Irrigation Manual
Planning, Development Monitoring and Evaluation of Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation
Developed by
Volume II Module 7
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR) Harare, 2002
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries
ISBN 0-7974-2315-X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner
FAO SAFR 2002 Design and Layout: Fontline Electronic Publishing, Harare, Zimbabwe Printed by: Prci-ex, Les Pailles, Mauritius
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Foreword
The first edition of the Irrigation Manual was published in 1990 in two volumes by the Smallholder Irrigation Project (UNDP/FAO/AGRITEX/ZIM/85/004). The authors of this first edition were FAO Staff on the project1. This edition of one hundred copies ran out within two years from publishing. Although the manual was written with Zimbabwe in mind, it soon became popular in several countries of the sub-region. In view of the high demand, it was decided to proceed with a second edition. The experience gained from using the first edition of the manual as the basic reference for the AGRITEX2 training programme of irrigation practitioners and the University of Zimbabwe, was incorporated in the second edition which was published in 1994, in one volume by the Technical Assistance to AGRITEX project (UNDP/FAO/AGRITEX/ZIM/91/005). This second edition was published under the same authors as the first edition, with the assistance of a review committee from AGRITEX3. The two hundred copies of this edition also ran out within two years of publishing. In 1995, the FAO Sub-regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR) was established in Harare, Zimbabwe, in order to provide easy access to technical assistance and know-how for the countries of the sub-region4. In view of the high demand for support in the field of smallholder irrigation by the countries of the sub-region, this office was strengthened with four water resources management officers and a number of on-going programmes have been developed to provide this support. One of these programmes is the publishing of a new regional edition of the irrigation manual in support of the on-going national training programmes within several countries in the sub-region and to provide the basic reference for another important programme, which is the sub-regional training on planning and design of smallholder irrigation schemes. This third edition aspires to further strengthen the engineering, agronomic and economic aspects of the manual and to introduce new modules related to social, health and environmental aspects of irrigation development. The emphasis is directed towards the engineering, agronomic and economic aspects of smallholder irrigation, in view of the limited practical references in this area. This manual, being directed to the irrigation practitioner, does not provide an in-depth analysis of the social, health and environmental aspects in irrigation development. It only attempts to introduce the irrigation practitioner to these areas, providing a bridge between the various disciplines involved in irrigation development. The initiatives and efforts of the Water Resources Management Team of SAFR in publishing this Manual are considered as a valuable contribution to the dissemination of knowledge and training of irrigation practitioners in the sub-region. The material covered by this manual is expected to support both national and sub-regional training programmes in the planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance and on-farm water management of irrigation schemes. This will support the implementation of FAOs mandate to increase food production through water control, intensification and diversification, which are the basic components of the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS). The manual is the result of several years of field work and training irrigation engineers in the sub-region. The approaches have been field tested and withstood the test of time.
1 2 3
A.P. Savva, Chief Technical Advisor; J. Stoutjesdijk, Irrigation Engineer; P.M.A. Regnier, Irrigation Engineer; S.V. Hindkjaer, Economist. Agritex: Department of Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, Zimbabwe. Review committee: E. Chidenga, Acting Chief Irrigation Officer; P. Chipadza, Senior Irrigation Specialist; A. Dube, Senior Irrigation Specialist; L. Forichi, Irrigation Specialist; L. Madhiri, Acting Principal Irrigation Officer; S. Madyiwa, Irrigation Specialist; P. Malusalila, Chief Crop Production; R. Mariga, Assistant Secretary, Economic and Markets Branch; D. Tawonezvi, Agricultural Economist. The following 21 countries are part of the FAO-SAFR region: Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
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Irrigation manual
For ease of reference to the various topics covered by this Manual, the material has been divided into 14 modules, covering the following: Module 1: Module 2: Module 3: Module 4: Module 5: Module 6: Module 7: Module 8: Module 9: Module 10: Module 11: Module 12: Module 13: Module 14: Irrigation development: a multifaceted process Natural resources assessment Agronomic aspects of irrigated crop production Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling Irrigation pumping plant Guidelines for the preparation of technical drawings Surface irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance Sprinkler irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance Localized irrigation systems: planning, design, operation and maintenance Irrigation equipment for pressurized systems Financial and economic appraisal of irrigation projects Guidelines for the preparation of tender documents Construction of irrigation schemes Monitoring the technical and financial performance of an irrigation scheme
To those who have been waiting for so long for a practical irrigation engineering manual: here it is. I am sure that it will have a lot to offer to both the new and experienced irrigation engineers.
