CSEC Chemistry 11Sc/TV1 Metals always form positive ions Extremes in Metals

Lightest: Lithium Heaviest: Osmium Most brittle: Manganese and chromium Lowest melting point: Mercury Highest melting point: Tungsten Most expensive: Platinum Rarest: Rhodium Most abundant: Aluminium

Metals
Metallic properties
Metals have high: - density: high mass per unit volume - tensile strength: high strength of the metal under stress - durability: resistant to corrosion - malleability: ability to be made into sheets - ductility: ability to be made into wires - thermal conductivity: ability to conduct heat - electrical conductivity: ability to conduct electricity - sonority: ability to produce sound when struck

Alloys

a mixture of metallic elements or metallic with non-metallic. Pure metals are weak as the layers of atoms slide over each other easily. In alloy of 2 metals, they have different sizes of atoms so this disrupts the orderly layer of atoms making it difficult for atoms to slide over. Eg of alloys Steel: iron and carbon bronze: copper and tin brass: copper and zinc duralumin: aluminium, copper, magnesium Uses of duralumin: it is light but strong and durable so used for aircraft parts, greenhouse frames, overhead cables, curtain walling in high-rise buildings etc. pewter: tin and lead Uses of solder: mixture of tin and lead, has a much lower melting point than either of its components so more easily fusible --- suitable for welding electrical wire together Uses of stainless steel: is an alloy of iron containing chromium or nickel. Is the most expensive way applications for: cutleries medical instruments kitchen sinks steel objects in chemical factories and oil refineries

The Reactivity Series of Metals

is an arrangement of the metals (and carbon and hydrogen) in order of their reactivity. The reactivity of a metal is determined by its ability to form a positive ion. Reactions of Metals: The reactivity series of metals was deduced by performing several experiments in the lab which enabled scientists to arrange metals according to their reactivity with dilute acid, oxygen (air), and water.

Reactive metals tend to form positive ions easily, by losing electrons and forming compounds unreactive metals prefer to remain in uncombined form, as the element itself the order of reactivity is worked out from the metal's reaction (if any) with water or steam and acids if there is a reaction, the metal displaces hydrogen

Elements Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium Carbon not a metal Zinc Iron Tin Lead Hydrogen - not a metal Copper Mercury Silver Platinum Gold

Symbols K Most reactive Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe Sn Pb H

Reactivity Decreases

Cu Hg Ag Pt Au

Least reactive

Metal + hydrogen ion metal ion + hydrogen gas Heres a jingle to help you remember the order of the series: Please Send Chief Minister A Cute Zebra In The Largest Heaviest Case Marked Striped Perishable Goods
Two non-metals, carbon and hydrogen, are included in the table for comparison, and are important chemical reference points concerning the method of metal extraction and reactivity towards acids

N.B: Some text books list Gold before Platinum There are more metals in the reactivity series but they are not studied at this level.

o o o

Metals above carbon cannot usually be extracted by carbon or carbon monoxide reduction and are usually extracted by electrolysis. In sense this means metals above carbon in the reactivity series cannot be 'displaced' from their compounds by carbon. Metals below carbon in the series can be extracted by heating the oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide. Metals below hydrogen will not usually displace hydrogen from acids and can be extracted by heating the oxide in hydrogen, though is rarely done e.g. for cost (not as cheap as coke/carbon) and safety reasons (hydrogen very explosive in air). Again, you can think of metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series as being reactive enough to displace hydrogen from acids in aqueous solution.

Metals were arranged in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive metal which had the highest rate of effervescence of hydrogen gas. The rate of effervescence is also the rate of this reaction is measured by measuring the volume of hydrogen produced per unit time. Metals Reactivity with Dilute HCl Potassium, Sodium & Calcium React extremely violently with rapid effervescence and splashing Magnesium & Aluminum Zinc, Iron & Lead React violently with rapid effervescence React slowly with bubbles

Copper, Silver, Gold & Platinum Do not react

Metal potassium sodium calcium magnesium aluminium zinc iron lead hydrogen copper mercury silver platinum Metal with water/steam react with cold water M(s) + 2H2O(l) --> MOH(aq) + H2(g) Metal + Water --> Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen react with steam M(s) + 2H2O(g) --> MO(s) + H2(g) Metal + Water --> Metal Oxide + Hydrogen do not react with water or steam do not react with water or steam Metal with acid violent reaction with dilute acids M(s) + 2HCl(aq) --> MCl2(aq) + H2(g) Metal + Acid --> Metal Chloride + Hydrogen react with dilute acids with decreasing ease M(s) + 2HCl(aq) --> MCl2(aq) + H2(g) Metal + Acid --> Metal Chloride + Hydrogen react with dilute acids with decreasing ease react only with concentrated acids

Reactions with Oxygen in Air: Most metals react with oxygen from air forming a metal oxide. You have previously studied that metal oxides are basic oxides and that some of them are insoluble in water and some of them are soluble in water forming an alkaline solution. The most reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium react with oxygen with a very bright flame and producing white ashes and their oxides are soluble. Moderately reactive metals like aluminum and zinc react with oxygen forming white powdered ashes but their oxides are insoluble. Iron and copper react very slowly with oxygen. The result of iron oxygen reactions is rust which is reddish brown iron oxide. When a copper lump reacts with oxygen, a white layer of black copper oxide forms on it. When the lump gets covered by this layer; the reaction stops. Oxides of iron and copper are insoluble. Metals that are less reactive than copper like silver, gold and platinum do not react with oxygen. Note: When aluminum reacts with oxygen, a layer of aluminum oxide adheres and covers the aluminum. At this point no further reaction can take place. Metal Observation Inference The reactivity of Mg towards O2 is very high. Magnesium oxide is formed. The reactivity of Zn towards O2 is high. Zinc oxide is formed. The reactivity of Fe towards O2 is medium. Iron (III) oxide is formed. The reactivity of Pb towards O2 is low. Lead (II) oxide is formed. 2Zn(s) + O2(g)> 2ZnO(s) 2Fe(s) + O2(g)> 2Fe2O3(s) Equation 2Mg(s) + O2(g)> 2MgO(s)

Magnesium Burns vigorously with a very brilliant white (Mg) flame. The residue is white when hot and cold. Zinc (Zn) Burns quickly with a bright flame. The residue is yellow when hot and white when cold. Iron (Fe) Glows very brightly. The residue is reddish-brown when hot and cold.

