Study Guide f or Week 12, Training in Canadian Organizations

Training as One of Several Facets of HR Management

The applications of training covered in this unit mostly involve special uses of training to address social, cultural and motivational issues. Other special uses, as for promoting safety or for implementing new organizational forms, also are touched upon. A key point running throughout this unit is that training should be one of several kinds of management action to eliminate cultural bias, promote safety, or achieve the other aims addressed here. Human resource policy and procedure, on the one hand, and organizational culture management activities on the other hand, must align with what happens in training if training is to matter. Examples will be given below.

Orientation Training
Orientation training "introduces new employees to the organization, the job, and their coworkers. The orientation begins the socialization process for new employees, helping them to learn about the way the organization works and what it values" (p. 310). Some of the positive outcomes that may result from orientation training are listed in Table 9-1 (e.g., reduced anxiety, reduced turnover, higher level of commitment). But how are these achieved? Orientation training should be approached like other training. Objectives should be spelled out In designing this training, instructional or influence methods should be chosen for fit with these objectives, with trainee characteristics, and with organizational attributes (and constraints) In implementation, aspects of "facilities" including the physical setting and trainer characteristics and style should promote achieving the objectives (e.g., an objective to reduce anxiety) Evaluation should be accomplished.

Some of the same management actions recommended for culture change should be used in the initial acculturation of new hires. These actions may include telling about the history of the company, who the heroes have been, and what some significant stories have been. If the company promotes particular values or other principles as part of its culture, these should be described and made meaningful through concrete examples or discussion. (One example consists of values of firms that use Total Quality Management.) It may be possible to make the orientation itself a "rite of passage," instilling a greater sense of belongingness with the organization. Contests or diplomas connected with the orientation might promote this experience of having been through a rite of passage. In sum, orientation training generally seeks to instill Values and norms consistent with the organizational culture Commitment to, and identification with the organization (including a sense of membership)

Of course orientation often will also cover Informational topics such as HR policies or benefits information.

Orientation received by incoming university students may reflect these common objectives. Informational topics may include health and safety, dealing with the "system" (e.g., the registrar), and available resources (library, computing, etc.). Sense of membership may be instilled through social

2009, John L. Michela

activities, games, teamwork for charity, and so forth. Values and norms probably receive less overt attention in university orientation compared with employment orientation, although in specific academic departments or programs there may be explicit coverage of expectations as a way of indicating norms and values. For example, the Graduate Program in Industrial/Organizational Psychology at the University of Waterloo provides a two-page description to incoming students, telling the range of educational opportunities (courses, research assistantship, practical experience) that will be available and expectations about getting involved in those opportunities during the period of graduate study. Although the initial training of new hires may include some combination of job-specific (knowledge and skills-oriented) training along with orientation training as described here, "orientation training" should be understood to consist of the part of that training that does not concern job-specific knowledge and skills.

Diversity Training
Diversity training "focuses on understanding the differences that are found among people of different backgrounds (race, age, ethnicity, gender). Diversity training can help everyone in the company understand how differences can be useful to an organization" (p. 314). Diversity training has become important in many organizations as the participation of women in the work force and the population of visible minorities has grown dramatically. Why is this understanding important? When supervisors and co-workers lack appreciation of diversity they are more likely to favour "people like themselves" and show bias against people different from themselves. This bias may be subtle and it may occur completely outside of the awareness of person showing the bias (though not always). For example, a male department head at a university may provide more start-up funds to a new male professor compared with a new female professor, justifying it to himself as being based on the different needs for the different research areas of the two professors. In inidividual cases it is often impossible to say whether bias lies behind different treatment of individuals. However, organization-wide, a lot of subtle biased actions will aggregate to underutilization of talents of diverse individuals, as those individuals perceive unfairness and become less motivated, with some leaving the organization. More quantifiable costs may be incurred as employees file grievances internally or externally (e.g. with governmental rights commissions). An overall pattern of less favourable treatment toward women or minorities, if documented, can become evidence against an organization in a lawsuit filed against the organization. Table 9-2 lists three other advantages to effective diversity management besides the social, motivational, and monetary costs just mentioned: a larger applicant pool, access to more markets, and creative problem solving. Diversity training is a good example of the key point raised in the first section of this study guide, "Training as One of Several Facets of HR Management." If the only thing the organization does to promote appreciation of diversity is to talk about it in training, that training is likely to have little effect. Table 9-3 is a somewhat arbitrary yet illustrative listing of some other things besides training that organizations can do to promote appreciation of diversity. When top management makes a commitment to promoting diversity, these or other actions will accompany training, and managers and supervisors will see that they really are accountable for treating employees fairly and making full use of their capabilities. The text also mentions that managers' and supervisors' promotion of diversity could be tied to performance appraisals. For example, meeting target rates of hiring, promotion, provision of training, provision of special assignments, and other support of diversity initiatives could be monitored and rewarded. It is implied in Table 9-3 that the organization should have an accessible and effective internal grievance procedure that people can and will use if they feel treated unfairly. In fact an organization