Victoria Sekitoleko FAO Sub-Regional Representative for East and Southern Africa
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Developed by Andreas P . SAVVA and Karen FRENKEN Water Resources Development and Management Officers FAO Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa In collaboration with Simon MADYIWA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant Patrick CHIGURA, Irrigation Engineer Consultant Lee TIRIVAMWE, National Irrigation Engineer, Zimbabwe Victor MTHAMO, Irrigation Engineer Consultant Harare, 2002
Acknowledgements
The preparation of the third edition of the Irrigation Manual is an initiative of FAO's Sub-Regional Office for East and Southern Africa (SAFR). The whole project was managed and coordinated by Andreas P . Savva and Karen Frenken, Water Resources Development and Management Officers at FAO-SAFR, who are considered as the main authors. Karen Frenken is also the main technical editor. The inputs by Simon Madyiwa, Patrick Chigura, Lee Tirivamwe and Victor Mthamo to this Module 7 are appreciated. The preparation of several drawings by Solomon Maina for this Module is acknowledged. Special appreciation is extended to Chris Pappas for his substantial contribution to the layout of the irrigation manual.
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Contents
Foreword Acknowledgements List of figures List of tables List of abbreviations Unit conversion table 1. INTRODUCTION TO SURFACE IRRIGATION 1.1. Components of a surface irrigation system 1.1.1. The water source 1.1.2. The intake facilities 1.1.3. The conveyance system 1.1.4. The water storage facilities 1.1.5. The field canal and/or pipe system 1.1.6. The infield water use system 1.1.7. The drainage system 1.1.8. Accessibility infrastructure 1.2. The four phases of surface irrigation 1.2.1. The advance phase 1.2.2. The storage or ponding phase 1.2.3. The depletion phase 1.2.4. The recession phase 1.3. Infiltration and contact time 1.3.1. Estimation of the infiltration rate using the infiltrometer method 1.3.2. Estimation of the infiltration rate using the actual furrow method 1.3.3. Determination of optimum stream size and furrow length 1.3.4. Determination of optimum stream size and borderstrip length CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF THE SURFACE IRRIGATION METHOD 2.1. Furrow irrigation 2.1.1. Furrow shape 2.1.2. Furrow spacing 2.1.3. Furrow length 2.2. Borderstrip irrigation 2.2.1. Borderstrip width 2.2.2. Longitudinal slope of the borderstrip 2.2.3. Borderstrip length 2.2.4. Guidelines for the determination of borderstrip width and length 2.3. Basin irrigation 2.3.1. Basin size 2.4. Efficiencies of surface irrigation systems and of the different surface irrigation methods 2.4.1. The different types of efficiencies in an irrigation system 2.4.2. Efficiencies of the different surface irrigation methods 2.5. Criteria for the selection of the surface irrigation method 2.5.1. Soil type 2.5.2. Type of crop 2.5.3. Required depth of irrigation application 2.5.4. Land slope iii vi x xiii xv xvii 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 7 9 10 13 13 13 15 15 17 18 18 18 19 20 20 22 22 23 24 24 24 24 24
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2.