Lead (Pb)

Glows brightly. The residue is brown when hot and yellow when cold.

2Pb(s) + O2(g)> 2PbO(s)

Copper (Cu)

Glows faintly. The residue is black when hot and cold.

The reactivity of Cu towards O2 is very low. Copper (II) oxide is

2Cu(s) + O2(g)> 2CuO(s)

formed. Question: Predict the reactivity of the other metals in the reactivity series with oxygen. Metal: Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Zinc Iron Copper Reaction: Violent reaction with cold water. Floats and catches fire. Very vigorous reaction with cold water. Floats. Can be lit with a lighted splint. Less vigorous with cold water. Very slow with cold water, but vigorous with steam. Quite slow with steam. Slow with steam. No reaction with steam. Order of reactivity: 1st - most reactive. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th - least reactive. Products: Potassium hydroxide, KOH and hydrogen gas. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH and hydrogen gas. Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 and hydrogen gas. Magnesium oxide, MgO and hydrogen gas. Zinc oxide, ZnO and hydrogen gas. Iron oxide, Fe203 and hydrogen gas.

Competition Reactions in Solid State: Previously youve studied displacement reactions which are pre-formed in aqueous states. A very similar reaction takes place in the solid state, it is called thermite reaction. This reaction is used to repair damaged railway lines. In this reaction, aluminum and iron (III) oxide are the reactants. In the reaction, aluminum removes the oxygen ion from iron and bonds with it. This happens because aluminum is more reactive than iron. The products are aluminum oxide and iron in molten form. In the fixing procedure, the reactants are put in the cut in the railway line and the reaction is triggered by heating using a magnesium fuse. The reaction leaves aluminum oxide and molten iron with then condenses in the cut welding it. Like displacement reactions, this reaction is exothermic. 2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 +2Fe Competition Reactions in Aqueous State: These are ordinary displacement reactions in which the two positive ions compete for the negative ion. The ion of the more reactive metal wins. Zinc is higher than copper in the reactivity series. If zinc is added to a solution of copper nitrate, a displacement reaction will take place in which the zinc will displace the copper ion from the solution in its salt. The products of this reaction are zinc nitrate and copper. Copper salt solutions have a blue color which fades away as the reaction proceeds because the concentration of the copper salt decreases. This type of reaction also helped in confirming reactivity of metals since the more reactive metal displaces the less reactive one. Zn + Cu(NO3)2 Zn(NO3)2 + Cu

Stability of metal compounds (Action of Heat)

Compounds of metals high up in the reactivity series are stable and not easily decomposed by heating. Compounds of metals low down in the series are unstable, and are often decomposed by heating, or are easily reduced. The oxides of metals above zinc in the series can only be reduced to the metal by using electrolysis. At cathode, reduction occurs Al3+ + 3e- ---> Al The oxides below can be reduced with reducing agents like carbon or hydrogen, except zinc oxide which cannot be reduced by action of hydrogen ZnO + C --> Zn + CO CuO + H2 --> Cu + H2O

Metal potassium sodium calcium magnesium aluminium zinc iron lead copper

Oxide electrolytic reduction electrolytic reduction reduced by heating with carbon

Hydroxide stable to heat decompose to metal oxide and steam on heating decompose to metal oxide and steam on heating

Nitrate decompose to nitrite and oxygen decompose to metal decompose to metal oxide and carbon dioxide oxide, nitrogen dioxide and gas on heating oxygen on heating decompose to metal decompose to metal oxide and carbon dioxide oxide, nitrogen dioxide and gas on heating oxygen on heating

Carbonate stable to heat

mercury silver platinum

reduced by heating alone

unstable, do not exist

unstable, do not exist

decompose to metal, oxygen and nitrogen dioxide gas on heating

Down the series, reduction becomes easier because the metals prefer to exist as atoms, as opposed to ions For metal oxides like mercury(II) oxide, no reducing agent is needed - just heating alone 2HgO --> 2Hg + O2 Hydroxides of the metals calcium and below decompose to their corresponding oxide and give off steam, on heating. This can be confirmed by using anhydrous copper(II) sulphate which turns white to blue with steam Ca(OH)2 ---> CaO + H2O Similarly, most carbonates, except sodium and potassium carbonates, undergo thermal decomposition again to a metal oxide, but this time giving off carbon dioxide gas. This can be confirmed by bubbling the gas through limewater, which turns milky with carbon dioxide PbCO3 ---> PbO + CO2 Nitrates also decompose on heating, but the stable ones at the top of the series only decompose as far as the nitrite (nitrite(III)), giving off oxygen gas. This can be identified by the gas relighting a glowing splinter 2KNO3 ---> 2KNO2 + O2 The majority of nitrates decompose to the metal oxide, giving off brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide as well as oxygen gas. 2Mg(NO3)2 ---> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2 The unstable nitrates at the bottom of the reactivity series decompose all the way to the metal itself 2AgNO3 ---> 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2 Applying heat to a metal compound such as potassium nitrate will cause it to decompose into potassium nitrite and oxygen. This is a thermal decomposition reaction.