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 2

could set up informal as well as formal means of bringing grievances. Informal means might operate through a union, employee association, or open door policy of "bosses' bosses" (i.e., a norm that for diversity issues, an employee may visit the boss's boss). Formal means would have a designated office while the grievance would be filed and investigated. Effective grievance procedures send a strong signal (i.e., as an aspect of organizational culture) that bias will not be tolerated. What content should be covered in diversity training? Here is a partial, illustrative list: How and why bias can operate unintentionally o o o o Effects of stereotypes on judgments of other people (e.g., assuming neglect in instances when the same assumption wouldn't be made of a majority group member) Discomfort with differences in dress, manner of speaking, etc. Resulting tendency toward bias (e.g., having less contact with and information about others who are different; assuming different others are less effective) What bias actually looks like (small things as well as large)

Benefits to the organization of effective management of diversity (similar to points made above in this study guide and in the text) Company policies and procedures concerning diversity management How to help visible minorities and women to be more effective o o Religious holidays, scheduling, work-life balance accommodations Mentoring, training, special assignments

Once again, what's going on the rest of the organization is critical to the effectiveness of this training. For example, if the organization does not have mentoring or diversity promotion policies or programs, there is nothing to say on those points in the content of the training. And, once again, because diversity training is training, the training designer should be concerned with formulating objectives, choosing instructional methods well-matched to the objectives and trainees, conduct evaluation, and otherwise follow the rest of this course's advice for sound design and implementation of training. In addition to knowing some of the basic needs and goals surrounding diversity training and some of the content of diversity training, students in this course are expected to be able to identify and describe some of the non-training supports for diversity that have been described in this section. Students with a special interest in this area may find many published works on the topic, including Diversity Dynamics in the Workplace by Kecia M. Thomas (Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005).

Sexual Harassment Training

"Sexual harassment is one specific type of behaviour that diversity training attempts to eliminate. In Canada, 16 percent of the complaints filed with the Canadian Human Rights Commission in 2002 and 2003 were related to sexual harassment" (p. 316). "In Canada, a survey showed that 48 percent [of employed women] indicated being sexually harassed in the previous year, with only 3 percent indicating the harassment was of the quid pro quo type" (p. 317). "Sexual harassment is an unwelcome advance of a sexual nature. It is prohibited under human rights legislation in Canada. "Quid pro quo harassment occurs if an employee higher in the organization makes an offer to a subordinate of some job perk (raise, promotion, easier job) in return for sexual favours. If a supervisor sexually harasses a subordinate, the company can be considered liable, even if no one else was aware of

