Original article

Environmental issues concerning natural resources at Pamukkale protected site, southwest Turkey
neyt Dilsiz Cu

Abstract Pamukkale protected site is located 20 km away from the provincial center of Denizli in southwest Turkey. This site has unique natural and cultural assets such as hot water springs, white travertine terraces, and cultural ruins of the ancient city of Hierapolis. The rising interest in this site leads to irreversible deterioration of natural and cultural assets. This study reveals the environmental issues, such as swimming activities, the lack of sewage treatment, mechanical damage, etc. on hot water springs and white travertine terraces. Swimming activities in the pools and sewage leakage from non-isolated cesspools encourage excessive microbial growth at the travertine surface resulting in the discoloration of white travertine terraces. Walking over the delicate travertine surface leads to the deformation of existing calcite crystals and delays the formation of the new crystals. Vehicle entry to the site causes damage, for example creating vibration, high gas emission, and dust airlifting. To ensure optimal protection conditions at this site, priority must be given to the maintenance, restoration, monitoring, and maximization of the natural resources, and special regulations and laws should be enacted. Although it must be realized that good resource management will never be able to completely solve the problems in conservation of this site, it is equally clear that a correct use of natural resources can help avoid worsening of an already difcult situation. Keywords Pamukkale SW Turkey

Introduction
Pamukkale plateau, which is located 20 km away from the provincial center of Denizli (3742' N, 292' E), north of Pamukkale town (Fig. 1), has unique natural and cultural assets such as hot water springs, white travertine terraces, and cultural ruins of the ancient city of Hierapolis. This particular area was dened as a rst degree archeological and natural site in 1980. UNESCO declared the area a Natural and Cultural World Heritage Site and included it in the World Heritage List in 1988 (World Conservation Monitoring Center 1988). In archeological literature, Hierapolis is referred to as The Holy City since many temples and numerous other religious structures were located there. This ancient city was founded in Hellenistic character in the second century B.C. by King Eumenes II of Pergamon. In the second and third centuries Hierapolis went through another great period and became a Roman city. In the Byzantine period following the Romans it continued to be very important, and towards the end of the fourteenth century Hierapolis became part of the Ottoman Empire and then of Turkish Republic. During all these periods the area's hot waters were considered essential to all life and its association with spiritual and creative power had obvious logic (Denizli Governorship and others 1992). The running hot water, at a temperature of 3536 C and containing calcium bicarbonate, loses its dissolved CO2 and leaves white travertine deposits. Pamukkale (meaning cotton castle in English) takes its name from this formation. Unfortunately, this particular area has never been protected as it should be. Protection activities have not been implemented properly because of planning, programming, and budget problems. Steadily rising interest in the area is causing more and more conict between development and protection, leading to the deterioration of natural and cultural assets. The main approach of the protection activities must allow for carefully controlled development without negatively impacting on Pamukkale's natural and cultural assets. In 1990 an International Workshop on Pamukkale was organized, with a huge participation of academics and technicians from different disciplines, and in 1992 the Pamukkale Preservation and Development Plan was published by the Governorship of Denizli, Ministry of Culture and UNESCO. The scope of this plan was to create more suitable protection activities for the natural

Received: 23 March 2001 / Accepted: 7 September 2001 Published online: 12 January 2002 Springer-Verlag 2002 C. Dilsiz Vrije University Amsterdam, Faculty of Earth Sciences, De Boelelaan 1105, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands E-mail: dilsiz@hotmail.com Tel.: +31-20-4447300 Fax: +31-20-6462457

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DOI 10.1007/s00254-001-0444-4

