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INS3051 FLUID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of Fluid
Matter exists in three states in nature:
MATTER
Solid state
Liquid state
Gaseous state
FLUID
When we look at the spacing and latitude of motion of molecules in
each state, they are completely different from each other:

the spacing and freedom of motion of molecules:

GAS > LIQUID > SOLID


Thus it follows that intermolecular cohesive forces are larger for a
solid, smaller in a liquid, and extremely small in a gas.
These fundamental facts explain the familiar compactness and
rigidity of form possessed by the solids, the ability of liquid
molecules to move freely within the liquid mass, and capacity of
gases to fill the containers in which they are placed, while a liquid
has a definite volume and well-defined surface.
SOLID
Hard and not easily
deformed
Densely spaced
molecules
Large intermolecular
cohesive forces
FLUID
Soft and easily
deformed
Sparsely spaced
molecules
Smaller intermolecular
cohesive forces
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Why are liquids and gases considered as fluids?
Answer: Because of their reaction to the applied shearing
stresses.
(A shearing stress is created when a tangential force acts
on a surface)
Definition of fluid:
A FLUID is a substance which deforms continuously
under the application of a shearing stress, no matter how
small the shearing stress is.

However, when common solids such as steel or other
metals are acted on by a shearing stress, they will initially
deform (usually a very small deformation), but they will
not continuously deform.

Definition of flow:
The process of continuous deformation is known as
FLOW of fluids.
F
b
Au
B B
Ax
plate
fluid
t
0
t
1
A
t A
A

u
t
t A
A

u
t
=
c
c
=
A
A
A
t t
t
u u
0
lim The rate of angular deformation
Since the deformation of fluids is continuous, we talk about
the rate of deformation rather than the amount of deformation.
F
b
Au
B B
Ax
plate
fluid
t
0
t
1
A
3
0 = =t F 0 =
A
A
t
u
then
This means that the fluids at rest do not contain shearing
stresses. Therefore, the forces in static fluids are transmitted
to solid boundaries normal to the boundary at every point.
F
b
Au
B B
Ax
plate
fluid
t
0
t
1
A
If
Solids can carry both tension and compression while fluids
can carry only compression; fluids have no tensile strength.

Compression = Pressure
F
C
F
T
SOLID
F
C
F
T
FLUID
1.2 Scope of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics which deals
with the properties of fluids, namely liquids and gases,
and their interaction with forces.
Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the
study of fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, the study of
fluids in motion. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid
dynamics, is an active field of research with many
unsolved or partly solved problems.
Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex.
Sometimes it can best be solved by numerical methods,
typically using computers.
Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuum mechanics, a
subject which models matter without using the information
that it is made out of atoms.
Continuum Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics Solid Mechanics
Elasticity Plasticity Newtonian Fluids Non-Newtonian Fluids
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Engineering applications of Fluid Mechanics

Water supply
Energy production
Transportation
Pipelines
Hydraulic structures
Fluvial hydraulics
Coastal hydraulics
Groundwater flow
Wind forces on structures
Heating, ventilation
Main engineering disciplines that deal with
Fluid Mechanics:

Civil Engineering
Aerospace Engineering
Mechanical Engineering
Environmental Engineering
Geological Engineering
Mining Engineering

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6
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1.3 Concept of Continuum
Atoms are widely spaced in the gas
phase.
However, we can disregard the atomic
nature of a substance.
View it as a continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
This allows us to treat properties as
smoothly varying quantities.
Continuum is valid as long as size of
the system is large in comparison to
distance between molecules.
Concept of Continuum
Continuum and Fluid Particle
Continuum it is the continuous distribution
of matter in the flow field without any
discontinuity.

A fluid particle is defined as the mass
contained in the smallest fluid volume for
which the continuum assumption is not
violated.
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1.4 Dimensions and System of Dimensions
Describing Physical Entities
Qualitative Description Quantitative Description
Serves to identify the
characteristics (such as
length, time, stress)
Provides a numerical measure of
the characteristics.
Requires both a number and a
standard by which various quantities
can be compared.
DIMENSIONS
UNITS
1.5 Units and System of Units
PRIMARY UNITS
DERIVED UNITS
Dimensions and Units
Dimensional Homogeneity:
All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous,
that is, the dimensions on the left side of the equation must be the
same as those on the right side.
A dimensionally homogenous equation has therefore the same
dimensions for each additive term on both sides of the equations.
Dimensions and Units
Example 2:
The equation for the velocity, V, of a uniformly accelerated body,



where V
0
is the initial velocity, a the acceleration and t the time
interval. In terms of dimensions the equation is