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 3

the harassment. If an employee is harassed by someone other than a supervisor the employer can still be liable if evidence shows that the employer was aware or should have been aware of the harassment. "When words, gestures, and/or behaviours make someone feel uncomfortable based on their gender, the result is hostile work environment. Sexual harassment training needs to define these concepts in ways that fit the specific workplace" (pp. 316-317). "To win a harassment suit in which the supervisor sexually harassed someone, the organization must prove that the supervisor's harassment was against the company's harassment policy. Therefore maintaining such a policy is critical. The courts accept training supervisors in the use of these policies as compelling evidence of the company's concern regarding the issue. "But there are more than just the obvious [legal and thus monetary] costs associated with sexual harassment. Sexually harassed employees experience psychological distress and in some cases posttraumatic stress disorder, both of which interfere with productivity. A more direct impact on productivity is that these employees experience higher levels of absenteeism and turnover. Allowing an employee to be sexually harassed by others in the company is morally and ethically reprehensible" (pp. 317-318). "A survey of 663 human resource practitioners indicated that in 500 of the responding organizations, sexual harassment complaints declined after initiating training. However, many organizations are not doing a good job in this area. For that reason, we continue to hear of flagrant violations of the various human rights codes." (p. 318). Table 9-4 provides a list of training and non-training approaches to dealing with sexual harassment. As in the broader area of dealing with diversity-related bias or mistreatment, it is crucial for employees to be able to complain internally, formally or, ideally, informally, so that external (e.g., human rights commission) complaints may be avoided. As the table indicates, in response to internal complaints, investigation should occur promptly, information should be kept confidential punishment must be known about, ahead of time, based on training or other communications, and applied equally (e.g., delivered to highly placed employees if warranted).

This table also indicates that sexual harassment training may include not only lecture or lecture/discussion but also role play instructional methods (to make it clear what is or is not acceptable) should include evaluation of learning with a written exam, to document for legal protection that learning has occurred should be followed-up with refresher training.

Relevant law, recourse within the organization (informal and formal), and recourse outside the organization also should be covered in the training

Teamwork Training
When organizations re-organize and make greater use of teams (as opposed to maintaining more traditional supervisor-subordinate structures), teamwork requires new KSAs for team members (formerly subordinates) and team leaders (supervisors). Teamwork training seeks to develop these KSAs. In organizations that have used teams for some time, teamwork training is also needed for newly hired employees (unless new hires come in with teamwork KSAs).

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 4

Some of these KSAs are broadly applicable to teams; among these KSAs are Interpersonal skills such as skills for listening to team members and handling conflict Teamwork-specific skills as for planning, conducting, and participating in team meetings

Other KSAs are particular to the new work roles assigned to the team. For the Coca-Cola example in the text (p. 321), these are termed Technical knowledge or skills, such as obtaining a broader knowledge of how team or departmental outputs are produced, thus enabling greater contribution by individuals

As another example of technical skills, in the transition to team-based organization, some production teams will take on additional functions such as materials procurement and quality monitoring. These teams will need training to accomplish these functions. The text notes two categories of benefits from effective use of teams: Improved organizational outcomes such as greater quality (e.g., fewer service errors or manufacturing defects) and productivity Improved outcomes for employees such as increased job satisfaction and lower absenteeism and turnover

As with the other special topics discussed in this unit, training must be accompanied by alignments in HR management and other management structures and processes if teams are to be effective. Examples include appropriate job design (e.g., affording autonomy and task identity), appropriate team composition (e.g., right sized), purpose and goals consistent with team organization, and contextual supports including effective team leadership aligned reward systems. Students in this course are not expected to be able to answer questions about these alignments, however.

Other Training Programs and Issues

"The glass ceiling is a metaphor for an invisible barrier that prevents minorities and women from moving up the corporate ladder" (p. 323). Diversity training and sexual harassment training contribute to overcoming the glass ceiling. Other HR policies and programs also are important in this regard. The text mentions or implies the following as some examples: Building career developmental planning and review into the annual or semi-annual performance appraisal process with supervisors Developing central monitoring by the HR department to tell how women and minorities are faring in developmental opportunities (e.g. training) and promotions, and assigning a high-level committee to track success in these aspects of diversity management Creating a mentoring program.

Training equity exists when all employees have equal access to training. In the absence of policies and procedures to achieve training equity, bias may operate against women and minorities. Training should be an aspect of accommodating people with disabilities. Managers and supervisors need to know that it is unlawful "to discriminate on the basis of person's disability, whether physical or mental, if it does not prevent the person from doing the job. Basically, a job analysis describes the critical KSAs. Based on that information, it is possible to assess whether the disability will negatively affect job performance. If not, then the candidate must be provided with the same opportunity to be hired, promoted, or trained as anyone else" (p. 324). Special needs of people with disabilities produce a duty to accommodate, that is, "adjustments to working conditions and/or requirements of the job expected to be taken by the employer in order to allow a person with a disability to do the job" (p.