2.5.5. Field shape 2.5.6. Labour availability 3. DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR THE INFIELD WORKS 3.1. Crop and irrigation water requirements 3.2. Net and gross depth of water application 3.2.1. Net depth of water application 3.2.2. Gross depth of water application 3.3. Irrigation frequency and irrigation cycle 3.3.1. Irrigation frequency 3.3.2. Irrigation cycle 3.4. System capacity LAYOUT OF A SURFACE IRRIGATION SCHEME 4.1. General layout 4.2. Nabusenga irrigation scheme layout 4.3. Mangui irrigation scheme layout DESIGN OF CANALS AND PIPELINES 5.1. Design of canals 5.1.1. Calculation of the cross-section, perimeter and hydraulic radius of a canal 5.1.2. Factors affecting the canal discharge 5.1.3. Hydraulic design of canal networks using the chart of Manning formula 5.1.4. Canal section sizes used by Agritex in Zimbabwe 5.1.5. Longitudinal canal sections 5.1.6. Field canals for small irrigation schemes 5.1.7. Seepage losses in earthen canals 5.1.8. Canal lining 5.2. Design of pipelines 5.2.1. Design of the conveyance pipeline in Nabusenga irrigation scheme 5.2.2. Design of the piped system in Mangui irrigation scheme 5.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of piped systems HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES 6.1. Headworks for river water offtake 6.1.1. Headwork for direct river offtake 6.1.2. River offtake using a weir 6.1.3. River offtake using a dam 6.1.4. Scour gates for sedimentation control 6.2. Night storage reservoirs 6.2.1. Types of reservoirs 6.2.2. Reservoir components 6.3. Head regulators 6.4. Cross regulators 6.5. Drop structures and tail-end structures 6.5.1. Vertical drop structure 6.5.2. Chutes 6.5.3. Tail-end structures 6.6. Discharge measurement in canals 6.6.1. Discharge measurement equations 6.6.2. Weirs 6.6.3. Flumes
24 24 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 27 29 29 31 34 37 37 38 38 42 43 45 49 51 51 53 54 54 60 61 61 62 63 70 71 73 74 75 77 80 80 83 85 86 86 86 89 96
4.
5.
6.
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6.6.4. Orifices 6.6.5. Current meter 6.7. Discharge measurement in pipelines 6.7.1. Differential pressure flow meters 6.7.2. Rotating mechanical flow meters 7. LAND LEVELLING 7.1. Profile method 7.2. Contour method 7.3. Plane method 7.4. The cut : fill ratio 7.5. Use of computers DESIGN OF THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM 8.1. Factors affecting drainage 8.1.1. Climate 8.1.2. Soil type and profile 8.1.3. Water quality 8.1.4. Irrigation practice 8.2. Determining hydraulic conductivity 8.3. Surface drainage 8.4. Subsurface drainage 8.4.1. Horizontal subsurface drainage 8.4.2. Vertical subsurface drainage 8.5. Salt problems BILL OF QUANTITIES 9.1. Bill of quantities for Nabusenga irrigation scheme 9.1.1. The construction of a concrete-lined canal 9.1.2. The construction of a saddle bridge 9.1.3. The construction of a diversion structure 9.1.4. The overall bill of quantities for Nabusenga irrigation scheme 9.2. Bill of quantities for Mangui irrigation scheme
107 108 110 110 110 111 111 111 112 119 119 123 123 123 123 123 123 124 125 127 128 131 131 133 133 133 135 138 139 141 143 143 143 143 146 147 147 147 147 148 149
8.
9.
10. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SURFACE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS 10.1. Operation of the irrigation system 10.1.1. Water delivery to the canals 10.1.2. Water delivery to the fields 10.1.3. Operational success determinants 10.2. Maintenance of the irrigation system 10.2.1. Special maintenance 10.2.2. Deferred maintenance 10.2.3. Routine maintenance 10.3. Operation and maintenance responsibilities REFERENCES
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List of figures
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.