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Fig. 1 Location map

and archeological assets that are present at Pamukkale plateau. The main proposals in this plan were: The boundaries of the archeological and natural sites were to be approved and the archeological, architectural, and natural assets within these boundaries were to be documented. The zones in which thermal springs need to be protected were to be identied and a program to use more thermal water for travertine whitening was to be introduced. The reasons for negative impacts on the white travertine area were to be identied and the possibilities of encouraging new white travertine areas were to be explored. Separate travertine areas were to be created in which the visitors could be permitted to walk around. Hotels on the site were to be removed and the lands from these hotels were to be turned into observation terraces with simple facilities meeting tourist needs. A new access system to the site was to be identied and gates at the northern and southern entrances were to be used to stop vehicle entry to the site. For elderly visitors, special-purpose vehicles were to be used within the site. Pedestrians were to use a walkway on the site between the ancient city ruins and the white travertine terraces. The asphalt road leading from the town of Pamukkale up through the travertine terraces was to be removed and new articial terraces were to be constructed on it, imitating the natural morphology. An association named as ``Pamukkale Preservation and Development Association'' was to be established to coordinate all implementation plans and projects for the site. Implementation of this plan has been continuing since 1992, but no timetable was indicated because of institutional and nancial constraints.

In this study, environmental issues (e.g., swimming activities, sewage, mechanical damage, and other negative impacts) on hot waters and white travertine terraces have been evaluated, and to achieve this the natural resources were widely observed and the causes of the pollution were investigated.

Pamukkale hot springs and travertine formation

The Pamukkale hydrothermal system is one of the most important systems of regional thermal potential. Calcium bicarbonatesulfate type and CO2-rich hot waters discharge mainly from four main springs, named as PJ, PM, PI, and PB (Fig. 2). They exhibit characteristic discharge, temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity values varying annually between 345 and 385 l/s, 35 and 36 C, 5.5 and 5.6 standard units, and 2,800 and 2,850 lS/cm, respectively. Average values of the hydrochemical parameters determined at Pamukkale hot springs are presented in Table 1. The waters possess PCO2 values of the order of 101.15 atm. Hydrochemical studies reveal clearly that the hot springs are hydrodynamically connected (Dilsiz 1998). The thermal waters are used for both drinking and bathing. They are recommended for the treatment of rheumatic, dermatological, and gynecological diseases, neurological and physical exhaustion, digestive maladies, rkiye Maden Sular 1971). and nutrition disorders (Tu The hot waters that emerge from open ssures and fault zones deposit calcium carbonate, described as travertine, at Pamukkale plateau (Fig. 3). The precipitation kinetics of calcium carbonate proceed fastest at the surface where CO2 outgassing occurs rapidly. In this way, a thin layer of carbonate is precipitated. The subsequent surface stream saturated by calcium carbonate builds up a new layer above the previous layer. Travertine deposition at Pamukkale plateau has been in progress for at least the last
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Fig. 2 Schematic view of the Pamukkale hot spring area Table 1 Hydrochemical data for hot springs. FCO2 Free carbon dioxide measured in situ Code PJ PM PI PB KH T (C) 36.0 36.0 36.0 35.0 56.0 pH 5.61 5.66 5.62 5.55 5.75 FCO2 (mg/l) 330.0 380.0 325.0 365.0 225.0 EC (lS/cm) 2,850 2,810 2,800 2,810 3,900 Ca+2 (meq/l) 19.96 20.96 19.84 19.21 24.33 Mg+2 (meq/l) 6.58 6.99 6.17 6.17 8.02 Na+ (meq/l) 2.50 2.94 1.63 2.94 3.26 K+ (meq/l) 0.70 0.38 0.58 0.45 0.90 Cl (meq/l) 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 1.0
SO2 4 (meq/l)

HCO 3 (meq/l) 19.19 18.99 19.09 18.99 21.82

11.03 12.7 11.28 11.28 16.62

400,000 years. This accumulation period has been calcu- deposited calcium carbonate and algae in the pools are lated according to a provisional U/Th series determination both cleaned away frequently and discharged through the pool outlets onto the travertine. The discharged wasteby Altunel and Hancock (1994). water crossing the travertine terraces leaves deposits through a process of precipitation of suspended materials causing both hygienic and visual pollution. Sewage The lack of sewage treatment is the other important cause of pollution. Managerial ofces (e.g., museum, tourism Swimming activities ofce), the motels, souvenir shops, restaurants, and public Recreational use of the thermal waters presents a great opportunity to visitors for swimming (Fig. 4). Before being toilets located at Pamukkale plateau all have non-isolated released to the travertine area, the hot water is taken by the sewer and/or septic tanks for disposal of sewage. These cesspools, which are about 250400 m3 in size, have been hotels from the springs to their own swimming pools through the channels. The use of the water in the pools dug in highly fractured travertine formation. As a result, presents some serious problems, e.g., the high rate of the sewage is percolating underground through the fracoutgassing of CO2 from the water causes carbonate pre- tured zones (Fig. 6, see also Fig. 2) and then appearing in different white travertine areas as a yellowishbrownish cipitation and the people swimming in the pools leave some organic pollutants (International Research and Ap- color. Based on the study of Yalcin and Agacik (1971), the color is getting darker with the increase of the leakage, plication Center for Karst Water Resources UKAM since the leaked water is rich in nutrients. 1995) that cause a rapid growth of algae (Fig. 5). The 778
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Negative impacts on natural resources