Therefore, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.
at V V + =
0
T LT LT LT
2 1 1
+ =
1 1 1
+ = LT LT LT
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1.6 Physical Properties of Fluids
A property is a characteristic of a substance, which is invariant when
the substance is in a particular state.
Properties
Extensive: depends on the amount of substance present
(volume, energy, weight, momentum)
Intensive: independent of the amount of substance (specific
values, namely, mass per unit volume, energy per unit mass)
The intensive properties are the values which apply to a particle of a
fluid. These are:
Density
Specific weight
Specific Gravity
Specific Volume
Viscosity
Surface Tension
Vapor Pressure
Compressibility
DENSITY,

Density, , of a substance is a measure of concentration
of matter, and expressed as mass per unit volume.



Dimension of density


Unit of density in SI system
kg/m
3

kg/m
3

=
m

| |
3
= ML
) , ( T P = where P=pressure and T=temperature
1000
4 @
2
=
C O H

SPECIFIC WEIGHT,

Specific Weight, , is the force due to gravity on the mass
contained in a unit volume of a substance, i.e. weight per
unit volume.


Dimension of specific weight


Unit of specific weight in SI system
N/m
3

N/m
3

=
mg W

| |
3
= FL
g =
9810
4 @
2
=
C O H

SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SG

The specific gravity is a term used to compare the
density of a substance with that of water if the fluid is
liquid, and with that of air or hydrogen if the fluid is gas.



Since the density depends on the temperature and
pressure, for precise values of specific gravity,
temperature and pressure values must be specified.

Since specific gravity is the ratio of densities, the value of
SG does not depend on the system of units used.
w
liq
w
liq
liq
SG

= =
air
gas
gas
SG

=
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VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to shear stresses (and hence to
flow).
In study of fluid flow, viscosity requires the greatest consideration
among the other properties of fluid.
In order to understand the effect of viscosity, let us consider the
motion of a fluid along a stationary solid boundary:
VISCOSITY
Observations show that, while the fluid clearly has a finite velocity, u,
at a finite distance from the boundary, the velocity is zero at the solid
boundary.
Therefore, velocity increases with the increasing distance from the
stationary boundary. That is, if we plot the velocities at different
distances from the boundary, we might obtain a picture as follows:
VISCOSITY
Let us consider two such layers, the lower layer is moving with
velocity u, and the upper layer with (u+Au).
Two particles (1) and (2),
starting on the same vertical
line, will move to different
distances during the time
interval At:
S
2
=(u+Au).At
S
1
=u.At
S
2

S
1

Thus, the fluid is distorted or sheared, as the line connecting
(1) and (2) acquires an increasing slope and length as time t
increases.
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VISCOSITY
In other words, the faster moving fluid tries to speed up the
slower moving layer, while the slower moving layer tries to
reduce the speed of faster one.
Therefore, it is evident that a frictional or shearing force exist
between the fluid layers.
This shearing force may be expressed as a shear stress t
(shearing force per unit contact area).
The shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity
difference and inversely proportional to the distance between
two layers, that is:


y
u
A
A
t
VISCOSITY
All real fluids posses viscosity and therefore exhibit certain
frictional resistance when motion occurs.
The term, u/ y, is called the velocity gradient, and it shows
the angular velocity of the line ab, or the rate of increase of
angle u, and hence equal to the rate of deformation.

t u y S A A = A A = A u
Therefore
t y
u
A
A
=
A
A u
Recall that
y
u
t A
A
=
A
A

u
t
VISCOSITY



The result indicates that the shearing stress and the velocity
gradient can be related with a relationship of the following form:

NEWTONS LAW OF VISCOSITY


The constant of proportionality is called the dynamic viscosity
and it is a property of fluid.

It shows the effect of different fluids. For example honey shows
more resistance to flow than water. Therefore honey must have a
higher .

dy
du
dt
d
t t
= =
A
A
A
u u
0
lim
dy
du
t =
VISCOSITY
Newtons Law of viscosity states that the shear
stress at any point is proportional to the velocity
gradient at that point:


2
2
y y
dy
du
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= t
1
1
y y
dy
du
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= t
2 1
t t )
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VISCOSITY
The magnitude of the shear stress on the solid boundary is
called the wall-shear stress. That is:




If we integrate the wall-shear stress over the area on which it
is acting, we obtain the total frictional resistance (force) on
the fluid due to solid boundary.

The force exerted by the flowing fluid on a solid boundary in
the direction of flow is called the DRAG FORCE.
0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
y
w
dy
du
t
VISCOSITY
A typical variation of shear stress:

Solve Example 1.1
VISCOSITY
When a flow takes place between solid boundaries or over a solid
boundary, the fluid layer next to the solid boundary sticks to the
boundary and attains its velocity.
If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of fluid is zero on the
boundary.
If the boundary is moving with a velocity of U
0
, the fluid next to the
boundary will move with the velocity U
0
.
In other words, there is a NO SLIP CONDITION between the fluid
and the solid for all fluids that can be treated as continuum.
Note that if a fluid is at rest, no layer moves relative to an adjacent
layer, therefore, there will be no shearing stress.

Since
0 =
dy
du
0 = t
VISCOSITY
On the other hand, if the viscosity of the fluid is zero, regardless of
the motion, no shear stress can develop. Such a fluid is called
INVISCID FLUID.

All the fluids in nature have a viscosity, and we call them as real
fluids.

Inviscid fluid is only an idealization. It simplifies the solution of
many real fluid flow problems.

Not all the real fluids obey the Newtons Law of viscosity. If we plot
shear stress t, versus the velocity gradient ( or the rate of angular
deformation) for various fluids, the plot looks like:
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VISCOSITY
The fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the
velocity gradient are designated as Newtonian Fluids.
On the other hand, the fluids for which the shearing stress is not
linearly related to the velocity gradient are designated as non-
Newtonian Fluids.
n
dy
du
K
|
|
.
|

\
|
= t

ap
=apparent viscosity
VISCOSITY
Shear thickening fluids:
The apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate. The
harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. For
example, water-sand mixture (quicksand).

t
(
ap
)
B
dy
du
1

1

(
ap
)
A
(
ap
)
B
> (
ap
)
A
VISCOSITY
Shear thinning fluids:
The apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. The
harder the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. For
example, colloidal substances like clay, milk and cement.

t
(
ap
)
B
dy
du
1

1

(
ap
)
A
(
ap
)
A
> (
ap
)
B
VISCOSITY
Bingham plastic:
Neither fluid nor solid. Such material can withstand a finite shear
stress without motion, but once the yield stress is exceeded it
flows like a fluid. For example, toothpaste, mayonnaise.

t
dy
du
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VISCOSITY
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity:
The proportionality constant is known as dynamic viscosity of
the fluid.




Viscosity can be made independent of fluid density; kinematic
viscosity is defined as follows:
N.s/m
2

Pa.s
kg/(m.s)
m
2
/s
VISCOSITY
Viscosities of air and water:


VISCOSITY
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity:
Gases: As temperature increases the viscosity increases.
Because, the viscosity arises due to momentum exchange
between the randomly moving molecules in gases. As
temperature increases, the molecular activity will increase in
gases, hence more momentum exchange will take place, and as a
result viscosity will increase.

Liquids: As temperature increases the viscosity decreases.
Because, viscosity arises due to intermolecular cohesive forces. In
liquids, as temperature increases, these forces will decrease,
hence the viscosity will decrease.
VISCOSITY
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of Water:
Temperature Viscosity
[C] [Pas]
10 1.31E-03
20 1.00E-03
30 7.98E-04
40 6.53E-04
50 5.47E-04
60 4.67E-04
70 4.04E-04
80 3.55E-04
90 3.15E-04
100 2.82E-04
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Viscosity and Drag Force
Viscosity is a property that
represents the internal
resistance of a fluid to
motion.

The force a flowing fluid
exerted on a body in the
flow direction is called the
drag force, and the
magnitude of this force
depends, in part, on
viscosity.
NO SLIP CONDITION
An important effect of viscosity is to cause the fluid to stick to the
solid surface, this is known as the no slip condition.
No slip condition states that fluid molecules will have zero velocity
with respect to the solid boundary that they stick on.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E
v
, and
Compressibility, K
Compressibility is a measure of change of volume and density when
a substance is subject to normal pressure or tension. It is defined as:

Compressibility (K) = % change in volume (or density) for a given
pressure change
(-) sign indicates a decrease in volume and therefore an increase in
density caused by an increase in pressure.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E
v
, and
Compressibility, K
The reciprocal of compressibility is known as the bulk modulus of
elasticity.
All fluids may be compressed by the application of pressure. Elastic
energy is stored in the process. Assuming perfect energy conversions,
such compressed volumes of fluids will expand to their original
volumes when the applied pressure is released.