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Typical components of a surface irrigation system Definition sketch showing the surface irrigation phases Basic infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration curves Cylinder infiltrometers Analysis of the data of an infiltration test using an infiltrometer on a clay loam soil Analysis of the data of an infiltration test using actual furrows on a clay loam soil Time-advance graph for various stream flows in a furrow Determining the head Advance and recession of water on a borderstrip Advance and recession curves for different borderstrip length needing different total volumes of water to be applied An example of a furrow irrigation system using siphons Furrow shape depending on soil type Soil moisture distribution on various soil types as a determinant of furrow spacing Example of a borderstrip irrigation system Cross-section of a borderstrip Layout of basin irrigation Typical layout of a surface irrigation scheme on uniform flat topography The herringbone irrigation layout Layout of Nabusenga surface irrigation scheme Layout of Mangui piped surface irrigation scheme Cumulative depth of irrigation versus time for different types of soil Plot layout and hydrants Flowchart for canal design calculations Canal parameters Different canal cross-sections Hydraulic parameters for different canal shapes Chart of Manning formula for trapezoidal canal cross-sections Longitudinal profile of a field or tertiary canal Longitudinal profile of a secondary or main canal Longitudinal profile of a conveyance canal Example of a longitudinal profile of a conveyance canal Longitudinal canal profile generated by the Lonsec Programme Methods commonly used to introduce water into the field The longitudinal profile of the conveyance pipeline from Nabusenga dam to the night storage reservoir Friction loss chart for AC pipes (Class 18) Friction loss chart for uPVC pipes Schemes irrigated from different water sources Headwork with offtake structure only Offtake possibilities in straight reach of river
2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 10 12 13 14 14 17 18 21 30 31 32 33 34 36 37 38 39 41 43 46 47 48 49 49 53 55 56 57 61 62 62
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.
Possible arrangements for offtakes based on site conditions An example of an intake arrangement of a headwork An example of a diversion structure C1 coefficient for different types of weirs in relation to submergence, based on crest shape C2 coefficient for different types of weirs in relation to crest shape Types of weirs Gabion weir Typical parameters used in the design of a stilling basin Schematic view of a weir and apron Masonry weir and apron Dam cross-section at Nabusenga Gravity offtake with diversion dam Scour sluice Design of a typical earthen night storage reservoir Courses in brick wall of a reservoir A simple in-situ concrete proportional flow division structure Precast concrete block division box Timber division structures Duckbill weir photograph Duckbill weir design Diagonal weir Some drop structures used in open canals Standard drop structure without stilling basin A vertical drop structure A chute structure Static and velocity heads Variation of specific energy with depth of flow for different canal shapes Hydraulic jump over a concrete apron The form of a hydraulic jump postulated in the momentum theory Parameters of a sharp-crested weir Trapezoidal (Cipoletti) weir V-notch weirs Broad-crested weir Romijn broad-crested weir, hydraulic dimensions of weir abutments Romijn broad-crested weir, sliding blades and movable weir crest Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, as a function of the total head over the movable weir, Hcrt Parshall flume Discharge correction factors for Parshall flumes with different throat widths Head loss through Parshall flumes Trapezoidal flume Cut-throat flume Cut-throat flume coefficients Examples of orifices
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Irrigation manual
83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107.
