipped with
series converters. According to the amount of required active power at the fundamental
frequency, the DPFC series converters generate a voltage at the harmonic frequency, there by
absorbing the active power from harmonic components. Neglecting losses, the active power
generated at the fundamental frequency is equal to the power absorbed at the harmonic
frequency. For a better understanding, Figure 3-3 indicates how the active power is
exchanged between the shunt and the series converters in the DPFC system. The high-pass
filter within the DPFC blocks the fundamental frequency components and allows the
harmonic components to pass, thereby providing a return path for the harmonic components.
The shunt and series converters, the high pass filter and the ground form a closed loop for the
harmonic current.

4.3. USING THIRD HARMONIC COMPONENTS

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Due to the unique features of 3rd harmonic frequency components in a three-phase
system, the 3rd harmonic is selected for active power exchange in the DPFC. In a three-phase

Fig 4.3 Active power exchange between DPFC converters

System, the 3rd harmonic in each phase is identical, which means they are zerosequence components. Because the zero-sequence harmonic can be naturally blocked by
trans- formers and these are widely incorporated in power systems (as a means of
changing voltage), there is no extra filter required to prevent harmonic leakage. As
introduced above, a high-pass filter is required to make a closed loop for the harmonic current
and the cutoff frequency of this filter is approximately the fundamental frequency.
Because the voltage isolation is high and the harmonic frequency is close to the cutoff
frequency, the filter will be costly. By using the zero-sequence harmonic, the costly filter can
be replaced by a cable that connects the neutral point of the
side in Figure 4.2 with the ground. Because the

transformer on the right

-winding appears open-circuit to the 3rd

harmonic current, all harmonic current will flow through the Y- winding and concentrate to
the grounding cable as shown in Figure 4.4. Therefore, the large high-pass filter is eliminated.

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Fig 4.4 Utilize grounded

transformer to filter zero-sequence harmonic

Another advantage of using the 3rd harmonic to exchange active power is that the grounding
of the

transformers can be used to route the harmonic current in a meshed network. If

the network requires the harmonic current to flow through a specific branch, the neutral point
of the

transformer in that branch, at the side opposite to the shunt converter, will be

grounded and vice versa. Figure 4.5 shows a simple example of routing the harmonic current
by using the grounding of the

transformer. Because the floating neutral point is located

on the transformer of the line without the series converter, it is an open-circuit for 3rd
harmonic components and therefore no 3rd harmonic current will flow through this line.

Fig 4.5 Route the harmonic current by using the grounding of the

transformer

The harmonic at the frequencies like 3rd, 6th, 9th... are all zero-sequence and all can
be used to exchange active power in the DPFC. However, the 3rd harmonic is selected,
because it is the lowest frequency among all zero-sequence harmonics. The relationship
between the exchanged active power at the ith harmonic frequency Pi and the voltages
generated by the converters is expressed by the well known the power flow equation and
given as:

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4.2
Where Xi is the line impedance at ith frequency,
magnitudes of the

and

harmonic of the shunt and series converters, and

are the voltage

is the

angle difference between the two voltages. As shown, the impedance of the line limits the
active power exchange capacity. To exchange the same amount of active power, the line with
high impedance requires higher voltages. Because the transmission line impedance is mostly
inductive and proportional to frequency, high transmission frequencies will cause high
impedance and result in high voltage within converters. Consequently, the zero-sequence
harmonic with the lowest frequency - the 3rd harmonic - has been selected.
4.5 ANALYSIS OF THE DPFC
In this section, the steady-state behavior of the DPFC is analyzed, and the control
capability of the DPFC is expressed in the parameters of the network and the DPFC. To
simplify the DPFC, the converters are replaced by controllable voltage sources in series with
impedance. Since each converter generates the voltage at two different frequencies, it is
represented by two series-connected controllable voltage sources, one at the fundamental
frequency and the other at the third-harmonic frequency. Assuming that the converters and
the transmission line are lossless, the total active power generated by the two frequency
voltage sources will be zero. The multiple series converters are simplified as one large
converter with the voltage, which is equal to the sum of the voltages for all series converter,
as shown in Fig. 4.9.

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Fig 4.9 DPFC simplified representation.
In Fig. 4.9, the DPFC is placed in a two-bus system with the sending-end and the
receiving-end voltages Vs and Vr , respectively. The transmission line is represented by an
inductance L with the line current I. The voltage injected by all the DPFC series converters is
Vse,1 and Vse,3 at the fundamental and the third-harmonic frequency, respectively. The shunt
converter is connected to the sending bus through the inductor Lsh and generates the voltage
Vsh,1 and Vsh,3 ; the current injected by the shunt converter is Ish . The active and reactive
power flow at the receiving end is Pr and Qr, respectively.
This representation consists of both the fundamental and third-harmonic frequency
components. Based on the superposition theorem, the circuit in Fig. 4.9 can be further
simplified by being split into two circuits at different frequencies. The two circuits are
isolated from each other, and the link between these circuits is the active power balance of
each converter, as shown in Fig. 4.10.

