ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD FOREST RESOURCES (CASE STUDY: TAIWAN)

By

Reuben Selase Yao Asempapa Department of Mathematics & Statistics Youngstown State University

Submitted to the Department of Mathematics and Statistics in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a Masters of Science Degree.

Advisor: Dr.Andy Chang Department of Mathematics &Statistics AUGUST 2005

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my best friend and life long companion, Mrs. Bridget Asempapa. Without your faithful love and prayers through out these years this work would not be in existence. Many women have done virtuously, nobly and well but you surpass them all. Thanks so much for your love, care and support. God richly bless you.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Every new thing is like having another child. First of all I would like to thank the Almighty God for the wisdom, strength and grace given me to complete this work. Many thanks go to Dr. Andy Chang my supervisor, for his wonderful support, ideas, contributions and also reading through this work.

To my advisor, research professor and mentor Dr. Annette M. Burden, thanks for all your efforts and support for helping me to reach this far. To my own and extended family, inlaws and all friends thanks for your diverse support and generosity through these years. I also want to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to Karen Demateo, Sandi and all the office staff of the mathematics and statistics department of Youngstown state University for all the support and help in making this work a reality.

I can not end without saying thanks to my apartment mate Samuel Essah for your support and the wonderful time we had together all these years.

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ABSTRACT

Forest resources and natural resources are important economic assets to Taiwan. The study uses a focus group (the public) and mail questionnaire to determine attitude toward forest and natural resources. The mailed questionnaire included 12 statements concerning attitude toward forest resources and 15 statements regarding environmental ethics. These statements were measured on a five point likert type scale anchored at strongly disagree and strongly agree.

Empirical results from the study revealed that the 12 statements describing public attitudes toward forest resources could be classified into two attitudinal dimensions which could be interpreted as Use-Value and Non- Use value using the principal component of factor analysis. Also the 15 statements concerning environmental ethics shows that the public attitudes toward natural resources could be categorized into three main groups as Utilitarian Conservation, Radical Environmentalism and AntiEnvironmentalism. The KMO measure of 0.928 and 0.886 for both forest values and environmental ethics respectively indicates the existence of sufficient correlation between the statements for carrying out the appropriate analysis. Also reliability coefficient of 0.912 and 0.818 for both forest values and environmental ethics respectively shows that the method of analyzing was very reliable.

The study seeks to find out the publics attitudes toward forest and natural resources and also to understand how socioeconomic characteristics influence forest and natural resources. From the analysis and results obtained on this study, descriptive findings suggest that most of the public have positive attitudes toward forest and natural resources. The public also subscribe to a diversity of forest values, including Use value and NonUse Value .They also subscribe to a diversity of environmental ethics including Anthropocentric and Ecocentric.

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It was also revealed form the study that socioeconomic characteristics including household income, gender, marital status and purchasing behavior of ecolable products influence attitudes toward forest and natural resources.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction.1 1.1 Purpose of Study...6 1.2 Work Already Done..7 2.0 Overview.9 2.1 Forest Land and Forest Type.10 2.2 Environmental Ethics and Attitudes toward Forest Resources.14 3.0 Materials and Methodology ...16 3.1 Forest Values and Environmental Ethics..16 3.2 Factor Analysis..20 3.3 Assumptions..21 4.0 Analysis and Results of Study.22 4.0 Descriptive Statistics.22 4.1 Factor analysis of forest values.23 4.2 Factor analysis of environmental ethics25 4.3 Discriminant analysis27 4.4 Cluster analysis and Cross tabulations for forest values...29 4.5 Cluster analysis and Cross tabulations for environmental ethics..30 4.3 Regression analysis...32 5.0 Discussion ..36 5.1 Forest values..36 5.2 Environmental Ethics ...37 6.0 Conclusion.39 7.0 References.41 vi

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction Forests and the environment are an integral part of the economy and way of life. Increased knowledge about the interaction between the forest, environment and people is an essential part of understanding sustainable forest management in a region. Forests are essential for developing countries economic and environmental securities. Therefore a comprehensive study of socio-cultural character, including perception and attitudes is necessary to ensure the viability of our forest.

Within this context this project is directed at the understanding of the perception, beliefs and behavior of the people of Taiwan and their forests. In particular this project focuses on the attitude of the people towards forest resources and environmental ethics. Forests are complex ecosystems capable of providing a wide range of economic, social and environmental benefits. Forests and woodlands are essential for human life, but their benefits and services are valued differently by different people and different groups. Local, national and international interests in forest resources also differ greatly across landscapes. Moreover, the numerous roles that forests are expected to play in local, national and global development change dramatically over time. A widely held public opinion is that we are "cashing in" our forests; an initial reading of many vital signs does not reassure us that we are doing otherwise. A frequently cited study by the international Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) asserts that fewer than I million ha of tropical forests out of the 828 million ha within ITTO member countries were under sustained yield management in the mid-1980s. FAO estimates that 15.4 million ha of tropical forests were lost each year during the 1980s and that the area of severe forest degradation is perhaps even larger than the area of forest depletion. Over time, forestry policies and management practices evolved and adapted to changing economic demands, social needs and political circumstances. For centuries, European governments set aside forest reserves to maintain a reliable source of wood for warships. Later, forest management looked on trees as the primary fuel source for the industrial revolution. By the middle of the nineteenth century, European foresters had developed sustained yield practices to

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balance timber utilization with forest growth. North American foresters then broadened the sustained yield concept to include the conservation of non-timber values and ecological services. While the term "sustained yield" may mean different things to different foresters, this tradition of managing forests for the indefinite future has remained a guiding principle of forestry thinking. Foresters developed biological models to maximize long-term timber production, pioneered economic techniques for evaluating optimal harvest rotations and introduced an ecosystem approach to sustainable forest management. This experience should provide a model for balancing economic and social demands with nature's productivity. Instead, the competency of foresters to manage and control forest practices is being increasingly questioned and criticized by the public. Sustained yield of the several products and services means the achievement and maintenance in perpetuity of a high-level annual or regular periodic output of the various renewable resources of the national forests without impairment of the productivity of the land. Forests are important to many people because they have the unique ability to meet many different needs at once. The production and use of forest products provide products we all use daily, as well as generates employment and support the economic well being of rural and urban communities alike. People rely on forest for their livelihoods, recreation, spiritual renewal, a vast array of forest products and other essential functions. To ensure that our children and grandchildren are able to experience forests that is as healthy, useful and abundant as they are today. It is imperative that we work together to ensure our forests are managed sustainably across the landscape. While individual definitions of sustainability differ slightly in their details, there is generally broad-based support that sustainable forestry focuses on meeting the needs of current generations, while protecting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Several objectives helped to define this project. More specific objectives related to the project include To analyze public attitudes toward forest resources and natural resources. To know if the public believes the importance of natural resources and forest

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resources. To understand how socioeconomic characteristics influence attitudes toward forest resources as well as natural resources.