Anion: Nitrate (NO3-) Potassium Metal Nitrate Metal nitrite + Sodium Oxygen Calcium Metal Nitrate Metal oxide + Magnesium Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen Aluminum Zinc Iron Lead Copper Silver Metal Nitrate Metal + Gold Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen Silver and gold hydroxides do not exist.

Metal:

Carbonate (CO32-) NO DECOMPOSITION Metal Carbonate Metal oxide + Carbon dioxide

Hydroxide (OH-) Metal hydroxide Metal oxide + Hydrogen

Metal Carbonate Metal + Carbon dioxide + Oxygen

Ions of more reactive metals tend to hold on tightly to their anions and do not decompose easily this is why lots of heat is needed.

Extraction of Metals from their Ores:

Most metals do not exist in nature as pure elements. Instead, they are found as naturally occurring compounds called ores. Ores are naturally occurring minerals from which a metal can be extracted. Most ores are metals oxide, carbonate or sulfide mixed with other impurities. The extraction of metal from ores begun long ago when people started purifying iron from its iron oxide ore by reducing it using charcoal. This was possible because carbon is more reactive than iron so it can reduce it take the oxygen ion from it. But then other metals were discovered which were higher than carbon in the reactivity series. Those metals were not possibly extracted from their ores until in the 19th century when a method of extracting them by electrolysis was invented. The method extracting a metal depends on its reactivity. Metals - in decreasing order of reactivity Reactivity Extract by electrolysis

Extract by reaction with carbon or carbon monoxide

Extracted by various chemical reactions

Metals from Rocks

Minerals elements/compounds that make up rocks Metal ore rock containing metal

Extracting these metals

Metal ores are removed from ground. The ores contain useful and unwanted materials. Unwanted materials are separated to obtain concentrated mineral. Metal is extracted from the mineral.

Occurrence of Metals

Metal ores are compounds, usually as: Metal oxides metal + oxygen, eg: Al2O3 Metal sulphides metal + sulphur, eg: HgS Metal carbonates metal + carbon + oxygen, eg: MgCO3

Least Reactive easiest to extract; extracted by physical methods Less Rective harder to extract than least reactive; by blast furnace; usually occur as compounds of oxides or sulphides. Most Reactive hardest to extract strong bonds in compounds; by electrolysis decomposing compounds with electricity.

Uses of Metals
The choice of metals over another depends on 3 factors: Physical properties (e.g. melting point, strength, density, conductivity) Chemical properties (e.g. resists corrosion) Cost

Recycling Metals
There are many iron on the surface but copper and tin are seriously reducing. High temperatures and pressures and greater depth increases hazards that prevent mining up to the lower part of crust, although there are more metals further down Ways to conserve metals Use alternative materials to replace the use of iron (e.g. use of plastic pipes instead of iron, use of glass bottles for soft drinks instead of aluminium) Recycle unused metals by melting them to produce new blocks of clean metal

Advantages of recycling metals Recyling helps conserving metals, especially valuables such as gold and platinum. E.g. used computer parts processed to extract gold used for electrical contacts of processors and memory chips Recycling saves the cost of extracting new metals Recycling benefits environment, e.g. if there is a car wasteland, it causes eyesore

Disadvantages of recycling metals Recycling metals can damage the environment by smelting process which sends a lot of fumes into the air Cost to separate metals from waste is high. E.g. separating metals in alloys is hard Transport costs for collecting scrap metal is high, e.g. trucks should be used People are not interested in depositing their used materials in recycling bins

Extraction of Iron
The ore of iron is called haematite. It consists of 60% iron in form of Iron oxide (Fe2O3) with other impurities such as silicon dioxide (SiO2). Substances Products and Waste Materials

Iron is extracted from the iron ore haematite, Fe2O3 Iron is extracted from the oxide in a tower called a blast furnace

Several reactions take place before the iron is finally produced. 1. Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:

2. The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

3. Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke to produce carbon monoxide:

4. The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore to give molten iron:

5. The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate): CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l) Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace.

Steel
Iron made from blast furnace is not good as: it contains impurities which makes it brittle (can break easily) it cannot be bent or stretched Most iron is converted into steel which is an alloy of iron and carbon with small amounts of other elements.

Advantages of steel: Making Steel: Impurities of iron is removed by blowing oxygen into molten iron to change the impurities into oxides. They are then combined with CaO and removed as slag. Carbon and other metals are added in certain amount to make steel. it is strong and tough it can be bent and stretched without shattering

Different Types of Steel:

There are many different forms of steel. Each has different components and properties and is used for different purposes. Steel Mild Steel Composition 99.5% Iron 0.5% Carbon 99% Iron 1% Carbon 87% Iron 13% Manganese 74% Iron 18% Chromium 8% Nickel 95% Iron 5% Tungsten Properties Easily worked lost brittleness Uses Car bodies large structures Machinery Cutting tools and chisels Drill bits and springs and chemical plants Cutlery and surgical tools, kitchen sinks Edges of high speed cutting tools

Hard Steel Stainless Steel

Tough and brittle Tough and springy

Manganese Steel Tungsten Steel

Tough and resistant to corrosion

Tough and hard even at high temperatures

Extraction of Aluminum:
Aluminum exists naturally as aluminum oxide (alumina) in its ore, which is called bauxite. Because aluminum is a very reactive metal, it holds on very tightly to the anion it bonds with, which is oxide in this case. This is why the best way to extract and purify aluminum is by electrolysis in a cell like the one below.