Free discharging flow through an orifice Sluice gate under submerged conditions Ott C31 propeller instrument Depth-velocity integration method Venturi flow meter The profile method of land levelling: cut and fill and checking gradient levels with profile boards The contour method of land levelling Grid map showing land elevation and average profile figures Average profile and lines of best fit Part of the completed land levelling map for Nabusenga, assuming GX = 0.005 Irregular shaped field (elevations 0.0 are located outside the field) Parameters for determining hydraulic conductivity Cross-sections of drains Rainfall-duration curve Subsurface drainage systems at field level Subsurface drainage parameters Nomograph for the determination of equivalent sub-stratum depths Nomograph for the solution of the Hooghoudt drain spacing formula Salt accumulation in the root zone and the accompanying capillary rise Cross-section of a concrete lined canal at Nabusenga Saddle bridge for Nabusenga Field canal bank breaching in order to allow the water to flow from the canal onto the field Permanent outlet structure used to supply water from the canal onto the field An example of a spile used to supply water from the canal onto the field A siphon supplying water from a canal onto a field
107 108 109 109 110 111 112 113 116 118 122 124 125 126 127 128 130 131 132 133 136 143 144 145 146
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List of tables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Typical infiltration rates for different soils Infiltration rate data from an infiltrometer test Infiltration rate measurement in a 100 m long furrow Discharge for siphons, depending on pipe diameter and head Guidelines to determine when to stop the water supply onto a borderstrip Measurement of water advance and recession distance and time on a borderstrip Furrow lengths in metres as related to soil type, slope, stream size and irrigation depth Practical values of maximum furrow lengths in metres depending on soil type, slope, stream size and irrigation depth for small-scale irrigation Typical borderstrip dimensions in metres as related to soil type, slope, irrigation depth and stream size Suggested maximum borderstrip widths and lengths for smallholder irrigation schemes Criteria for basin size determination Basin area in m2 for different stream sizes and soil types Approximate values for the maximum basin width Selection of an irrigation method based on soil type and net irrigation depth Design parameters for Nabusenga and Mangui surface irrigation schemes Summary of the calculated design parameters for Nabusenga and Mangui surface irrigation schemes Km and n values for different types of canal surface Typical canal side slopes Recommended b/d ratios Maximum water velocity ranges for earthen canals on different types of soil Canal capacities for standard Agritex canal sections Longitudinal profile for field canal - output from the Lonsec computer programme Seepage losses for different soil types Hazen-Williams C value for different materials Weighted-creep ratios for weirs depending on soil type Reinforcement requirements in a clay brick wall of a reservoir Cross-sectional areas of reinforcement steel rods Discharge Q (m3/sec) for contracted rectangular weir, depending on h and b Discharge Q (m3/sec) for Cipoletti weir, depending on h and b Discharge Q (m3/sec x 10) for a 90 V-notch weir, depending on h Standard dimensions of Parshall flumes Discharge characteristics of Parshall flumes Land levelling results Input and output data types for computer land levelling programme LEVEL 4EM.EXE Land levelling calculations with line of best fit and cut:fill ratio of 1.01 Land levelling calculations with 0.5% gradient in the X direction and cut:fill ratio of 1.01 Land levelling calculations with line of best fit and cut:fill ratio of 1.21 Computer printout of land levelling data for Mangui piped surface irrigation scheme Values for runoff coefficient C in Equation 70 4 6 8 10 10 11 16 17 19 20 20 21 22 24 25 28 40 40 41 41 44 50 51 54 68 76 77 91 92 94 98 99 117 119 120 120 121 121-2 126
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Irrigation manual
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Concrete volume for different trapezoidal canal cross-sections Summary of the bill of quantities for the construction of the 980 m long lined canal at Nabusenga Summary of the bill of quantities for the construction of a saddle bridge Summary of the bill of quantities for the construction of a diversion structure Bill of quantities for Nabusenga scheme, downstream of the night storage reservoir Summary of material requirements for Nabusenga (including 10% contingencies) Bill of quantities for pipes and fittings and pumping plant at Mangui scheme Discharge of permanent wooden field outlet structures Rates of discharge through spiles (l/sec) Discharge of siphons for different head and pipe diameter (l/sec) Weed management and effectiveness