Taiwan is a small island with a broad range of environments. Only 35,570 square kilometres in area, or roughly twice the size of the big island of Hawaii or half of Ireland, Taiwan is located one hundred and fifty kilometres off of the southeast coast of mainland China, between cool-temperate Japan to the north, sub-tropical south China to the west, and the tropical Philippines and Indo-Malayan islands to the south. This location, combined with a tall range of mountains, with more than two hundred peaks over 3,000 meters, supports a diverse flora of over 4,000 vascular plant species and a spectrum of six forest types. This range of environments in turn supports a rich fauna. Sixty-one species of mammals, more than 400 species of birds (about 40% resident), 92 species of reptiles, 30 species of amphibians, 140 species of freshwater fish, and an estimated 50,000 insect species, including more than 400 species of butterfly, are known to occur here.

Taiwan is dominated by forested mountains. Almost three fourths of the country is slope land (land over 100 meters elevation and over 5% slope), and nearly half of the total area of the main island is above 1000 meters. The lowlands, especially the coasts, are important habitats for seabirds and for wildlife associated with the few remaining undisturbed patches of tropical strand or mangrove trees. However, almost all flatland on the island are used as farmlands, and an increasing amount of slope land is intensively cultivated. The majority of cultivated land is below 500 meters on the western plain of the island, while the mountains are sparsely inhabited and the home of the majority of Taiwan's wildlife. Ecosystem management is considered to be the key to maintaining biological diversity and sustainable forestry. Management of the national forests constitutes an important public policy issue in the environmental arena. Specific national forest management issues are highly diverse and include clear cutting, preservation of endangered species and biodiversity, wilderness designation and management, sustainability, timber salvage, and tradeoffs among competing uses. In many cases these issues are highly controversial.

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(Manning Robert, 1999). Ecosystem management is designed to integrate scientific knowledge of ecological relationships within a complex sociopolitical and values framework toward the general goal of protecting native ecosystem integrity over the long term (Grumbine 1994, 31). The main job of forest ecosystem management is to make the forest resource well arranged and used. The ecosystem principles are applied to fit the objectives of economic and social needs. For managers, the process of resource arrangement and using involves a series of decision making. All kinds of decision support systems are being developed as the computer techniques continue to improve. The ecosystem researchers are trying to solve the dynamic and complex problems by computer simulation and analysis.

The purpose of ecosystem management is to maintain the diversity and sustainable development of forest resource. Forest ecosystem management is the guideline of the forest management in Taiwan now. According to the principle of sustainable management, forest land must be classified for multi-purposes such as economics, protection, and recreation. Long-rotation and deep-root species must be planted for the needs of watershed management. While information on public attitudes toward national forest resources is useful, we believe it may be equally useful to explore the underlying ideas that drive such attitudes.

Information on public attitudes toward such issues can be useful in helping to guide appropriate national forest management (Heberlin 1989). In fact, it is becoming increasingly apparent that many such issues cannot be resolved without this type of information. Many national forest management issues-perhaps most cannot be addressed solely through science or technical expertise because such issues have important value or ethical components which must be addressed (Bengston 1994). However, scientific and technical approaches can be brought to bear on environmental values and ethics.

Bowers (1997) defines existence value as the economic value people attach to the knowledge that an environmental asset simply exists even though they may not be interested in consuming it. Also, option value relates to the amount that an individual or

society is willing to pay to retain the option of using an environmental resource themselves in the future (Field, 1994).Dixon and Sherman (1990) defines a similar value known as quasi option value which people attach to an asset in order to maintain it and avoid irreversible decisions today with the expectation that more information about the resource will be available in the future. Finally, altruistic value is a value that people express for ensuring that the environmental resource is available to others (Bowers, 1997).

Economic Principle: Investments into forestry normally are long-term, with returns on investments being obtained only after a considerable span of time. Resources for Forest Sector Development Co-operation are becoming scarce and need to be properly and effectively allocated. This calls for the private sector to be addressed and considered when dealing with forest projects, since; in general, this sector is able to use the resources in an efficient way. Multiple Uses means: The management of all the various renewable surface resources of the national forests so that they are utilized in the combination that will best meets the needs of the Taiwan people.

Functional Principle: Social and cultural phenomena have shaped the perception and the use of forests worldwide at all times. Peoples attitudes towards forests act as an indicator of their social significance and therefore represent an important field of research. The environment and nature are to be viewed in consideration of socioeconomic circumstances and the values contained in them. Empirical research regarding peoples knowledge and attitudes towards forestry and utilization of forestry can help to understand their actual significance. Social Functions: The classical productive functions of the worlds forests dominated the focus of most of the past centurys research in forestry. Towards the end of the 20th century, industrialisation and urbanisation in the western hemisphere turned attention towards new important functions of the forests. These include ecological functions of

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forests as pollution moderating landscape elements and as safe havens for biodiversity in the cultivated landscape. And it includes social functions expressed in the high demand for a number of services and goods, i.e. quiet short afternoon walks, leisure relaxation, leisure culture, eco-tourism, weekend stays in cabins, hiking, a site for recreational sports, and simply as a beautiful and de-stressing view and experience.

Government Budget: As used here, the term "national forest fund" does not refer to a specific model, but instead describes a constellation of approaches. In their most basic form, forest funds are designed to set aside a portion of national revenues for forestry purposes. They exist for more than a single government budget cycle, segregating specific forestry-related revenues and earmarking them for investment in the forest sector.

1.1 Purpose of Study Peoples action in pursuit of economic growth tremendously threatens forests of the entire world, in particular Taiwan. The forests and their precious resources have almost been destroyed, becoming irreplaceable losses, even before they have really been understood.

The country's rich biodiversity resources are under increasing threat due to the rapid disappearance of forested land and the absence of a conservation system. According to data collected between 1982 and1989 there was a decrease in forest areas.

Location Forest areas

1982 (a)

Forest areas (b) 3562 3739 3866

1989 (c) 203 188 79 469

(a)-(b)=(c) Decrease rate (c/a) % 5.4 4.8 2.0 4.0

Northern part of Lao Central part of Lao Southern part of Lao

3765 3927 3945

11,637 11,168

Source: Department of Forestry, National Office of Forest Inventory and Planning

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Looking at the trend of Taiwan forest areas and also the activities (environmental and economic) of its people the purpose of this study is to analyse the public attitudes toward forest and natural resources using a survey data collected by the Taiwan Forestry Bureau (TFB).