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Fig. 3 Travertine terraces at Pamukkale plateau

Fig. 5 Swimming pool and algal growth at the travertine surface

microorganisms appear to act as templates for carbonate deposition or provide sticky surfaces that trap microscopic crystals. Their photosynthesis also removes CO2 from the water and aids travertine deposition (Pentecost and others 1997). On the other hand, the growth of algae at the travertine surface depends on the water ow as well as on its biochemical characteristics since more continuous ow encourages the feeding of the bacterial communities. The ow rate that is released to the terraces is therefore controlled by the sluices on the water distribution channels. Travertine areas which have been wet are left to dry for a couple of days on the basis of the Thermal Water Distribution Program in order to prevent excessive microbial growth at the surface. During this dry period the travertine surface becomes whiter and more attractive. The other problem is the attempts to increase the water level in the hot springs, especially in PJ and PM. The outlets of the springs are blocked in order to increase the pool attraction for visitors, resulting in decrease in the amount of water which is delivered to the travertine area. During this kind of attempt a strong sewage odor had been noted at the outlet of Pmc1 because the toilet of the motel is located just by the outlet (see Fig. 2). The cesspools and the direct sewage leakage to the water allow the conclusion that some sources would contribute more to the pollution. Whereas the pollutants that are attached to the travertine (as in the example of the cesspool) have a very low delivery Fig. 4 Pamukkale hot spring (PM) rate depending on their pathway to the receiving water, the pollutants that are transported in running water (as in the Eutrophication from human sewage is currently thought to example of Pmc1 channel) have a high delivery ratio. be a problem at Pamukkale plateau. Tourist activities re- Therefore, the source and the pathway of the pollution sult in local eutrophication because these activities lead to should be a major consideration in determining the level or intensity of pollution on the white travertine area. changes in the microbial ecosystem in hot springs and travertine deposition processes. Although the travertine Mechanical damage deposits viewed from a distance appear white and devoid of phototrops, observed more closely, the deposits are seen Walking over the delicate travertine surface leads to the to be covered locally with pink, green, and reddish-brown deformation of existing calcite crystals and delays the gelatinous microbial mats, which are more or less conned formation of new crystals (Fig. 7). In addition, walking on to areas receiving a substantial water ow (Pentecost and the travertine leaves visible dirty spots. Unfortunately, so far there are no restrictions prohibiting tourist access to others 1997). Travertine deposition is invariably the travertine area. associated with microorganisms, and surfaces of some
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Fig. 6 Pollution points at Pamukkale plateau (the size of the transparent arrows does not represent the intensity of the pollution)