1 2 3 4 5

Graphite blocks - anode Graphite lining - cathode alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite Steel container Outlet for molten aluminium

1. Mining of Bauxite: The bauxite (red-brown solid) - aluminium oxide (Al2O3) mixed with impurities - is extracted from the earth. 2. Purification of Bauxite: The extracted aluminium oxide is then treated with alkali (NaOH), to remove the impurities. This results in a white solid called aluminium oxide (or alumina) (Al2O3). 3. Electrolysis of Aluminium oxide:

o The alumina is then transported to huge tanks. The tanks are lined with graphite, this acts as the cathode. Also blocks of graphite hang in the middle of the tank, and acts as anodes. o Aluminas melting point (2050oC) is very high, therefore the alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite - this lowers the melting point to 950C - saves money! o When molten, the aluminium ions and oxide ions in the alumina can move. o Electricity is passed and electrolysis begins. Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound using electricity. o At the anode: The oxide ions lose electrons to become oxygen molecules, O2:

o At the cathode: Here the aluminium ions receive electrons to become atoms again:

Overall equation: 4Al3+(l) + 6O2-(l) 4Al(l) + 3O2(g) Oxygen gas evolves and is collected with waste gases Aluminum is sucked out of the container at regular intervals Oxygen gas which evolves reacts with carbon from the cathode forming CO2. The cathode gets worn away. To solve this, the cathode is replaced at regular intervals. because
light, strong, resists corrosion light, strong, resists corrosion light, resists corrosion, good conductor of electricity light, resists corrosion, good appearance, good conductor of heat

Uses of Aluminium
aircraft other transport such as ships' superstructures, container vehicle bodies, tube trains (metro trains) overhead power cables (with a steel core to strengthen them) saucepans

THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID - THE CONTACT PROCESS

1. Making the sulphur dioxide This can either be made by burning sulphur in an excess of air:

. . . OR by heating sulphide ores like pyrite in an excess of air:

2. Making the sulphur trioxide This is a reversible reaction, and the formation of the sulphur trioxide is exothermic.

Conditions: o Temperature: 400-450C, o Pressure: 1 2 atmospheres, o Catalyst: vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) 3. Converting the sulphur trioxide into sulphuric acid This can't be done by simply adding water to the sulphur trioxide - the reaction is so uncontrollable that it creates a fog of sulphuric acid. Instead, the sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form fuming sulphuric acid (oleum).

Water is then carefully added to the oleum to produce concentrated sulphuric acid (98%). - twice as much as you originally used to make the fuming sulphuric acid.

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA -THE HABER PROCESS

Nitrogen needed for this process is obtained from fractional distillation of liquid air. Hydrogen needed could be obtained by three ways, either reacting methane with steam, electrolysis of brine or cracking of alkanes. N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) 2 NH3 (g) - a reversible exothermic process

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in a 1 to 3 ratio with the reaction Conditions: o Temperature: 400 - 450C o Pressure: 200 atmosphere o Catalyst: finely divided iron This mixture is cooled to about -40C so that ammonia condenses and liquified but nitrogen and hydrogen dont. Ammonia is collected and stored. The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are then recycled and the ideal conditions are brought back in for it to react. This is repeated until no more of the reactants remain. Uses of Ammonia: Manufacture of fertilisers Manufacturing of nitric acid

MANUFACTURE of CHLORINE USING A DIAPHRAGM CELL

Background chemistry Chlorine is manufactured by electrolysing concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine). Three useful substances are made in this process - chlorine, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen.
The diaphragm cell

The chemistry of the electrolysis process Sodium chloride solution contains:

sodium ions, chloride ions, hydrogen ions (from the water), o hydroxide ions (from the water). The diaphragm is made of a porous mixture of asbestos and polymers. The solution can seep through it from the anode compartment into the cathode side.
Notice that there is a higher level of liquid on the anode side. That makes sure that the flow of liquid is always from left to right - preventing any of the sodium hydroxide solution formed finding its way back to where chlorine is being produced.

o o o

Production of the chlorine Chlorine is produced at the titanium anode according to the equation:

Production of the hydrogen The hydrogen is produced at the steel cathode:

Production of the sodium hydroxide

A dilute solution of sodium hydroxide solution is also produced at the cathode. It is highly contaminated with unchanged sodium chloride solution. The sodium hydroxide solution leaving the cell is concentrated by evaporation. During this process, most of the sodium chloride crystallises out as solid salt. The salt can be separated, dissolved in water, and passed through the cell again. Even after concentration, the sodium hydroxide will still contain a small percentage of sodium chloride.

Reactivity Series Involving Non-Metals

Metals react by losing electrons - they are reducing agents. Non-metals react by gaining electrons - they are oxidising agents. In the same way that metals can be ordered in terms of reducing strength, the non-metals can be ordered in terms of their oxidising strength. The halogens are a typical example of a non-metal reactivity series. Reactivity of the halogens Fluorine most reactive
Fluorine is so reactive that we cannot isolate it in the laboratory very easily, as it reacts with both water and glass. As a result we don't usually deal with fluorine at pre-university level but compare only the other three (astatine is very rare and radioactive) Do not confuse this order of reactivity with that of the metals - these are non-metals, their reactivity is in terms of oxidising power - i.e. chlorine is the best oxidising agent out of chlorine, bromine and iodine.

Chlorine

Bromine

Iodine

least reactive

1. Chlorine will displace bromine from solutions containing bromide ions

Cl2 + 2BrBr2 + 2Cl-

In this reaction the chlorine is oxidising the bromide ions by removing an electron from them. Bromine is liberated from the solution and may be detected by its orange/red colour

2. Bromine will displace iodine from solutions containing iodide ions

Br2 + 2II2 + 2Br-

In this reaction the bromine is oxidising the iodide ions by removing an electron from them. Iodine is liberated from the solution and may be detected by its orange/brown colour which turns blue/black in the presence of starch indicator. It is predictable, then, that chlorine will also displace iodine from a solution containing iodide ions

Qualitative Analysis
Test for Gases
Gas Ammonia (NH3) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Chlorine (Cl2) Hydrogen (H2) Oxygen (O2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Test and Test Results turns damp red litmus paper blue gives white ppt with limewater, ppt dissolves with excess CO 2 bleaches damp litmus paper produces "pop" sound with lighted splint relights a glowing splint turns aqueous acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to green

Test for Anions

Anion Test Test result

Carbonate (CO32-) Add dilute acid Chloride (in solution) Iodide (I-) (in solution) nitrate (NO3-) (in solution) Sulfate (SO42-) (in solution) (Cl-) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous lead(II) nitrate Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then aluminium foil, warm carefully Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous barium nitrate

Effervescence, carbon dioxide produced White ppt Yellow ppt Ammonia produced White ppt

Colours of some metal hydroxides

Metal hydroxide calcium hydroxide copper(II) hydroxide iron(II) hydroxide iron(III) hydroxide lead(II) hydroxide zinc hydroxide Colour white light blue green red-brown white white

Testing for cations

Cations can be identified by their reactions with aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia A precipitate is an insoluble solid. When testing for cations, these precipitates only form when a metal ion in solution joins with hydroxide ions in solution to form an insoluble metal hydroxide eg Cu2+ + 2OH- --> Cu(OH)2 (blue copper(II) hydroxide precipitate) Add dilute NaOH (5 drops) white ppt of aluminium hydroxide white ppt of calcium hydroxide blue ppt of copper(II) hydroxide Add excess dilute Add dilute aqueous NH3 Add excess NaOH (5 drops) dilute aqueous NH3 ppt dissolves white ppt of aluminium ppt insoluble colourless solution hydroxide ppt insoluble ppt insoluble no reaction blue ppt of copper(II) hydroxide dirty green ppt of iron(II) hydroxide red-brown ppt of iron(III) hydroxide no reaction ppt dissolves deep blue solution ppt insoluble ppt insoluble ppt insoluble ppt dissolves colourless solution -

Cation

Al3+ Ca2+ Cu2+

Fe2+ Fe3+ Pb2+ Zn2+

dirty green ppt of iron(II) hydroxide red-brown ppt of iron(III) hydroxide white ppt of lead(II) hydroxide white ppt of zinc hydroxide

ppt insoluble ppt insoluble

ppt dissolves white ppt of lead(II) colourless solution hydroxide ppt dissolves white ppt of zinc colourless solution hydroxide no reaction

NH4+ ammonia gas is produced on warming ammonium with dilute NaOH. This gas has a pungent smell and turns moist red litmus paper blue

[Lead(II) ions can be distinguished from aluminium ions by the insolubility of lead(II) chloride.]

Laboratory Preparation of Gases

Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen

Oxygen has similar density to air hence is collected by water displacement Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia

Laboratory Preparation of Carbon Dioxide

This method of gas preparation is called downward delivery. A method for preparing and collecting a gas less dense (lighter) than air by heating solid reactants. The less dense gas rises into, and displaces, the more dense air downwards. This method of gas preparation is called upward delivery. e.g. Heating a mixture of ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) solids gives ammonia which has a very pungent odour! and turns red litmus blue. 2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) ==> CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g) To make dry ammonia you need a tube packed with granules of calcium oxide (quick lime) between the horizontal pyrex tube and the vertical inverted collection test tube. (i) Calcium carbonate (limestone/marble chips) with hydrochloric acid makes carbon dioxide. carbon dioxide is moderately soluble in water CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen

A method for preparing a sample of hydrogen gas Method for preparing and collecting a gas less dense (lighter) than air by reacting a liquid and a solid. The less dense gas rises into, and displaces, the more dense air downwards. This method of gas preparation is called upward delivery. e.g. A mixture of zinc and hydrochloric acid makes hydrogen. Hydrogen gives a squeaky pop! with a lit splint. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Drying agents:
o o o o concentrated sulphuric acid anhydrous calcium chloride silica gel calcium oxide

Gas used to dry

Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine Carbon dioxide ammonia

MCQ Questions
1. Which statement about salts is not correct? a, salts are made by neutralising alkalis with acids b. salts contain anions and cations c. salts are made by dissolving metal oxides in acids d. salts always contain water of crystallisation 3. A way of distinguishing dilute hydrochloric acid from dilute sulphuric acid is to a. add universal indicator b. add aqueous barium nitrate c. add a metal carbonate d. add magnesium ribbon 2. An example of a salt which can be prepared by precipitation is a. lead(II) nitrate b. sodium carbonate c. silver chloride d. magnesium sulphate 4. Which of these statements about solubility is true? a. all sulphates are soluble in water except calcium and lead sulphate b. all nitrates are insoluble in water except sodium and potassium nitrate c. most metal oxides are soluble in water except those of Group I and II d. most metal carbonates are soluble in water 6. Which of these salts is best prepared by reaction with an acid and a base? a. barium sulphate b. copper(II) carbonate c. magnesium sulphate d. silver chloride

5. Barium sulphate is insoluble in water. It is used in a 'barium meal' to allow X-ray studies of the intestines. It can be prepared by a precipitation reaction between two aqueous solutions. Which two substances would be suitable for preparing barium sulphate for use in X-ray radiography?

a. barium carbonate and sulphuric acid b. barium chloride and sodium sulphate c. barium oxide and potassium sulphate d. barium nitrate and calcium sulphate 7. A solution of substance X gave a white precipitate when aqueous NaOH was added. However, when lead(II) nitrate solution was added to an acidified solution of X, a yellow precipitate formed. What is the correct identity of X? a. calcium chloride b. magnesium sulphate c. sodium bromide d. zinc iodide

8. Iron(III) hydroxide is precipitated out of solution when aqueous sodium hydroxide solution is added to iron(II) chloride solution. Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH- (aq) --> Fe(OH)3 (s) What is the minimum volume of 2 mol/dm3 aqueous NaOH required to precipitate the maximum amount of iron(III) hydroxide from 20cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 iron(III) chloride solution? a. 10 cm3 b. 20 cm3 c. 30 cm3 d. 60 cm3 10. An element reacts with steam but not with cold water. Its oxide can be reduced by heating it with carbon. When it is placed in a solution containing iron(II) ions, a grey deposit is formed. The element is most likely to be a. lead b. magnesium c. zinc d. copper 6. c 7. d 8. c 9. a 10. c

9. After acidification with dilute nitric acid, a colourless solution X reacts with aqueous silver nitrate to give a yellow precipitate. What could X be? a. calcium iodide b. copper(II) chloride c. iron(II) iodide d. sodium chloride

MCQ Answers
1. d 2. c 3. b 4. b 5. b

Structured Questions Worked Solutions

1. A student was given an aqueous solution analyse. It contains copper(II) chloride and aluminium nitrate. a. Describe how he could detect the presence of chloride ions in the aove solution. b. Name the precipitate(s) formed when excess aqueous ammonia is added to the above solution.

Solution: 1a. Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous silver nitrate. A white precipitate will be seen in the presence of chloride ions OR Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous lead(II) nitrate. A yellow precipitate will be seen in the presence of chloride ions

2. W is an alkali and X is a salt. When the two solutions were mixed together, a reddish-brown precipitate Y was obtained. When a salt Z was added to solution W and heated, a pungent gas which turned moist red litmus blue was evolved. Suggest what could W, X, Y, and Z be. Solution W: Sodium hydroxide X: Iron(III) chloride/sulphate/etc Y: Iron(III) hydroxide Z: Ammonium chloride/nitrate/etc 3. Give the name and formula of the ions present in each of the solutions X, Y and Z below a. Solution X gives a white precipitate when dilute hydrochloric acid and aqueous barium chloride are added to it. b. An alkaline gas is given off when sodium hydroxide solution is added to the colourless solution Z and the mixture heated. Solution 3a. sulphate ion (SO42-) 3b. Ammonium ion (NH4+) 4. A similar reagent is added to zinc carbonate and sample S to initiate both reactions A and B.

ai. Name the reagent(s) required for Reaction A. aii. Write down the chemical equation (with state symbols) for Reaction A. bi. Give a possible identity of Sample S.

bii. Based on your answer in bi, write a chemical equation with state symbols for Reaction B. Solution ai. Hydrochloric acid aii. ZnCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ---> ZnCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) bi. Zinc bii. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ---> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g) 5.

a. Identify A to F. b. Write an ionic equation (with state symbols) for the formation of the yellow precipitate. c. Describe a test for the pungent gas R. d. Pungent gas R dissolves in water to form a solution. Describe the observations when a few drops of copper(II) sulphate solution is added to the solution. Solution a. A: lead(II) carbonate B: dilute nitric acid C: ammonia gas D: carbon dioxide E: lead(II) nitrate F: lead(II) hydroxide b. Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) ---> PbI2 (s) c. Place two pieces of damp red and blue litmus papers at the mouth of the test tube. If the gas is ammonia, the damp red litmus paper will turn blue. A pungent gas will also be detected. d. Blue precipitate is formed which dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form a dark blue solution. 6. In the experiment shown below, the gas X produced by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the zinc granules was passed over two heated metallic oxides. A colourless liquid W was collected and the excess gas X was burnt off at Y.

a. What is gas X? Write the ionic equation for the formation of the gas. b. State what is observed of: i. zinc oxide ii. copper(II) oxide Write equation(s) for any change observed. c. Explain your observation made in bi and bii. d. Give a chemical test to identify liquid W. e. Suggest a suitable drying agent to be placed inside the drying bulb. f. Why was the excess gas X burnt off at Y? g. What precautions should be taken before the excess gas was lit? Solution

a.hydrogen gas Zn + 2H+ ---> Zn2+ + H2 bi. Zinc oxide turns from white to yellow. bii. Copper(II) oxide turns from black to pink CuO + H2 ---> Cu + H2O c. Zinc is above hydrogen in the reactivity series so zinc oxide will not be reduced by hydrogen to zinc. Upon being heated, zinc oxide will change its colour from white to yellow. Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series so copper(II) oxide will be reduced to form pink copper. d. W is tested with anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper. If W is water, the cobalt(II) chloride paper will turn from blue to pink. e. fused calcium chloride f. Because hydrogen gas is flammable and a mixture of hydrogen and air is very explosive. g. Ensure that there is no leakage in the apparatus.

Students should be able to explain the importance of metals and their compounds to living systems and the environment.