1.2 Work Already Done For the past two decades, the role of Taiwan's forests has altered, so that things such as biodiversity conservation, environmental protection, providing clean water and fresh air as well as recreation, have become the main priorities. To maintain sustainable and efficient use of the forests in their conservation role, the Taiwan Forestry Bureau (TFB), the management agency for Taiwan's forest, holds many activities every year. These activities are designed to let the general public become aware of the importance of forests, and establish the idea of protecting forests in people's minds.

For the past forty years, economic development has been the primary goal for Taiwan. As great as the economic success has been, it has not occurred without compromising the environmental integrity of the landscape. A small island to begin with, Taiwan's continued expansion of industry and agriculture has made habitat destruction the primary threat to wildlife.

The Department of National Parks and the Council of Agriculture both have taken it upon themselves to preserve several of the remaining pockets of natural beauty and wildlife habitat. The National Park System protects large undeveloped tracts of mountain range, as well as coastal Kenting, the only true tropical rainforest on the main island. The Council of Agriculture also has set aside mountain and coastal regions, declaring that preservation, rather than sustainable use, is the appropriate management policy for select reserves, preserves, and wildlife sanctuaries. Areas designated specifically for habitat protection and an overall government policy of forest resource and soil conservation help to maintain the integrity of the land resources. Despite a high population density, forests continue to cover over 50% of Taiwan. The vast majority of these forests are on slope land, and sound forestry practices are vital for soil protection and watershed management.

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The most recent development in forest resource management is the Taiwan Forest Management and Administration Policy of 1991. The purpose of this policy is to: 1. Cultivate new tree plantations: In addition to the reforestation of cut-over sites and forestation of select grassland sites, emphasis will be put into timber stand improvements. 2. .Protect forest resources in general: This will include (a) the management and protection of forests and preservation/ reservation area; (b) the prevention of forest fires; (c) the prevention of unauthorized activities within National Forests; (d) timber harvesting limits of 200,000 cubic meters per year; and (e) a six-year moratorium on harvesting of any natural forests. 3. Implement a multi-purpose National Forest Management Policy: This includes (a) timber production; (b) watershed protection; (c) development of forest recreation areas; and (d) protection and rehabilitation of wildlife habitat. CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW

Taiwan is located in the Southeastern part of the Asian continent. The total land area is about 35,980 sq km with water being about 3,720 sq km and the rest land (32,260 sq km).The land size is slightly smaller than Maryland and Delaware combined comparative. The climatic conditions are tropical marine and rainy season during southwest monsoon (June to August); Cloudiness is persistent and extensive all year. The population of Taiwan is about 22,749,838 (at July 2004) with a population growth rate of 0.64 %.( Source: World Fact Book, May 2004).

Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, the environment and its nonhuman contents. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that primarily discusses issues dealing with human behavior and character. Ethics attempts to establish a basis for judging right from wrong and good from bad. Environmental ethics employs concepts from the entire field of philosophy, especially aesthetics, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of science, and

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social and political philosophy. Just as philosophers try to answer questions about reality, environmental ethicists attempt to answer the questions of how human beings should relate to their environment, how to use Earth's resources, and how to treat other species, both plant and animal. Some of the conflicts that arise from environmental policies deal with the rights of individuals versus those of the state, and the rights of private property owners versus those of a community. Environmental issues are not universally supported. The conflicts between those who want to protect the natural environment and its species, and those for which this is a lesser concern, often center around economic issues. For example, environmentalists in the Pacific Northwest want to protect the habitat of the rare spotted owl, which inhabits old-growth forests on which the timber industry and many people depend for their livelihood. There is much controversy over who had the most "right" to use this forest. The perception of those who are economically affected by protection of the old-growth forest is that spotted owls have become more "important" than the needs of people. Environmentalists, on the other hand, believe that both are important and have legitimate needs. Four hundred years ago, Taiwan was called "Ihla Formosa "--the beautiful island--for its lustrous landscape. Forests have not only been the home of abundant flora and fauna but also protected the national land, provided the water resource for our daily life and recreation sites. All our basic necessities such as food, water, clothing, housing, transportation, education and recreation are closely related to the forests. Forest resources include the timber resource, water resource, biological resource, recreation resource and other ecological resources etc.

Humans continuous pursuit of economic growth tremendously threatens forests of the entire world. The forests and their precious resources have almost been destroyed, becoming irreplaceable losses, even before they have really been understood. Using our wisdom to protect these forest resources and maintain their diversities and thus preserve their sustainable use is a very important subject for human beings. To preserve forest resources, it is necessary, first, to recognize their diversities, which cover a broad range,

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from landscapes, ecosystems, species, to genes. The Taiwan Forestry Research Institute has contributed to related research and work for years. During the past year, they have continued to properly manage the Hahpen Nature Preserve and Kenting Raised Coral Nature Preserve. The vegetation of these two preserves was surveyed. Regarding animals, the moth fauna and their growth characters were studied in the Taipei and Fushan Botanical Gardens.

2.1 Forest Land Area and Forest Type According to the data of the third aerial survey of forest resources in 1995, there are 2,102,400 hectares of forest land occupying 58.53% of the total island base (3,591,500 hectares). The non-forest land area 1,489,100 hectares occupying 41.47%. Among the forest land areas, the conifer forests occupy 438,500ha, or 20.86 %, conifer and hardwood mixed forests 391,200ha, or 18.61 %, hardwood forests 1,120,400ha, or 53.29 % and bamboo forests 152,300ha, or 7.24%. Table2.1a Forest Land in Taiwan LAND CLASSIFICATION AREA (HA) Forest Land Conifers 2,102,400 438,500 391,200 1,120,400 152,300 1,489,100 3,591,500 PERCENTAGE (%) 58.53(100.00) 12.21(20.86) 10.89(18.61) 31.19(53.29) 4.24(7.24) 41.47 100.00

Conifers & hardwoods Hardwoods Bamboo Non-forest land Total

Among the forest land area, of which the natural forest is 1,527,500ha, occupying 72.7%, xvi

plantation forest is 422,600ha occupying 20.1%, and bamboo forest 152,300ha occupying 7.2%. (Table 2.1b)

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Table 2.1b Forest Land by Major Forest Type FOREST TYPE Natural forest Natural conifers Spruce, Fir Hemlock Cypress Other conifers (pine included) Mixed forests Hardwoods Plantation Conifers Mixed forests Hardwoods Bamboo Total AREA (HA) 1,527,500 220,100 27,100 52,600 48,500 91,900 331,600 975,800 422,600 218,400 59,600 144,600 152,300 2,102,400 PERCENTAGE (%) 72.7 10.5 1.3 2.5 2.3 4.4M 15.8 46.4 20.1 10.4 2.8 6.9 7.2 100.0

Table 2.1c Forest Land by Major Ownership OWNERSHIP National Land (aborigines reserves incl.) Public land Private land Total AREA(HA) 1,869,492 46,782 186,126 2,102,400 PERCENTAGE (%) 88.92 2.23 8.85 100.00

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Table 2.1d Forest Growing Stock by Major Forest Type FOREST TYPE Natural forest Natural conifers Spruce, Fir Hemlock Cypress Other conifers (pine included) Mixed forests Hardwoods Plantation Hardwoods Conifers Mixed Forest Bamboo Total GROWING STOCK (1000M3) 310,533 91,770 10,564 31,490 29,045 20,671 94,608 124,155 47,676 8,818 34,065 4,793 535 358,744 PERCENTAGE (%) 86.56 25.58 2.94 8.78 8.10 5.76 26.37 34.61 13.29 2.46 9.50 1.34 0.15 100.00

The ownership of forest land can be divided by national, public and private land. The national ownership including aborigines reserves, accounts for 88.92%, while the public and private ownership only 11.08 %.( Table 2.1c). The estimated forest growing stock of the whole island is 358,744 thousand cubic meters, this number breaking down into 310,533 thousand cubic meters of natural forest or 86.56%, 47,676 thousand cubic meters of plantation or 13.29%, 535 thousand cubic meters of trees in bamboo forest or 0.15%. The average forest growing stock per hectare of the whole island is 203 cubic meters in natural forest, 113 cubic meters in plantation. (Table 2.1d).The forest in Taiwan supports

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a very rich flora. Under the influence of the climate, humidity and altitude, forest types can be divided into tropical, warm, temperate, and frigid forest zones. There are more than 200 species with high economic value, such as Taiwan zelkova, Formosan michelia, Stout camphor tree, Griffith's ash, Taiwan red cypress, Taiwan yellow cypress, Taiwan hemlock, and Taiwania just to mention a few. The excellent timber of Taiwan red cypress and Taiwan yellow cypress is well known in the world. Many plantations are established mainly with Japanese cedar, China fir, Taiwania, Taiwan red cypress, and Taiwan Acacia. Under the favorable environments, trees survive and are quickly established. The forest distribution of Taiwan from the seacoast to the elevation 3,952m of Yu-shanand and the vertical distribution have lots of biodiversity. No matter the natural forests or plantations, are the best places for outdoor recreations. At present, there are 20 forest recreation areas and 5 millions visitors annually. The recreational income has more than the value of timber production.

Under the complexity of topography and unique environments, Taiwan is one of the highest biodiversity areas in the world. In order to protect the rare flora, fauna and ecosystems resources, 39 nature reserves with the areas of 390,000ha have been set up by the Taiwan Forestry Bureau since 1974. There are 6 national parks in Taiwan of which 95% of the land areas are in the national forest. The stock of biodiversity in Taiwan, as anywhere, provides components most suited to that region, and in part unique. Thus about a fourth of the organisms found in Taiwan occur nowhere else on Earth. Understanding, protecting, and sustainably utilizing this island's biodiversity, protecting Taiwan's natural resources is everyones responsibility. Therefore, strong efforts have been made to conserve the biodiversity of Taiwan.

2.2Environmental Ethics and Attitudes Toward Forest Resources Ethics have likewise received considerable academic attention, particularly in the discipline of philosophy. Ethics can be defined as the study or discipline which concerns itself with judgments of approval and disapproval, judgments as to the rightness or wrongness, goodness or badness, virtue or vice, desirability or wisdom of actions, disposition, ends, objects, or states of affairs (Runes 1983, 113).

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According to Robert Manning, William Valliere and Ben Minter environmental ethics deal more specifically with human conduct toward the natural environment. It is inevitable that humans interact with the natural environment. But what ideas govern or structure this interaction? What is the appropriate relationship between humans and the natural environment? For purposes of this study, environmental ethics are defined as the diversity of ideas that drive human relationships with the natural environment, specifically the forest resources.

Research on attitudes has been a long standing focus of sociology and psychology. In general terms, attitudes are measures of how people feel about issues. More specifically, an attitude can be defined as an orientation toward certain objects or situations that is emotionally toned and relatively persistent. An attitude is learned and may be regarded as a more specific expression of a value or belief in that an attitude results from the application of a general value to concrete objects or situations (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969, 19).A considerable amount of research has been conducted on attitudes toward environmental issues in general and some of these studies have focused on national forest management. (Shindler et al. 1993; Steel et al. 1994; Bengston 1994; Bengston and Xu 1995; Bengston and Xu 1996). This study builds on this literature by focusing specifically on public attitudes toward the Use and Non-Use values of forest resources in Taiwan as well as natural resources.

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CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Forest Values and Environmental Ethics A mail survey of the general public was conducted in October 2002.Batteries of questions were developed to measure the attitudes of the public toward forest resources as well as natural resources. The twelve statements concerning forest values were adopted (with minor wording variations) from Manning, et al (1999). The twelve statements concerned the trade offs between material and non material benefits of the Taiwan forest and the extent to which the forest should be managed for a dominant or single use (such as timber or minerals) as against more integrated or holistic management approach. Also the 15 statements concerning environmental ethics were evaluated from an empirical study done by Manning, et al., (1999). These issues are broadly reflective of some of the basic issues or principles of the evolving concept of ecosystem management, as noted earlier. Respondents were asked the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each statement. A five-point response scale was used, anchored at strongly agree and strongly disagree. The 12 statements regarding forest values are as shown in the tables below; Table 3.1.1 Use Value STATEMENT 1.The opportunity to get timber, minerals, and other natural resources 2.The opportunity to protect nature in order to ensure human well-being and survival 3.The opportunity to camp, hike, and participate in other recreation activities in nature 4.The opportunity to learn more about nature 5.The opportunity to enjoy the beauty of nature 6.The opportunity for scientists to study nature and ecology VALUES Economic Ecological Recreation Education Aesthetic Scientific

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Table 3.1.2 Non-Use Value STATEMENT 7. The opportunity to maintain or regain physical health or mental well-being through contact with nature 8. The opportunity to understand the relationship between human well-being and nature 9. The opportunity to see and experience nature as our ancestors did. 10. The opportunity to think creatively and be inspired by nature 11. The opportunity to get closer to God or obtain other spiritual meaning through contact with nature. 12. The opportunity to exercise a moral and ethical obligation to respect and protect nature and other living things. VALUES Therapeutic Social Historical Intellectual Spiritual Moral/Ethical

Those regarding environmental ethics are also shown in the tables as follows: Table 3.1.3 Anti- Environmentalism STATEMENT 1. Nature is a threat to human survival 2. Nature is evil 4. Humans were created as fundamentally different from the rest of nature 5. The ability to think makes humans fundamentally different from the rest of nature Table 3.1.4 Utilitarian Conservation STATEMENT 6. Cruelty toward animals is wrong because it could lead to cruelty toward other humans 11.Nature should be protected because its sacred 12.Humans should not cause needless pain and suffering to animals 13.Nature should be protected because all living things are interconnected. 14.All living things have a spirit 15.Nature should be protected because all living things have a right to exist. ETHICS Anthropocentric humanism Mysticism Humanitarianism Animism/ organicism Pantheism Liberalism/natura l rights ETHICS Threat to survival Spiritual evil Religious dualism Intellectual dualism

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Table 3.1.5 Radical Environmentalism STATEMENT 3.Nature is a valuable storehouse of raw materials 7.Humans should manage nature as efficiently as possible 8.Nature is important because it adds to the quality of our lives 9.Protecting ecological processes is important to human survival 10.Nature should be protected for future generations

ETHICS Storehouse of raw materials Efficiency Quality of life Ecological survival Future generations

These values and ethics were evaluated from an empirical study done by Manning, et. al. (1999). The 12 statements concerning public attitudes towards forest resources and the 15 statements regarding environmental ethics were measured by a five-point Likert-type scale with Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree (3) (4) (5) (1) (2)

Strongly Agree

The 12 statements regarding forest values were grouped into 2 main categories as shown in the figure below:

Figure 3.1.1

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Forest Values = Use Value + Non-Use Value

Direct Use Value

Indirect Use Value

Existence Value

Bequest Value

Water, agriculture, tourism,

Ecological Value
Air & water quality, biodiversity, climate,

Option Value
Not used but has potential value

Existence value means the public is satisfied as long as those things in the forest still exist and it also gives them pleasure, whiles bequest value means sustainability. That is we should keep those things in the forest for future use.

The 15 environmental ethics were further classified into 3 categories based on conceptual similarities. They are: 1. Anti-Environmentalism: The statements under this category basically indicate that humans have nothing to do with nature. 2. Utilitarian Conservation: Here the statements give us an idea that the environment should be conserved and protected. 3. Radical Environmentalism: The statements that fall in this category see the environment as a store house of raw materials and that the natural resources should be there for future use.

The study questionnaire was administered by mail to a target population of 2500 households with listed telephone service. From this population a random sample of 633 based on the probability proportional to size (PPS) was used for the study. The questionnaire was administered in October 2002 following procedures recommended by xxv

Dillman (1978). Overall, a 25 % response rate was achieved. The reliability coefficient for the total values of the forest resources was calculated to be 0 .912 and that for the environmental ethics of the natural resources was found to be 0.818. These high reliability values indicate that these variables are good and hence the appropriate analysis can be performed. A Multivariate Data Analysis was carried out in this study. The procedures include Factor analysis, Cluster analysis, Discriminant analysis, Regression analysis and some cross tabulations, and Factor analysis being the major one.

3.2 Factor Analysis Factor analysis is statistical technique used to identify a relatively smaller number of factors that can be used to represent relationships among sets of many interrelated variables. For example variables such as scores on a battery of aptitude tests may be expressed as a linear combination of factors that represent verbal skills, mathematical aptitude and perceptional speed. For this study and using forest values as an example, the variable total value of forest resources can be expressed as a function of factors such as Use value and Non- Use value. Factor analysis helps identify those underlying, notdirectly observable constructs. The basic assumption of factor analysis is that underlying dimensions or factors can be used to explain complex phenomena. The goal of factor analysis is to identify the not-directly observable factors based on a set of observable variables.

The mathematical model for factor analysis appears somewhat similar to a multiple regression equation. Each variable is expressed as a linear combination of factors that are not actually observed. For this study total value might be expressed as: Total value= 0 (Use value) + 1 (Non- use value) + Utotal value Equation (3.1.0) This equation differs from multiple regression equation in that Use value and Non-Use value are not single independent variables. Instead they are labels for groups of variables that characterize these concepts. These groups of variables constitute the factors. Usually

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the factors useful for characterizing a set for variables are not known in advance but are determined by a factor analysis. Use value and Non-Use value are called common factors, since all variables are expressed as factors of them. The U in equation 3.1.0 is called a unique factor since it represents the part of total value index that cannot be explained by the common factors.

In general the model for the ith standard variable is written as: Xi = Ai1F1 + Ai2F2 + AikFk + Ui Where U = unique factor As = the coefficients used to combine the k factors Equation (3.1.1) Fs = common factors

3.3 Assumptions 1. No selection bias/proper specification: The exclusion of relevant variables and the inclusion of irrelevant variables in the correlation matrix being factored will affect often substantially, the factors which are uncovered. 2. No Outliers: As with most techniques, the presence of outliers can affect interpretations arising from factor analysis. 3. Interval data are assumed. 4. Linearity: principal components factor analysis is a linear procedure. 5. Moderate to moderate intercorrelations: Too high intercorrelation may indicate a multicollinearity problem and too low intercorrelation will defeat the data reduction purposes of factor analysis. CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF STUDY

The analysis was done using the statistical package SPSS. From the analysis the following results were obtained.

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4.0 Descriptive Statistics Table 4.0.1 Some Descriptive Statistics VARIABLES Household income per month Age # of Family Members 38 5 Precentage (%) Female Married College Ecolables 51% 63% 59% 22% 14 2 MEAN $ 1,886 STANDARD DEVIATION $ 1,213

Factor analysis was conducted because we had a lot of independent variables (i.e. the 12 statements concerning forest values and the 15 statements regarding environmental ethics). It also helps us to get the direction of the public attitudes toward forest and natural resources.