The last section of the existing entrance road which provides tourist access to the site (see Fig. 2) is used heavily by vehicles and causes damage, e.g., creating vibration, high gas emission, dust airlifting, etc. Intensive and uncontrolled excavations, including drillholes which are used to raise hot and cool groundwater, result in a gradual reduction of available water resources. This problem is especially acute in Karahayit town, 5 km away from Pamukkale plateau (see Fig. 1), where several boarding houses and thermal resorts for therapeutic applications are located. In 1993 a travertine mass of 60 cm thickness (ca. 30 m3 travertine mass) around Karahayit hot spring was completely excavated and new holes (ca. 5 cm in diameter) were drilled along the spring bed by local people in an attempt to increase the amount of hot water. Yet it caused the opposite effect, drastically decreasing the amount of the hot water from ca. 3040 l/s (Atiker 1993; Toksoz 1996) to ca. 46 l/s (ow rate measurement by UKAM in 1996). The ow pattern of the thermal uid in a fractured environment is completely determined by the pattern of the fracture system. The excavation will cause stress concentration around the 780
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spring bed and change in permeability of a fracture system is a function of normal and shear stresses. Excavation represents a relatively sudden event, and as a result the normal and shear stresses across nearby fractures may change in a short time, producing sudden aperture change. Small fractures may be created and existing fractures may be deformed. This sudden change in stress may cause the pore pressure to rise quickly, before the hot liquid has had a chance to move and equilibrate (Tsang 1999). Such mistakes are particularly harmful since Karahayit hot spring (KH) is an unique natural resource in the region, differing from Pamukkale by its higher water temperature (56 C) and a lower content of CO2 (see Table 1). PCO2 values at the outlet range between 100.5 and 101.3 atm (Dilsiz 1998). In addition, the running water adds a characteristic reddish color to the travertine body, different from the white terraces of Pamukkale. Until 1995, Pamukkale hot waters were conveyed to the hotels' swimming pools and travertine area thorough the open ditches, stimulating both algal growth and calcium carbonate deposition in the ditches. In 1995, in accordance with the Pamukkale Preservation and Development Plan,

Original article

Fig. 7 Activities at the travertine area

Fig. 8 Discharging wastewater into the covered concrete channel

all ditches were reconstructed as covered concrete channels in order to preserve the original water quality along the path from the spring to the travertine area and the pools (see Fig. 2). Yet it is obvious that as long as the springs themselves remain unprotected, construction of new channels will not solve the water quality problem. Other negative impacts The municipalities around Pamukkale plateau use the main fault zones and karstic features (e.g., sinkholes) as sites for their solid waste and wastewater disposals. The travertine formation of Quaternary age is the youngest karstic reservoir with a thickness of 7585 m (Simsek 1985). The data from shallow wells in Karahayit area indicate that the abstracted water temperature is extremely high. Tectonic fracturing has enhanced the permeability in travertine formations in the region. During rainfall, the inltration feeds both rapid ow in open fractures and slow ow in the network of ne cracks, allowing movement of the pollution to the groundwater in terms of meteoric water. Exact details cannot be specied because of lack of data but it would appear that in and adjacent to Pamukkale and Karahayit towns the groundwater is doubtless getting contaminated by solid and liquid wastes. Pamukkale town is located in the valley, right at the foothills of the travertine plateau. The villagers of Pamukkale use the hot waters for irrigation and other purposes, and due to the high water demand during the summer period hot waters are usually taken without any restriction. Since the water in the swimming pools needs to be regularly refreshed during the summer period, the hot water is conveyed from the spring to the pools without permission, mainly during the night. Another serious problem which affects the water quality results from local inhabitants having the habit of washing their household articles (including dishes, cars and even colored clothes) either in springs and the channels or in their close vicinity. Recent construction of covered concrete channels did not stop the residents from the taking water for non-designated uses [e.g., they drill holes in the

concrete channel wall and take uncontrolled quantities of fresh water, using small submerged pumps or plastic suction pipes, or discharge liquid waste into the channel (Fig. 8)]. Extensive deforestation of the protected site has dramatic consequences leading to increase of the surface runoff and transport of sediment towards the springs. In addition, after heavy rain the rainwater with suspended soil particles accumulates at the travertine surface and leaves dark residual layers after evaporation. The absence of a surface drainage system in the area makes this problem especially severe.

Protection of natural resources

In the absence of efcient planning management, places of tourism activities are known to suffer from environmental problems (Dowling 1993), and Pamukkale Hydrothermal Field (PHF) is not an exception. Because of its signicant natural and historical assets, it is currently an important tourist attraction (Fig. 9). However, it is also suffering from passive planning management which may lead in the future to the irreversible damage of these unique natural resources. The natural resources of PHF have become progressively more endangered, both in quality and quantity, by accelerated modication of their natural conditions (e.g., hydrological, climatological, hydrochemical, biological) and boundary conditions (of recharge, discharge, and mineralization). To ensure optimal conditions of protection of Pamukkale and Karahayit hot water resources, priority must be given to the maintenance, restoration, monitoring, and maximization of these natural resources. The objective of the resource management plan should be to improve the water resource by reducing the pollutant load. Protection of both water quality and water resources must be integrated in planning activities. As new data or information becomes available, solutions have to be re-evaluated and updated.
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established. The Thermal Water Distribution Program was developed to enhance travertine deposition. Covered concrete channels were constructed and hence the loss of thermal water and further pollution along the water path were prevented. Several dye-tracing tests were carried out to determine the hydraulic connection among various thermal springs, the direction of groundwater ow, and the amount of hot water loss in the study area. The tests showed that the available hot water (ca. 386 l/s) could be increased by about 85 l/s and 40 l/s from the water sources near the springs of PJ and PB, respectively (Yesertener and Elhatip 1997). This study also revealed that in the PHF groundwater ows towards the northwest direction. It must be emphasized, however, that although this conclusion is important, it represents the result of a series of dye-tracing tests just carried out among hot springs. Groundwater ow in such elds that have been affected by the regional tectonic movements is completely controlled by the pattern of the existing fracture system. The dominant fracture systems in PHF trend NW, NWSE, WE, and NESW (Ozpinar 1994). The active travertine deposits at the plateau have been forming from hot waters. Most of the travertine sites are now inactive and the recent investigations at Pamukkale plateau focus on the possibilities of how and where new travertines might be encouraged to form (Fig. 10a, b). It is important to emphasize that extending the active travertine areas and applying protection activities on these areas are not possible without developing strict land and water use programs.

Conclusions
Pamukkale protected site, with its hot springs, white travertine terraces, and cultural ruins of the ancient city of Hierapolis, was declared a Natural and Cultural World Heritage Site and included in the World Heritage List by UNESCO in 1988. Unfortunately, this particular site has been suffering from passive planning management, leading to the deterioration of natural and archeological assets. In 1990, an International Workshop on Pamukkale was held to debate preservation and development plans. The results of the workshop were declared in Pamukkale Preservation and Development Plan in 1992. The fundamental scope of this plan was to develop projects to preserve natural and archeological assets without disturbing their visual characteristics. Yet the decisions have not been implemented properly because of institutional and nancial constraints. Calcium bicarbonatesulfate type and CO2-rich Pamukkale hot waters with temperatures of 3536 C present a great opportunity to visitors for drinking and bathing. Yet the activities in the swimming pools decrease the travertine depositing capacity of the water and cause both hygienic and visual pollution since the people leave some organic pollutants. The lack of sewage treatment is the most important source of pollution. The sewage leaking from non-isolated

cesspools that have been dug in highly fractured travertine formation percolates underground through fractured zones and appears in the travertine areas as yellowish brownish colors. Tourist activities lead to changes in the microbial ecosystem in hot springs and travertine deposition processes. The travertine precipitation is invariably associated with microorganisms but the growth of microorganisms at the travertine surface depends on the water ow since more continuous ow encourages the feeding of the bacterial communities. To control the water ow which is released to the terraces and to prevent excessive microbial growth at the surface Thermal Water Distribution Program was developed by UKAM. Walking over the delicate travertine surface leads to the deformation of existing calcite crystals and delays the formation of the new crystals. This activity also leaves visible dirty spots. Intensive and uncontrolled excavations including wells result in a gradual reduction of available water resources and must be forbidden, otherwise reductions in yields of water are inevitable. Vehicle entry to the protected site causes damage such as creating vibration, high gas emission, and dust airlifting. Using the main fault zones and karstic features (e.g., sinkholes) for solid and liquid wastes leads to groundwater contamination in and adjacent to Pamukkale and Karahayit towns since the inltration allows movement of the pollution to the groundwater in terms of meteoric water. In 1994 and 1995 in accordance with Pamukkale Preservation and Development Plan, some projects were implemented. All open ditches that conveyed the hot water from springs to travertine areas and hotels' swimming pools were reconstructed as covered concrete channels in order to preserve the original water quality and to prevent loss of water along the path. The asphalt road leading from the town of Pamukkale up through the Pamukkale plateau was closed and new articial terraces were constructed on it imitating the natural morphology. A new access system for the site was identied and gates at the northern and southern entrances started to be used. Separate travertine areas were created in which the visitors could be permitted to walk around. The geological and hydrogeological features of the area were identied and the relationship between recharge and discharge was established by UKAM. Several dye-tracing and pumping tests were carried out. The tests showed that the available hot water (386 l/s) could be increased by about 85 l/s and 40 l/s from the water sources near the springs of PJ and PB, respectively. On the other hand, the following recommendations should be taken into consideration. Priority must be given to the maintenance, restoration, monitoring, and maximization of natural resources. The excavation activities that could cause a disturbance in travertine and in the natural regime of hot water systems must be limited. The possible sources of direct pollution in and around hot springs and travertine must be prohibited, removed or isolated. The efciency of utilization of natural resources could be increased by detailed technical and scientic studies. The therapeutic properties of the hot waters must be
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re-identied. The specic consumption rates in different elds of use such as bathing, therapy, and travertine deposition must be observed. In order to ensure protection of natural assets, special regulations and laws should be enacted. A regional planning approach, which requires decentralization of the powers of central government to regional and local authorities, could be an alternative strategy to deal with the problems at the site. Pamukkale Preservation and Development Association should be set up.