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 5

324). Not only the regular work setting but the training classroom or other training setting may need to make accommodations for mobility, hearing, or other needs of the disabled. An exception is when the organization can make an undue hardship argument, providing "evidence that accommodating the particular employee will place undue hardship on the organization" (p. 324). Some organizations hire employees who need basic skills training in reading, writing, and arithmetic, also called literacy training. The text cites a statistic that 22% of adults in Canada "struggle with a severe literacy problem. Organizations find that, even when hiring high school graduates, they need to provide remedial skills training to get them ready for the job. In addition to issues within the school system as immigration increases, new employees with English as a second language will be more prevalent, making reading and writing in English more problematic." Concerning effectiveness, "a survey of workplaces in Canada where literacy programs were installed revealed a drop in error rate in employees' work, improved morale, and a general improvement in health and safety." Concerning training design, "developing basic skills (or literacy) training is similar to developing any other training program. The first step is a TNA. [However,] here, more than in other TNAs, the need to ensure confidentiality is critical. Workers who are illiterate generally take great pains to hide it out of embarrassment and shame" (p. 326) With the globalization of business, people from different cultures are being exposed to training methods that may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable for them. Training in North America may include games or exercises to increase interest along with a lot of give-and-take discussion of trainer and trainees or among trainees. This style may clash with other cultures' expectations for more formal lecture-type instruction (e.g., among Chinese) or a "nuts and bolts" approach without the flash (European clients, according the source cited in the text, p. 327). Thacker and Blanchard take the position that most clients can become comfortable with most North American methods after they have had some exposure to it (and, presumably, if the methods are used skillfully by the trainer). However, there are taboos such as risk of loss of face by Asian leaders, as could be the case if junior managers were able to answer questions or others demonstrate better performance than their superiors. One solution to this risk would be to train the levels of management separately.

The Learning Organization

The text correctly notes that term learning organization has different meanings depending on who is using itand a lot of people have used it in the last decade or two. Students should be able to identify in a general way, in multiple choice questions, three views or definitions of the learning organization. Perhaps the most basic definition is: A learning organization continuously seeks new knowledge and capabilities as part of its overall strategy to accomplish its mission or vision. For example, if Rubbermaid shifts its focus from manufacturing of household goods toward a vision of designing continuously innovative household goods (i.e., a market leader strategy), learning requirements concerning ever-changing consumers and the marketplace will generate a need for continuous learning among employees. As another example, workers in technical fields such as engineering and computing have continuous learning needs that their organizations should support, as through technical vitality programs. However, Peter Senges more elaborate conception of the learning organization is often what writers, including Thacker and Blanchard, are referring to when they discuss the learning organization: A learning organization has a sense of common understanding among individuals and an enhanced capacity to create desired results through continually learning how to learn (p. 329).

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 6

Table 9-6 describes this conception. Students are not expected to be able to identify or list these components, although they should look them over and be aware that Senges conception, presented in this table, is widely known and cited among HR professionals. Frankly this conception is about more than learning; it concerns common understanding, shared purpose, personal mastery, and specific kinds of knowledge promoting these states, including understanding of systems. Again, this is mentioned here for students information, not to signal a need to memorize these specific points for this course. The texts subsection concerning HRDs Role in the Learning Organization provides, in effect, a third perspective on the learning organization. The text sketches a shift in which HRD accumulates and makes available learning resources (video disks, networked learning libraries, conventional training programs) to individuals and groups (e.g., departments) in the organization on demand [study guide authors term]. Rather than directing the learning experiences of employees, training entails helping employees learn how to learn on their own and also developing the means for that learning to happen. Xerox, Samsung, and Corning implemented these systems with much success some time ago. Corning for example, set a company-wide goal that 5 percent of each employees annual workload would be spent in job-related training. A few years later, in 1991, Business Week recognized Corning as a prime example of an effective competitor. Corning attributes its success to a commitment to employee and organizational learning (p. 331)

Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 7