These results are from the factor analysis of forest values:

4.1 Factor analysis of forest values

Table 4.1.1 Use-Value

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STATEMENT 1.The opportunity to get timber, minerals, and other natural resources 2.The opportunity to protect nature in order to ensure human wellbeing and survival 3.The opportunity to camp, hike, and participate in other recreation activities in nature 4.The opportunity to learn more about nature 5.The opportunity to enjoy the beauty of nature 6.The opportunity for scientists to study nature and ecology Eigenvalue % of Variance Reliability Coefficient

FACTOR 1 .731

COMMUNALITY .535

MEAN 4.43

.623

.474

4.62

.701

.543

4.37

.750 .758 .729 4.042 33.981 0.875

.691 .683 .644

4.47 4.54 4.53

Table 4.1.2 Non-Use Value STATEMENT 8.The opportunity to understand the relationship between human wellbeing and nature 9.The opportunity to see and experience nature as our ancestors did. FACTOR 2 .613 COMMUNALITY .620 MEAN 4.54

.775

.685

4.43

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10.The opportunity to think creatively and be inspired by nature 11.The opportunity to get closer to God or obtain other spiritual meaning through contact with nature. 12.The opportunity to exercise a moral and ethical obligation to respect and protect nature and other living things. 8.The opportunity to understand the relationship between human wellbeing and nature Eigenvalue % of Variance Reliability Coefficient

.775 .803

.703 .740

4.13 4.24

.795

.644

4.18

.613

.620

4.03

3.523 29.357 0.872

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Table 4.1.3 Cumulative For Factors 1&2 FACTOR 1: USE-VALUE Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Total Reliability Coefficient KMO Coefficient 4.042 33.681 33.681 0.912 0.928 FACTOR 2: NON USE VALUE 3.523 29.357 63.038

4.2 Results from the factor analysis of the environmental ethics

Table 4.2.1 Utilitarian Conservation STATEMENT 6. Cruelty toward animals is wrong because it could lead to cruelty toward other humans 11.Nature should be protected because its sacred 12.Humans should not cause needless pain and suffering to animals 13.Nature should be protected because all living things are interconnected. 14.All living things have a spirit 15.Nature should be protected because all living things have a right to exist. Eigenvalue % of Variance Reliability Coefficient FACTOR 1 .532 COMMUNALITY .403 MEAN 4.16

.721 .672 .633 .748 .693 3.243 21.623 0.818

.532 .486 .704 .586 .651

3.95 4.23 4.52 4.24 4.46

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Table 4.2.2 Radical Environmentalism STATEMENT 3.Nature is a valuable storehouse of raw materials 7.Humans should manage nature as efficiently as possible 8.Nature is important because it adds to the quality of our lives 9.Protecting ecological processes is important to human survival 10.Nature should be protected for future generations Eigenvalue % of Variance Reliability Coefficient FACTOR 2 .413 .702 .734 .718 .670 2.994 19.957 0.784 COMMUNALITY .337 .609 .695 .689 .608 MEAN 4.15 4.27 4.50 4.48 4.51

Table 4.2.3 Anti-Environmentalism STATEMENT 1.Nature is a threat to human survival 2.Nature is evil .667 .548 .458 1.85 3.37 FACTOR 3 .696 COMMUNALITY .486 MEAN 3.06

4.Humans were created as .656 fundamentally different from the rest of nature 5.The ability to think makes humans .496 fundamentally different from the rest of nature Eigenvalue 1.937 % of Variance Reliability Coefficient 12.916 0.556

.382

4.08

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Table 4.2.4 Cumulative for factors 1, 2&3 FACTOR 1: Utilitarian Conservation Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Total Reliability Coefficient KMO Coefficient 0.886 3.243 21.623 21.623 0.818 FACTOR 2: Radical Environmentalism 2.994 19.957 41.580 1.937 12.916 54.497 FACTOR 3: Anti-Environmentalism

4.3 Discriminant analysis results

Discriminant Analysis was used to check for the significance of the factors and their correlations. Having a small p-value means we have strong discriminant factors. Wilks Lambda scores for both discriminant functions respectively, indicate that group means were significantly different. They are shown in the tables below:

Table 4.3.1 Significance of the factors from the Forest values WILKS LAMBDA OF DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS Test of Function 1-2 2 Wilks Lambda Chi-square .081 .316 1577.02 725.55 DF 6 2 Significance .000 .000

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Table 4.3.2 Correlation between the discriminant functions of Forest values CANONICAL CORRELATION OF DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION Function 1 2 Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Canonical Correlation 2.872 2.169 57.0 43.0 57.0 100.0 0.861 0.827

Table 4.3.3 Significance of the factors from the Environmental ethics WILKS LAMBDA OF DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS Test of Function 1-2 2 Wilks Lambda .197 .482 Chi-square 1020.87 459.69 DF 6 2 Significance .000 .000

Table 4.3.4 Correlation between the discriminant functions of Environmental ethics CANONICAL CORRELATION OF DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION Function 1 2 Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Canonical Correlation 1.440 1.077 57.2 42.8 57.2 100 0.768 0.720

Our empirical study based on cluster analysis of the forest values described that the public could be identified into four groups and it is shown in the table below.

4.4 Cluster analysis and cross tabulations for forest values

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Table 4.4.1 Cluster group of the public based on the forest values GROUP Use-Oriented Group Dont care Group Intermediate Oriented Group Non-Use Oriented Group Total NUMBER 158 238 201 36 633 PERCENTAGE (%) 25.0 37.5 31.8 5.7 100

Based on the clusters, cross tabulations were performed on these groups and some socioeconomic characteristics to explore the relationships between them. The following charts depicts the cross tabulations.
Fig 4.4.1: Cross tabulation of Income and the 4 clusters of Forest Values. From the chi-sq test p-value = .335 > .05
140 120 100 80 100 60 40

Fig 4.4.2: Cross tabulation of Age and the 4 clusters of Forest Values. From the chi-sq test p-value = .369 > .05
200

Income
<$1300

Age
<25yrs 25yrs - 50yrs

Count

Count

20

$1300 - $4000

N -U on

N -U on

te ia ed rm te In

te ia ed rm te In

$4000+

50yrs+

Cluster Number of Case

se ed nt rie O

se

C 't on e ar

C 't on

se

se

ed nt rie O

ed nt rie O

ed nt rie O

e ar

Cluster Number of Case

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Fig 4.4.3: Cross tabulation of Gender and the 4 clusters of Forest Values. From the chi-sq test p-value = .015 < .05
140 120 100

Fig 4.4.4: Cross tabulation of Ecolable and the 4 clusters of Forest Values. From the chi-sq test p-value = .001 > .05
300