Dowling R (1993) An environmentally-based planning model for regional tourism development. J Sustain Tour 1(1):1737 International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM) (1995) Pamukkale koruma amac li imar ngo ru len travertenlerin korunmasi ve gelistirilmesi planinda o ic in proje yapim hizmetleri. Hacettepe University, Turkey Ozpinar Y (1994) Denizli ili jeotermal sahalarinin tektonigi. In: Ozpinar Y (ed) Jeotermal Uygulamalar Sempozyumu'94. Pamukkale Universitesi, Denizli, Turkiye, pp 114129 Pentecost A, Bayari S, Yesertener C (1997) Phototrophic microorganisms of the Pamukkale travertine, Turkey: their distribution and inuence on travertine deposition. Geomicrobiol J 14:269283 y-Buldan Simsek S (1985) Geothermal model of Denizli, Sarayko area. Geothemics 14(2/3):393417 Toksoz C (1996) Pamukkale Hierapolis. Eris Turizm Tic. Paz. Denizli, Turkey Tosun C, Jenkins CL (1996) Regional planning approaches to tourism development: the case of Turkey. Tour Manage Altunel E, Hancock PL (1994) Morphology and structural setting of 17(7):519531 Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, Turkey. Geol J 28:335346 Tsang C -Fu (1999) Linking thermal, hydrological, and mechanAtiker M (1993) Pamukkale. Bilim ve teknik, Temmuz 1993: ical processes in fractured rocks. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 495498 27:359384 Awerbuch L, van der Mast V, Soo-Hoo R (1984) Review of up_ stanbul U niversitesi lgesi. I rkiye Maden Sular (1971) Ege bo stream geothermal reboiler concepts. In: Geothermal energy: bet Tu ltesi Hidro-Klimatoloji Ku rsu su 3:5052 Tp Faku on it! Transactions, Geothermal Resources Council, Reno, World Conservation Monitoring Center (1988) Protected areas Nevada, vol 8, pp 621 database, Hierapolis-Pamukkale. Cambridge, UK Denizli Governorship, Ministry of Culture, UNESCO (1992) Yalcin H, Agacik G (1971) Pamukkale sicak sulari ve travertenleri Pamukkale (Hierapolis) preservation and development plan, uzerine arastirma. State Water Works, Report no: Ki-507, and the international workshop on Pamukkale, 30 June3 July Ankara, Turkey 1991, Pamukkale, Denizli Yesertener C, Elhatip H (1997) Evaluation of groundwater ow by Dilsiz C (1998) Hydrochemical study of Pamukkale, Karahayit means of dye-tracing techniques, Pamukkale thermal springs, ru ksu Basin (Denizli) hot and mineralized water and Lower C u Western Turkey. Hydrogeol J 5(4):5159 springs. Hacettepe University, Turkey

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