Metals in Living Systems

Some metals are an integral part of different structures in living systems. It is well known that calcium is necessary for the formation of bones, teeth and shells. Iron is present in the haemoglobin of red blood, and magnesium is present in chlorophyll, the compound found in the green parts of plants. Potassium is an essential constituent of protoplasm. Generally the metals function by being part of the mineral structure of the plants and animals. Thus metals in minerals are important to general body function. They are particularly important for regulation of some activities like fluid balance, acid-base balance and some forms of metabolism. Harmful Metals Some metals may also be very harmful to living systems. Lead is used in certain paints, soldering, car batteries and in ceramics. Leaded gasolene is used in some internal combustion engines because lead prevents 'knocking'. Careless disposal of industrial wastes into rivers and streams has caused death to fish, possibly other forms of aquatic life and human beings. Disposal of household refuse containing fluorescent tubes and electrical switches which contain mercury needs to be done carefully. If the fluorescent tubes are left around and get broken and the switches get burnt, a lot of mercury vapour will get into the atmosphere and eventually settle on the ground causing possible contamination of soil and ground water. Another point to note is that levels which may be good or at least harmless may, when increased, become harmful. Evidence of this is the effect that excess sodium ions has on blood pressure. Radioactive Isotopes When the number of neutrons in the nucleus is much greater than the number of protons, the nucleus is unstable. An isotope with an unstable nucleus is called a radio-isotope. Spontaneous changes occur in the nuclei of radioisotopes. For example, in carbon-14, a neutron in a nucleus changes to give a proton and an electron. The atom produced by the nuclear change is no longer an atom of carbon but one of nitrogen, since it now has seven protons. Nuclear changes produce different elements. The electrons given off from the nucleus during nuclear reactions are called beta particles. The rate at which spontaneous nuclear changes occur is fixed for any one radio-isotope but varies greatly for different radio-isotopes. Nuclear changes also produce emissions of alpha particles, gamma rays and x-rays. Radiation can damage the cells of organisms. Some metals have radioactive isotopes. Medical diagnosis and treatment make use of radiation. Undue exposure to radiation should be avoided. Nuclear Energy Nuclear reactions produce much more energy than combustion of fossil fuels. The atom bomb demonstrated the vast differences in energy between nuclear change and chemical change (involving the extra-nuclear electrons). Nuclear reactions can be so controlled that the energy released is used to generate electricity. The nuclear fuel, usually a radio-isotope of a heavy metal, is made to split into atoms with about half the relative mass. The energy released can convert water to steam which is used to drive generators to produce electricity. There is always the p6ssibility of leaks of radioactive material. There are also serious problems associated with disposal of radioactive wastes. As spontaneous decay of some radio-isotopes is slow, they can be harmful for a very long time. Stable elements produced from radioactive decay may also be harmful. Some related accidents have already occurred. EVALUATION

In addition to the project mentioned under 'Teaching Strategies', direct questions could be: 1. Name four metals essential to the health of plants and/or animals. 2. Name two metals which are harmful to living things. 3. It has been found that corrosion of a metal which involves a chemical reaction is speeded up if the metal is in contact with a less reactive metal and an electrolyte. The less reactive metal does not react under these circumstances. (a) Explain what you would expect to be the long-term consequences of using uncoated iron nails to secure roofing material made of (i) sheets of iron coated with zinc and (ii) sheets of iron coated with tin, which is less reactive than iron. (b) Which of these two types of sheets would you select for your roof given that tin is cheaper and more attractive than zinc and that the sheets will eventually become scratched? Justify your choice. (c) Explain briefly why anodizing can be used to protect aluminium but not iron articles from corrosion.

Students should be able to discuss the harmful effects of non-metal and metal compounds to living systems and the environment. Sulphur dioxide is a soluble, acidic gas. Sulphur is present in association with coal and hydrocarbons and sulphur dioxide is released from refineries and is also released when fuels burn. Sulphur dioxide is also produced during the extraction of metals from sulphide ores. Sulphur dioxide can cause a disease of the lungs. Sulphur dioxide also poisons plants in two main ways. It may enter the stomata of leaves and react with the tissue fluids to form sulphites; with the on-going water loss, the concentration of sulphites could build up, killing the cells. The second adverse effect on plants occurs when sulphur dioxide dissolves in rain, thereby increasing soil acidity. A prolonged acid soil situation may lead to plasmolysis and the death of vegetation in an area. Carbon monoxide is always formed when carbon or carbon containing compounds is oxidized in insufficient oxygen. This includes oxidation of decaying organic matter and burning of fossil fuels. Carbon monoxide is also produced during reduction of metallic oxides for the extraction of metals. Carbon monoxide combines much more readily than oxygen with haemoglobin. When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it prevents the haemoglobin from taking oxygen to the body's cells. Continued breathing of air containing carbon monoxide eventually causes death. Carbon dioxide The carbon cycle shows a number of ways in which carbon dioxide is produced. The great increase in the use of fossil fuels and population pressures contribute to the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the earth's atmosphere. When solar radiation reaches the earth's atmosphere about fifty percent of the visible light is reflected into space. The remainder causes warming on earth. Warmed surfaces on earth re-radiate energy as heat. Carbon dioxide, water vapour and ozone, referred to as "greenhouse gases" acting as a blanket readily absorb some of the radiated heat energy and in turn warms the earth's atmosphere. This is called the "greenhouse effect". Scientists have found direct correlation between carbon dioxide concentration and global warming. An increase in carbon dioxide concentration resulted in an increase in global temperatures. Global warming is a major potential problem that the world faces. Hydrogen sulphide has a distinctive smell of rotten eggs (rotten eggs contain hydrogen sulphide). Hydrogen sulphide is produced during the putrefaction of once-living material which contained sulphur. It is also present in volcanic gases and some mineral springs. Hydrogen sulphide reacts readily with many cations, forming insoluble sulphides Many cations contribute to good health by contributing to enzyme activity, and to the formation of