200
80 60 40

Gender

100

ECOLABEL

Count

Count

20

Female

No

N -U on

te ia ed rm te In

-U on

Male

Cluster Number of Case

Fig 4.4.5: Cross tabulation of Education and the 4 clusters of Forest Values From the chi-sq test p-value = .083 > .05
140 120 100 80

se ed nt rie O

te ia ed rm te In

C 't on e ar

Yes

se ed nt rie O

Cluster Number of Case

Fig 4.4.6: Cross tabulation of marital status and the 4 clusters of Forest Values From the chi-sq test p-value = .270 > .05
200

se ed nt rie O

C 't on e ar

se

ed nt rie O

100 60 40

Education

MARRIED

Count

Count

20

College and Above

No

N -U on

N -U on

te ia ed rm te In

te ia ed rm te In

Below college

Yes

Cluster Number of Case

4.5 Cluster analysis and cross tabulations for environmental ethics

Also our empirical study based on cluster analysis of the environmental ethics described that the public could be identified into three groups and it is shown in the table below.

se ed nt rie O

se

C 't on e ar

C 't on

se

se

ed nt rie O

ed nt rie O

ed nt rie O

e ar

Cluster Number of Case

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Table 4.5.1 Cluster group of the public based on the environmental ethics Group Anthropocentric Ecocentric Intermediate Total Number 274 199 160 633 PERCENTAGE (%) 43.3 31.4 25.3 100

Based on the clusters, cross tabulations were also performed on these groups and some socio-economic characteristics to explore the relationships between them. The following charts depicts the cross tabulations.

Fig 4.5.1: Cross tabulation of Age and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .732 > .05
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 100 200

Fig 4.5.2: Cross tabulation of Age and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .611 > .05

Income
<$1300

Age
<25yrs

Count

20

Count

$1300 - $4000

25yrs - 50yrs

ri nt ce po ro th An

ri nt ce po ro th An

te ia ed rm te In

te ia ed rm te In

$4000+

50yrs+

c tri en oc Ec

c tri en oc Ec

Cluster Number of Case

Cluster Number of Case

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Fig 4.5.3: Cross tabulation of Gender and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .059 > .05
160 300

Fig 4.5.4: Cross tabulation of Ecolable and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .609 > .05

140

120

200

100

80

100

GENDER

ECOLABEL

Count

Count

60

Female

No

ri nt ce po ro th An

ri nt ce po ro th An

te ia ed rm te In

te ia ed rm te In

40

Male

Yes

c tri en oc Ec

c tri en oc Ec

Cluster Number of Case

Fig 4.5.5: Cross tabulation of Education and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .794 > .05
180 160 140 120 100 100 80 80 60 180 160 140 120

Cluster Number of Case

Fig 4.5.6: Cross tabulation of Marital status and the 3 clusters of Environmental Ethics. From the chi-sq test p-value = .95 > .05

EDUCATION

60

MARRIED
NO

Count

Count

College and Above

40

ri nt ce po ro th An

ri nt ce po ro th An

te ia ed rm te In

te ia ed rm te In

40

Below college

20

Yes

c tri en oc Ec

c tri en oc Ec

Cluster Number of Case

4.6 Regression analysis In addition multiple regressions were run between the socioeconomic characteristics and the factors obtained from the forest values and the environmental ethics. The following tables indicate the results obtained from the regressions.

Cluster Number of Case

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Table 4.6.1 Regression Analysis of Use Value Variable Intercept Income Age Female Ecolable Education Married Parameter Estimate -0.203 0.031 -0.006* -0.047 0.235* 0.053 0.018 Standard Error 0.220 0.022 0.003 0.081 0.095 0.036 0.107

*denotes statistical significance at the 5% level

Table 4.6.2 Regression Analysis of Non-Use Value Variable Intercept Income Age Female Ecolable Education Married Parameter Estimate -0.394 -0.013 0.004 .0256* .0289* 0.018 0.027 Standard Error 0.219 0.022 0.003 0.081 0.095 0.036 0.107

*denotes statistical significance at the 5% level

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Table 4.6.3 Regression Analysis of Utilitarian Conservation Variable Intercept Income Age Female Ecolable Education Married Parameter Estimate -0.336 0.013 0.001 -0.021 0.207* 0.069* -0.045 Standard Error 0.221 0.022 0.004 0.081 0.095 0.036 0.108

*denotes statistical significance at the 5% level

Table 4.6.4 Regression Analysis of Radical Environmentalism Variable Intercept Income Age Female Ecolable Education Married Parameter Estimate 0.016 0.026 0.001 0.222* .0229* -0.233 -0.297* Standard Error 0.210 0.022 0.004 0.080 0.094 0.036 0.106

*denotes statistical significance at the 5% level

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Table 4.6.5 Regression Analysis of Anti-Environmentalism Variable Intercept Income Age Female Ecolable Education Married Parameter Estimate 0.121 -0.001 -0.001 0.059 0.021 -0.033 0.044 Standard Error 0.222 0.022 0.004 0.082 0.096 0.036 0.108

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CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.0 Forest Values From the observational study most of the public indicated higher scores for the forest values which tells us that they had positive attitude towards forest resources since higher scores depicts positive opinion (tables 4.1.1 & 4.1.2). However there were statistically significant differences among most of the values. Aesthetic, Ecological and Therapeutic were rated very high while Moral /Ethic and Historical were rated relatively low.

From the cluster analysis (table 4.4.1) results suggest that majority of the public believes the importance of forest values and for that matter, forest resources. About 62.5% were familiar with the Use and Non Use values of forest resources while 37.5% were found in the Dont Care group. In exploring the relationships between the four groups of the public (Use group, Non -Use group, Intermediate group and Dont care group) and some socioeconomic characteristics of the forest values, the cross tabulations revealed some interesting results. Whiles gender, marital status and education showed results that were not far from expectation. The results about income, age and ecolabel products were far below expectation. From figure 4.4.1 the chi sq. test shows that there is no significant difference between the groups. The number of people begins to increase in the Use oriented group to the Dont care group, then reduces gently in the intermediate group but falls sharply in the Non use oriented group for all the income levels. Also the proportion of the public whose income were above $4000 were relatively small in all the four groups, suggesting that, this category of income level earners were less likely with forest resources.

A similar explanation can also be given about the public that falls in the age group of above 50yrs (figure 4.4.2). The proportions of the public that said they dont buy products/items that educate about the forest or environment were very low. However a pvalue of .001 indicates a significant difference in the group, since it increases from the use group to dont care group, falls in the intermediate group and then sharply decreases in the non-Use group for those who do not purchase ecolable products. For those that

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purchase ecolable products the proportions were the same for both use and dont care groups, increases gently in the intermediate group and then reduces non-use group. The low patronage of ecolable products could be due to the pricing or the packaging of the products.