Thus, fluids are elastic media, and it is customary in engineering to
summarize this property by defining a modulus of elasticity as is done
for solid elastic materials, such as steel.
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Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E
v
, and
Compressibility, K
Since fluids do not posses a rigid form, the modulus of elasticity must be
defined on the basis of volume, and it is termed as BULK MODULUS.
Consider a cylinder full of a fluid which has a volume of V
0
. Application of
a force F to the piston will increase the pressure (P=F/A) in the fluid and
cause the volume to decrease .
If we plot P vs V/V
0
, the slope of curve at any point will give the bulk
modulus of elasticity at that point.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, E
v
, and
Compressibility, K
The steeping of the curve with increasing pressure shows that as fluids
are compressed, they become increasingly difficult to compress further,
which is logical consequence of reducing the space between the
molecules. The bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid is not constant, but
increases with pressure.
(E
v
)
air
= 1.42 x 10
5
Pa
(E
v
)
water
= 2.15 x 10
9
Pa
(E
v
)
steel
= 2.06 x 10
11
Pa
Therefore:
H
2
O is 100 times more compressible than steel.
Air is 20 000 times more compressible than water.

For all practical purposes, water and all liquids may be assumed as
incompressible unless very large pressure ranges are involved.
Surface Tension , o
When liquid surfaces are in contact of other immiscible fluids and solids,
at the boundaries, molecular attraction introduces forces which cause
the interface of liquid to behave like membrane under tension. This
apparent tension effects depend fundamentally upon relative sizes of
intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces.
Surface Tension , o
Although such forces are negligible in practice, they become important
in capillary rise of liquids in narrow tubes, formation of liquid drops, etc.
Consider a free liquid surface in contact with the atmosphere:
On the free surface in contact with atmosphere, there is little force
attracting molecules away from the liquid because there are relatively
few molecules in the gas above the surface. Within the liquid bulk, the
intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion are balanced in all
directions.
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Surface Tension , o
However, for liquid molecules at
the free surface, the cohesive
forces of the next layer below are
not balanced by an identical layer
above.
This situation tends to pull the
surface molecules tightly to the
lower layer and to each other and
cause the surface to behave as
though it were a membrane:
hence, the name SURFACE
TENSION.
Surface tension is a property of liquid and depends on temperature as
well as the other fluid it is in contact with the surface.

o = o(T), as T o
Surface Tension , o
Another characteristic of liquids in contact with solid
surfaces is the adhesion of liquid molecules to the solid
surface.
If Adhesive forces > Cohesive forces
The liquid wets the solid surface.
Surface Tension , o
If Cohesive forces > Adhesive forces
Then the solid surface is not wetted.

Capillary Effects
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a
small-diameter tube.
The curved free surface in the tube is called the
meniscus.
Water meniscus curves up because water is a
wetting fluid.
Mercury meniscus curves down because mercury is
a non-wetting fluid.
Force balance can describe magnitude of capillary
rise.
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Wetting and Non-wetting Fluids
The level h, that the water or mercury can rise or drop can be computed
from the relation derived below.
u
u < 90 u > 90
Wetting and Non-wetting Fluids
By equating the lifting force created by the
surface tension to the gravity force:
F
ST
= W
t u o t h r r
2
cos 2 =
r
r
h

u o cos 2
=
The same equation can be applied to
the other case.
Solve Example
Wetting and Non-wetting Fluids
This result immediately rises the question of the meaning of the
angle u, limitations of equation and its confirmation by experiment.
The angle u is known as the angle of contact, and it results from the
surface tension phenomena of complex nature.

Surface Tension for a Droplet
0 = E
x
F
0 = +
o
F F F
in out
P P
0 2
2 2
= + r r P r P
in out
t o t t
( ) r r P P
out in
t o t 2
2
=
r
P
o 2
= A
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Vapor pressure, P
v
For boiling to occur, the equilibrium must be upset either
by

1. Raising the temperature to cause the vapor pressure to
equal or exceed the total pressure applied at the free
surface,

OR

2. By lowering the total pressure at the free surface until it
is equal to or less than the vapor pressure.

The more volatile the liquid (e.g. alcohol, benzene), the
higher its vapor pressure.
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Cavitation
If cavitation occurs in contact with a solid
surface, very serious damage can result due to
the very large force with which the liquid hits the
surface.

Cavitations can affect the performance of
hydraulic machinery such as pumps, turbines
and propellers, and the impact of collapsing
bubbles can cause local erosion of metal
surface.
Cavitation