Fig 4.10 DPFC equivalent circuit. (a) Fundamental frequency. (b) Third harmonic frequency.
The power-flow control capability of the DPFC can be illustrated by the active power
Pr and reactive power Qr received at the receiving end. Because the DPFC circuit at the
fundamental frequency behaves the same as the UPFC, the active and reactive power flow
can be expressed as follows (1)

.. (4.3)
Where Pr0 ,Qr0 , and are the active, reactive power flow, and the transmission
angle of the uncompensated system,Xse,1 = Lse is the line impedance at fundamental
frequency, and |V| is the voltage magnitude at both ends.
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In the PQ-plane, the locus of the power flow without the DPFC compensation f
(Pr0,Qr0) is a circle with the radius of |V |2/|X1 | around the center defined by coordinates P
= 0 and Q = |V |2/|X1 |. Each point of this circle gives the Pr0 and Qr0 values of the
uncompensated system at the corresponding transmission angle . The boundary of the
attainable control range for Pr and Qr is obtained from a complete rotation of the voltage
Vse,1 with its maximum magnitude. Fig. 4.11 shows the control range of the DPFC with the
transmission angle .

Fig 4.11 DPFC active and reactive power control range with the transmission angle .
To ensure the series converters to inject a 360 rotatable voltage, an active and
reactive power at the fundamental frequency is required. The reactive power is provided by
the series converter locally and the active power is supplied by the shunt converter. This
active power requirement is given by

. (4.4)
Where r0 is the power angle at the receiving end of the uncompensated system,
which equals tan1 (Pr0/Qr0) and r is the power angle at receiving end with the DPFC
compensation. The line impedance X1 and the voltage magnitude |Vr | are constant;
therefore, the required active power is proportional to
times the area of the triangle that is formed by the two vectors

, which is two
and Sr . Fig.4.12

illustrates the relationship between Pse,1 and the power flow at the receiving end at a certain
power angle .

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Fig 4.12 Relationship between Pse,1 and the power flow at the receiving end.
Consequently, the required active power by the series converter can be written as follows:

(4.5)
Where the coefficient

and

is the area of the triangle (0, Sr0, Sr ).

The angle difference r0 r can be positive or negative, and the sign gives the direction of
the active power through the DPFC series converters. The positive sign means that the DPFC
series converters generate active power at the fundamental frequency and vise versa. The
active power requirement varies with the controlled power flow, and the active power
requirement has its maximum when the vector Sr Sr0 is perpendicular to the vector Sr0 , as
shown in Fig. 4.13.

Fig 4.13 Maximum active power requirement of the series converters.

According to Fig. 4.13, the relationship between the power flow control range and the
maximum active power requirement can be represented by

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.. (4.6)
Where |Sr,c | is the control range of the DPFC.
Each converter in the DPFC generates two frequency voltages At the same time.
Accordingly, the voltage rating of the each Converter should be the sum of the maximum
voltage of the two frequencies component
(4.7)
During the operation, the active power requirement of the series converter varies with
the voltage injected at the fundamental frequency. When the requirement is low, the series
voltage at the third-harmonic frequency will be smaller than
that is between Vse,3 and

. This potential voltage

can be used to control the power flow at the fundamental

frequency, thereby increasing the power-flow control region of the DPFC. When
perpendicular to the uncompensated power

is

, the series converters require maximum active

power, and the radius of the DPFC control region is given by

(4.8)
If Sr,c is in the same line as Sr0 , the series converters only provide the reactive
compensation and the boundary of the DPFC control region will extend to

. (4.9)
It shows that the control region of the DPFC can be extended to a shape that is similar
as an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 4.14.

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Fig 4.14 DPFC power-flow control range.

To obtain the same control capability as the UPFC, the rating of the DPFC converter
at the fundamental frequency should be the same as the one for the UPFC. Because the
voltages and currents at the third-harmonic frequency have to be added, the rating of the
DPFC converter is slightly larger than the UPFC. The increased rating is related with the
active power exchanged at the third-harmonic frequency. For a transmission line, the line
impedance |X1 | is normally around 0.05 p.u. (per unit). Assuming the bus voltages |V | and
uncompensated power flow |Sr 0| is 1 p.u., and then, from (4.7), we can see that to control 1p.u. power flow, the exchanged active power is around 0.05 p.u.
Even with this extra voltage and current at the third-harmonic frequency, the cost of
the DPFC is still much lower than the UPFC, for the following reasons: 1) the UPFC
converter handles the line-to-line voltage isolation that is much larger than voltage injected
by the series converter; 2) no land requirement for the series converter; and 3) the active and
passive components for the DPFC converter are low-voltage components (less than 1kV and
60 A), which is much cheaper than the high-voltage components in the UPFC.

7.MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

Model of the series converter control

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Reference voltage for the series converters (Vdref, Vqref)

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Step response of the DPFC: series converter voltage.

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Step response of the DPFC: line current.

Step response of the DPFC: bus voltage and current at the side of the transformer.

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Step response of the DPFC: active and reactive power injected by the series converter at the
fundamental frequency.

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8.CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a new concept called DPFC. The DPFC emerges from the
UPFC and inherits the control capability of the UPFC, which is the simultaneous adjustment
of the line impedance, the transmission angle, and the bus-voltage magnitude. The common
dc link between the shunt and series converters, which is used for exchanging active power in
the UPFC, is eliminated. This power is now transmitted through the transmission line at the
third-harmonic frequency. The series converter of the DPFC employs the D-FACTS concept,
which uses multiple small single-phase converters instead of one large-size converter.
The reliability of the DPFC is greatly increased because of the redundancy of the
series converters. The total cost of the DPFC is also much lower than the UPFC, because no
high-voltage isolation is required at the series-converter part and the rating of the components
of is low. The DPFC concept has been verified by an experimental setup. It is proved that the
shunt and series converters in the DPFC can exchange active power at the third-harmonic
frequency, and the series converters are able to inject controllable active and reactive power
at the fundamental frequency.

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