Two regression analyses were also performed. These analyses were conducted to determine how those socioeconomic characteristics influence forest values. From (table 4.6.1) the significant variables to Usevalue (as dependent variable) of the forest values were age and purchasing behavior of ecolable products of the public. Age has a parameter estimate of about -0.006.This suggests that perhaps as people get older and older their value system changes, so they become less adjusted to the use value of forest resources. It could also be associated to cultural differences. Ecolable had a parameter estimate of about 0.235. This suggests that there is a positive correlation between ecolable products and the usevalue of forest resources. Also from (table 4.6.2), females and ecolable products were found to be statistically significant to the Non-Use value of forest resources. Thus the suggestion is that there is a positive correlation between ecolable products and the non-use value of forest resources. The parameter estimate for females was found to be 0.256, indicating that there is also a positive correlation. Females are more likely adjusted with the non-use value of forest resources.

5.1 Environmental Ethics Also from the observational study most of the public also showed positive attitudes toward natural resources, (tables 4.2.1, 4.2.2 & 4.2.3). Again there were statistically significant differences among most of the ethics; quality of life, animism/organicism and future generations were rated very high, while threat to survival, mysticism and religious dualism were rated relatively low. The cluster analysis results from (table 4.5.1) suggest that most of the public believes the importance of natural resources. About 74.7% were concerned with natural resources, while 25.3%were found in the intermediate group. Also the cross tabulations for the 3 groups (Anthropocentric, Ecocentric and Intermediate) of the public under environmental ethics shows that what was observed was not too far from the observations made under the forest values. Gender, marital status and educational

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background of the public showed results that were not far from expectation. However with regards to income, age and ecolable products, similar explanations that were given for the forest values could also be said about environmental ethics. Most of the public whose income was above $4000 were less likely with natural resources. Those whose age were 50years and above were also less adjusted to natural resources, while those who do not purchase ecolable products were also less likely with natural resources.

In addition the results from running the regression of the three main categories of environmental ethics with the socioeconomic characteristics reveal that the significant variables to utilitarian conservation were ecolable and education (table 4.6.2). Thus, as more ecolable products are purchased and as people get more education they become more associated with natural resources. Also the variables that were significant to the Radical Environmentalism were female, ecolable and marital status. Surprisingly, married people were less associated with seeing the natural environment as the store house of raw materials. None of the socioeconomic characteristics were found to be significant with Anti-Environmentalism (table 4.6.5). This suggests that it is highly impossible for humans to say that they have nothing to do with the environment.

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CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION

From this observational study the following conclusions can be drawn: Its apparent that forest values and environmental ethics can be isolated and measured. Often, environmental values and ethics are treated primarily at a conceptual level. However, these notions can be defined more explicitly, classified and measured through scale development and associated survey and statistical techniques. While the values and ethics related classification systems and measurement scales are certainly subject to continued refinement, they also suggest that an empirical approach to these issues can be potentially productive and useful.

Also, descriptive study findings provide some direct insights into forest values and environmental ethics of the public. The public holds positive attitudes toward forest resources as well as natural resources. The public also subscribe to a diversity of forest values including those that might be described as Use- value and Non-Use value. They also subscribe to a diversity of environmental ethics including those that might be generally described as Anthropocentric (including utilitarian conservation and stewardship) and Ecocentric (including radical environmental ethics). These results tell us that the forest as well as the environment should be managed to support several benefits.

Moreover, most of the values and ethics that the respondents supported or strongly agreed to are highly dependent upon the protection of ecological integrity. Finally, the analytical findings from this study provide insights into the relationship between forest values, environmental ethics and some socioeconomic characteristics. These statistical relationships suggest that, socioeconomic characteristics including household income, gender, marital status and the purchasing behavior of ecolable products influence the public attitudes toward forest and natural resources. This will allow natural forest managers at the forest, regional or national, to meet the diverse and sometimes competing values and ethics of the public while avoiding potential conflicts.

xlv

However in carrying out this study the following limitations were experienced. 1. Getting a data set with response rate above 50% was a bit difficult. 2. It was also time demanding 3. The nature of the questions were simple, no probing. 4. Another potential limitation of the study concerns the attitudinal nature of the study variables. Research suggests that the relationship between attitudes and behavior vary according to context and other variables (Ajzen and Fishbein1980; Manfredo and Shelby 1988).

Nevertheless, based on the results and findings from this study the following recommendations are made. That; 1. The government and the Taiwan Forest Bureau should support project of this nature so that in-depth studies can be done for better results to be achieved. 2. Due to the intriguing idea of the results about Ecolable products, further analysis should be performed on Ecolable products. 3. A comprehensive comparison study should be conducted between visitors and public attitudes so that forest managers can effectively meet the diverse and sometimes competing values and ethics of people. 4. Policy makers and the government should implement programs that will encourage the public about the essence and importance of forest and natural resources.

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REFERENCES

1. Ajzen, I., and M. Fishbein. 1980. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. EnglewoodCliVs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

2. Bengston, D. 1994. Changing forest values and ecosystem management. Society and Natural Resources 7:515-533.

3. Bowers, W., and Hopkin, A. 1997. Arnews and North American Maple Project 1995. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service Information Report ST-X-14. 35 p.

4. Dillman, D. 1978. Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

5. Dixon, J.A. & Sherman, P.B. 1990. Economics of protected areas. Washington, DC, Island Press.

6. Field, D.B. 1994. (Compiler) The forest laws of Maine Fourth Ed.Bureau of Forestry, Maine Dept. of Conservation, Augusta, ME. 366 p.

7. Grumbine, R. E. 1994. What is ecosystem management? Conserv. Biol. 8:24- 38.

8. Heberlein, T. 1989. Attitudes and environmental management. J. Social Issues 45(1):37- 57.

9. Jih-Chang Ru.1993. Forest Resources in Taiwan. A publication on agricultural and forestry aerial survey.

10. Manning, et.al. 1999. Values, Ethics and Attitudes Toward national Forest Management: an Empirical Study. Society Nat. Resources, 12:421-436.

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11. Manfredo, M., and B. Shelby. 1988. The effect of using self-report measures in tests of attitude-behavior relationships. J. Social Psychol. 128:731- 743.

12. Rolston, H. 1988. Environmental Ethics. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

13. Runes, D. 1983. Dictionary of philosophy. New York: Philosophical Library.

14. Steel, B., P. List, and B. Shindler. 1994. Conflicting values about federal forests: A comparison of national and Oregon publics. Society Nat. Resources 7:137- 153.

15. Yeong Nain Chi and G. Andy Chang. An Examination of public Attitudes toward Forest Resources

16. Yeong Nain Chi and G. Andy Chang. Environmental Ethics; An Empirical study

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