134 135 137 138 139 141 142 144 145 146 148
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List of abbreviations
A AC ASAE C CI D or d d dgross dnet E EL F F FC Fr g G GS h H Hf100 HL IC IF IT Km kPa kW L n NSR P P P PWP q Q R Area Asbestos Cement American Society of Agricultural Engineers Cut Cast Iron Density of water Diameter Water depth Gross depth of water application Net depth of water application Efficiency Elevation Freeboard Fill Field Capacity Froude Number Acceleration due to gravity Regression coefficient Galvanized Steel water depth Head Friction losses per 100 m of pipe Head Loss Irrigation Cycle Irrigation Frequency Irrigation Time Manning roughness coefficient Kilopascal kilowatt Length Roughness coefficient (=1/Km) Night Storage Reservoir Allowable moisture depletion Wetted Perimeter Pressure Permanent Wilting Point Discharge into one furrow or discharge per m width Discharge Hydraulic radius
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Irrigation manual
Cut : Fill ratio Effective Root Zone Depth Slope or gradient Irrigation time Total Dynamic Head unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride Volume Water velocity Elevation
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Length 1 inch (in) 1 foot (ft) 1 yard (yd) 1 mile 1 metre (m) 1 metre (m) 1 metre (m) 1 kilometre (km) Area 1 square inch (in2) 6.4516 x 10-2 m2 1 square foot (ft2) 1 square yard (yd2) 1 acre 1 acre 1 square centimetre (cm2) 1 square metre (m2) 1 square metre (m2) 1 square metre (m2) 1 hectare (ha) Volume 1 cubic inch (in3) 1 cubic foot (ft3) 1 cubic yard (yd3) 1 cubic centimetre (cm3) 1 cubic metre (m3) 1 cubic metre (m3) Capacity 1. imperial gallon 1. US gallon 1. imperial barrel 1. US. barrel 1 pint 1 US gallon (dry) 1 litre (l) 1 litre (l) 1 litre (l) 1 hectolitre (hl) 0.0045 m3 0.0037 m3 0.1639 m3 0.1190 m3 0.5681 l 0.0044 m3 0.22 imp. gallon 0.264 U.S. gallon 0.0061 imperial barrel 100 litres = 0.61 imperial barrel = 0.84 US barrel 1 litre (l) 1 cubic metre of water (m3) 1 imperial barrel 1.760 pints 1000 l = 227 U.S. gallon (dry) 164 litres 1.6387 x 10-5 m3 0.0283 m3 0.7646 m3 0.061 cubic inches (in3) 35.315 cubic feet (ft3) 1.308 cubic yards (yd3) 0.0929 m2 0.8361 m2 4046.86 m2 0.4046 ha 0.155 square inches (in2) 10.76 square feet (ft2) 1.196 square yard (yd2) 0.00024 acres 2.47 acres 0.0254 m 0.3048 m 0.9144 m 1609.344 m 39.37 inches (in) 3.28 feet (ft) 1.094 yards (yd) 0.62 miles
Mass 1 ounce 1 pound 1 long ton 1 short ton 1 gram (g) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 ton 28.3286 g 0.4535 kg 1016.05 kg 907.185 kg 0.0353 ounces (oz) 1000 g = 2.20462 pounds 1000 kg = 0.984 long ton = 1.102 short ton
Pressure 1 pound force/in2 1 pound force/in2 1 Pascal (PA) 1 atmosphere 6894.76 N/m2 51.7 mm Hg 1 N/m2 = 0.000145 pound force /in2 760 mm Hg = 14.7 pound force/in2 (lbf/in2) 1 bar 10 metres 100 kpa
1 atmosphere 1 bar 1 bar Energy 1 B.t.u. 1 foot pound-force 1 B.t.u. 1 B.t.u. 1 Joule (J) 1 Joule (J) 1 kilocalorie (Kcal) 1 kilowatte-hour (kWh) Power 1 Joule/sec 1 foot pound/sec 1 cheval-vapor 1 Kcal/h 1 watt (W) 1 horsepower (hp) 1 horsepower (hp) 1 kilowatt (kW)
1055.966 J 1.3559 J 0.25188 Kcalorie 0.0002930 KWh 0.000947 B.t.u. 0.7375 foot pound-force (ft.lbf) 4185.5 J = 3.97 B.t.u. 3600000 J = 3412 B.t.u.
0.7376 foot pound/sec 1.3557 watt 0.9861 hp 0.001162 kW 1 Joule/sec = 0.7376 foot pound/sec (ft lbf/s) 745.7 watt 550 ft lbf/s 1.014 cheval-vapor (ch) 860 Kcal/h = 1.34 horsepower
Temperature
0C 0F
0C
= 1.8 x 0C + 0F
K (Kelvin)
K = 0C + 273.15
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Chapter 1
Introduction to surface irrigation
Surface irrigation is the oldest and most common method of applying water to crops. It involves moving water over the soil in order to wet it completely or partially. The water flows over or ponds on the soil surface and gradually infiltrates to the desired depth. Surface irrigation methods are best suited to soils with low to moderate infiltration capacities and to lands with relatively uniform terrain with slopes less than 2-3% (FAO, 1974). the conveyance canal itself does not need to be above ground level all along the canal, but its starting bed level should be such that there is sufficient command for the lower order canals. Where possible, it could run quasiparallel to the contour line. Design aspects of canals and pipelines are discussed in Chapter 5. Although an open conveyance canal may be cheaper per unit length than a pipeline, the latter would need to be selected when: