01hen2 is 0Victorianis324
the "ou5le connotation of 0Victorianis32 cultural period social conduct governed by strict rules, formality, primness, welldefined gender roles, sexual prudery, penchant for conservatism / conventionality, desire too keep up appearances in public)
1. Key-words:
Future-shock Social restructuring The age of opposites / contradictions / conflicting impulses nformation explosion !ostalgia for the past
The .ictorians as contradictory people0 energetic, confident, religiously devout, guided by a sense of duty and devotion to the public good ,2urton, Stanley, 3ivingston, F4 !ightingale) doubting, insecure, afraid of change .ictorians about themselves0
&we are living in an age of transition+ ,Sir 5enry 5olland, #$%$) &begin with an idea of the world in order not to be prevailed by the worlds multitudinousness+ ,6atthew *rnold, #$7$) &)e are of the time of chivalry444 )e are of the age of steam4+ ,)illiam 6akepeace Thackeray, #$89) & t is a privilege to live in this age of rapid and brilliant events4 What an error to consider it a utilitarian age4 t is one of infinite romance4+ ,2en:amin ;israeli, #$8#) & t was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of 3ight, it was the season of ;arkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to 5eaven, we were all going direct the other way444+ ,<harles ;ickens, A Tale of Two Cities, #$%=)
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6)AL! , - Collecti7e an" in"i7i"ual achie7e3ent - 6es8air - *aith in econo3% an" e38ire - Crisis of religion an" s8iritualit% - (rogress - )nease: cause" 5% fear of change - 6e7otion to 1or9: creati7e energ% - !nsecurit% regar"ing the 0utilit%2 of one;s actions - ocial an" 8olitical refor3 - )r5anisation - ocial tur3oil: 7erging on o8en 1arfare - lu3ification
- ()to8ian) +e7isionis3 - Technological an" scientific a"7ances - Co38ression of ti3e (rail1a%: 8hotogra8h%) - Too 3uch ti3e (6ar1in;s e7olutionis3) - )nha38ere" 8ro"uction - <ross 3aterialis3: fetishis3 T+A' !T!&'
4.1.2 )arwinis# #$%>, 5erbert Spencer coined the phrase &survival of the fittest+ #$%= ;arwinEs The "rigin of the #pecies was published0 species are in a continuous form of flux/change, tending towards perfection by eliminating the weak and unadapted elementsD all life is essentially a struggle to exist and to produce the greatest number of offspring ,struggle-abundance-adaptationsurvival) in the #$8FEs Thomas 5enry 5uxley coined the term &agnosticism+ ,'od can only be known by resorting to knowledge that goes beyond reason) social ;arwinism0 evolutionary forces dictated that only the strongest should survive in capitalist competition as in natural evolution ,ultimately, this was also invoked as a :ustification for 2ritainEs imperialist-colonialist claims and con1uests)
4.2 *eviva& of re&igious fervour +#ost pro#inent in ,ng&and since -uritan ti#es.
6ay be seen both as ,i) a tension between faith and science / politics / economy and as ,ii) a crisis within the church itself4 4.2.1 ,vange&ica&is# +/ow 0hurch. 3iteral meaning0 &of, or pertaining to the 'ospel+ Focus on the 2ible ,esp4 <hristEs sacrifice as atonement for our sins)D the 2ible was also the sole authority in terms of doctrine Faith alone, rather than good deeds or sacraments, can ensure salvation nsistence frugality and self-denial ?e:ection of entertainment as sinful and frivolous (mphasis on <hristian conscience to promote social activism and missionary works *nti-<atholicism 6any representative figures of .ictorian thought/arts began as (vangelicals ,and retained (vangelical elements, such as religious symbolism)0 ?obert 2rowning, Thomas 5ardy, Thomas <arlyle, 'erard 6anley 5opkins 4.2.2 Tractarianis# +1igh 0hurch$The 23ford 4ove#ent. lasted between #$99-7% main figures0 <ardinal Bohn 5enry !ewman, ;r4 (dward -usey, Bohn Geble nsistence on the authority of the church Sought to revitaliHe the power of the <hurch of (ngland *ntirational, romantic spirit
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*n apprehension of sensuous beauty and mysticism reminiscent of the times before ?eformation ,'othic revival architecture, resplendent vestments of the clergy, exacerbation of church ritual) 4.2.3 The 5road 0hurch +/i era& "ng&icanis#. not an organised, homogeneous group the precursor of liberal >Fth century -rotestantism influenced by 'erman liberal thought emphasis on the ;ivine inspiration for the 2ible but also on the fact that it should not be read and interpreted literally, but rather symbolically, metaphorically or even mythically
+e8eal of the Corn La1s #$78 (u5lic ?ealth Acts #$7$, #$8= *actor% Acts #$99, #$7C
E"ucation Act #$CF The 01o3an @uestion2 ,arrie" -o3en;s (ro8ert% Acts #$CF, #$$>D
nationally funded state education was initiated in (ngland and )ales prior to the #$CFEs married women had no legal rightsD this was rooted in the belief that the ideal .ictorian woman should be an example of motherhood, femininity and fertility, whose purpose and duty was to selflessly serve others and to tame the husbandEs savage nature even with successful .ictorian figures ,the 2rontJs, 'eorge (liot, (liHabeth 'askell, Florence !ightingale), intellectual activities were regarded as aberrations making women unfitted for motherhood domesticity ,&the angel in the house+) was the ideal prescribed for the women of the time womenEs work opportunities were severely limited for much of the period0 scullery maids, governesses, housekeepers, servants though they formed about #/9 of the total number of workers, they usually received lower wages than their male counterparts the two said acts gave women the right to possess wages earned after marriage and any property owned before it #$7$ " the first womenEs college opened in 3ondon #$8=, #$C=, womenEs colleges in @xford, <ambridge ,without yet being granted the right to obtain degrees) increase in number of medical professions after the #$8FEs a new image of the .ictorian woman gradually emerged0 the leisured, smart, consumer, &liberated+ female incipient feminismD at the end of the century women were allowed for the first time to vote in local electionsD however, universal female suffrage was instituted only in the second decade of the >Fth century
Serialisation ,novels, especially the early ones, were published in weekly/monthly installments)D illustrations were often integral to these publications
(ngagement of the artist / author with the public0 letters, debates, lectures, tours " both advantages and drawbacks -ublishing became an industry
Three-deckers ,books conceived in three volumesD this was fre1uently dictated by publishers / libraries)D ;ickensE The Pic$wic$ Papers was the first to successfully employ this form
@ther characteristics of culture in the .ictorian *ge0 ncrease of literacy rates " about =C I of both sexes were able to read and write by the end of the century4
'rowing appetite for cheap literature with the working-class readershipD the middle class represented the largest audience for prose and poetry <ulture as a commodity " beginnings of consumerism -redilection for fiction " the novel became the representative bourgeois genre0 it can adhere to truth and probability more closely than other genres it is a protean genre ,thus, better suited to an ever-changing society) for satisfying its concerns, it is reliant on certain pre-existing, well-established social structures, whose working mechanisms it tends to replicate ,interaction, conflict, tension, progression, etc4) continues ,rather than confronts) some older modes, yet being also open to experimentation ,(mily 2rontJD 'eorge (liotD Thomas 5ardy) there is no clear distinction between the romance ,allegorical / symbolic / partially fantastic or improbable fiction) and the novel ,empirical / realistic fiction mainly drawing on verisimilitude) " to be seen esp4 in the works of the first generation of .ictorian writers ,;ickens, Thackeray, the 2rontJs), which, there is, generally, a combination of romantic / mythical / allegorical / fantastic elements and realistic / satirical / moralistic elements ,another example of the typical .ictorian dualism) ;own-to-earth poetry and prosodic innovationsD soul-searching replaced the ?omantic emphasis on self-expression
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hence, the moralist and the legislator should labour towards advancing this truth and to oppose the principles adverse to utility ,asceticism, sympathy and antipathy) " <arlyle laboured towards setting up a Pannomion ,a body of legal principles to apply the Atilitarianist doctrine) the ob(ect of all laws is the total happiness of the community, therefore any form of punishment not guided by this is morally wrong ,in practical terms, this implies a distinction to be made between crimes and offences and a reform of the legal system) proponent of legal and social reform " e4g4, the )Panopticon* ,a modern prison building / system meant to reform morals, preserve the health of the inmates, diffuse instruction and invigorate industry)0
The building which was to work these wonders was to be circular, with cells on every story of the circumference4 n the centre there was a lodge for the inspector , who would be able to see all the prisoners without being himself seen, and who could give directions without being obliged to 1uit his post4 * contractor was to undertake the keep of the prisoners at a certain sum per head, reserving to himself all profits derived from their labour4 The manager was to be bound to insure the lives of all who were entrusted to himD that is, he was to be obliged to pay a sum for every one beyond a certain average lost to the prison by death or by escaping4 ,source0 The +ictorian Web, emphasis added)
ma:or works0
,ragment on overnment ,#CC8) -efence of Usury ,#C$C) Panopticon ,#C$C) .ntroduction to the Principles of &orals and 'egislation ,#C$=) Parliamentary /eform Catechism ,#$#C)
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#artor /esartus 0The Tailor /etailored1 *n obli1ue attack against Atilitarianism and a story of spiritual conversion in the form of a partly fictional, partly factual analysis of the ideas propounded by ;iogenes TeufelsdrKckh, a 'erman &philosopher of clothes & " in actuality, a creation of <arlyleLs imagination4 The ,rench /evolution <ontains, in an incipient form, his views on the role of the &hero+ in society " that of counteracting the &spiritual+ ,the hopes and aspirations of people, ossified into ideologies, in truth, a source of dehumanisation)
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"n !eroes2 2y referring to a wide array of religious, literary, historical and political figures ,@din, <romwell, !apoleon, Shakespeare, ;ante, S4 Bohnson, ?ousseau, 6uhammad), <arlyle proposes a &hero-archy+ of exceptional, strong personalities who have acted in the course of history as shepherds of the flock4 5is &hero+ embodies everything virtuous in man and is seen as salvation in times of spiritual confusion ,as is the .ictorian *ge, in his opinion)4 (xamples of &heroes+0 the hero as god0 @din the hero as prophet0 6ahomet the hero as poet0 ;ante, Shakespeare the hero as priest0 3uther, Bohn Gnox the hero as man of letters0 Bohnson, ?ousseau, 2urns the hero as a king0 <romwell, !apoleon
<arlyleEs proposal is fundamentally ?omantic and anachronisticD it announces a series of extreme ideologies of the >Fth century ,FascismD <ommunism) ,rederic .. <arlyle saw in the figure of Frederick the 'reat the transition from liberal enlightenment to a more dynamic spirituality ,embodied in 'ermany)D through a very vivid, but essentially biased presentation of FrederickEs battles, he attempts at illustrating, once again, his philosophical ideas regarding the &hero+
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he admits that people who have benefited from higher education and who could thus better contribute to the spiritual emancipation of society ,thereby ensuring greater happiness to greater numbers) should be sub:ect to positive discrimination ,e4g4, university graduates should be granted extra voting power) 6illEs position on the &woman 1uestion+ " The #ub(ection of Women0 he may be regarded as one of the earliest representatives of feminism starting from a discussion of the current position of women in .ictorian society ,and especially in the .ictorian family), he argues for perfect e1uality in his view, the sub:ection of women is due to three factors0 education ,or lack thereof), marriage and gender construction 6ill proposes a comparison of female and male personality with their strong and weak points and their peculiar contributions to society the principles underpinning his views are &cooperation+ and &collaboration+ between the sexes emancipation of women meets the basic Atilitarian outlook, ensuring the greater welfare of the entire society
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culture M &the study of perfection+ a pursuit of &sweetness and light+ ,a term first used by Swift) a distinction is made between two existential modes0 the !ellenistic one and the !ebraistic one ,defined by analogy with ancient 'reek, respectively, ?oman/5ebrew societies) within an action-reaction paradigm, *rnold calls for an e1uilibrium between the two modes ,cultivation of the spirit " preoccupation for material progress)
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