bone, pigment and haemoglobin. Although these cations are required in extremely small concentrations, they are removed by being precipitated as sulphides, and thus are not available for regular function. Careless dumping of refuse contributes to atmospheric pollution by hydrogen sulphide. Aerosols also contribute to atmospheric pollution. The material we emit into the air diffuses, so that we may not smell it after a while. However, unless it has reacted with some other substance in the air, whatever we emit remains in the atmosphere and could eventually affect us. Some aerosols contain chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as propellants. CFCs are low molecular mass hydrocarbons in which some or all of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine and fluorine atoms. CFCs are odourless, non-toxic, stable at high temperatures, inert nonflammable and can be easily liquified. These properties allow CFCs to be very useful. In addition to aerosols, they are used in foamed plastic products, fast food containers, as coolants in air conditioners and refrigeration. It is believed that CFCs might be responsible for destroying the protective ozone layer which prevents harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from reaching the earth. The carbon-chlorine bond in a CFC molecule is easily broken by a UV photon producing an active chlorine atom. This atom combines with an ozone molecule forming a chlorine oxide radical and oxygen. The radical reacts with more ozone producing the chlorine atom again. This kind of reaction is repeated thousands of times. This type of reaction is thought to account for about eighty percent of the loss of ozone observed. Phosphates, used in detergents to increase cleaning power and phosphates and nitrates from fertilizers, contribute to environmental pollution. High concentration of phosphates and nitrates, nutrients for plant growth, cause excessive growth of aquatic flora. Excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants and their putrefaction use up oxygen from the water thus reducing the amount available to aquatic animals resulting in their death. Lead is a heavy metal poison that is widely encountered. It may occur in food, beverages, paint, water from leadsealed pipes, in air polluted by combustion of fuels containing lead compounds. The average person can excrete about 2 mg of lead per day. Above this quantity accumulation begins in bone and soft tissue. Soluble lead salts are toxic but metallic lead can be absorbed through the skin. Children are especially vulnerable to lead toxicity since they retain a larger fraction of absorbed lead than adults. They do not store lead as quickly as adults, so the lead circulates in the blood stream exerting its toxic effect on various organs and systems. Some of the effects of lead in children's blood are as follows: rising blood pressure lowered intelligence, irreversible mental retardation reduced haemoglobin formation resulting in anaemia reduced calcium and vitamin D metabolism impaired central nervous system function convulsions, coma may result in death. The teacher may need to have his/her own scrapbook of newspaper clippings concerning the dangers that result from pollution. For example, in one territory people died when they were sent to clean out a molasses tank, which had been closed up for a while. In another territory a motorist died in bumper-to-bumper traffic, which stood still for quite a long period. Elsewhere, desert conditions have been created in the vicinity of some industries. These or other situations could be used to introduce the topic. Students should be able to list uses of the non-metals: carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine nitrogen, silicon, and their compounds An outline of the uses of the non-metals and their compounds is given. Generally, substances as used as their particular properties allow. Table 6: Uses of Non-Metals and their compounds Non-metal /Compounds Carbon (Allotropes, carbon dioxide) Silicon Uses Reducing agent in extraction of some metals, lubricant, electrodes, abrasives, solvents, 'rubbers, plastics, fuels, jewellery, decolourizing agent, for gas absorption in masks, cutting glass, drill bits, dry ice as refrigerant, manufacture sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate for water softening, raising agent, carbonated beverages. As an alloy with iron for acid-resistant steels, as a semiconductor in transistorized circuits; as quartz in electronic equipment and lenses; as silicates in jewellery, cement, glass; silicones in lubricants, water repellants, defoaming agents, electrical insulators, paints, polishes, finishes; as silicon carbide (in abrasives; as silica gel, a drying agent. Manufacture of ammonia, nitric acid, fertilizers, dyes, explosives and textiles. As an inert atmosphere for easily oxidizable substances and electric lamps. As a cooling agent. As phosphor bronze alloys. For fertilizers, detergents and safe matches. Manufacture of sulphuric acid for production of fertilizers, detergents, paints, enamels, vulcanized rubber, dyes, textiles, pharmaceuticals, anti-fungal ointments and oils.

Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulphur

Chlorine

For manufacture of bleaches, hydrochloric acid, solvents, drug, insecticides, antiseptics, anaesthetics, refrigerants, plastics, p~ removers and aerosol sprays.

Chemistry of Gardening
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to: list the major and trace elements needed by plants describe the composition of soil test soil samples describe the importance of nutrients understand how to improve soil argue the case for and against herbicides and hydroponics. Plant nutrients Plants need the right combination of nutrients to live, grow and reproduce. When plants suffer from malnutrition, they show symptoms of being unhealthy. Too little or too much of any one nutrient can cause problems. Plant nutrients fall into 2 categories: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are those elements that are needed in relatively large amounts. They include nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Micronutrients are those elements that plants need in small amounts (sometimes trace amounts), like iron, boron, manganese, zinc, copper, chlorine and molybdenum. Both macro- and micronutrients are naturally obtained by the roots from the soil. All plants require carbon, hydrogen and oxygen for life processes. Carbon dioxide in the air, and water in the soil supply these elements to plant'.

Elements have special uses in plants, for example: nitrogen sulphur calcium magnesium phosphorus potassium trace elements making proteins making proteins and oils cell walls making chlorophyll making enzymes, root growth controlling osmotic pressure making enzymes (biological catalysts).

When plants are grown in soil, some of the nutrients are removed from the soil as the plants grow. These must be replaced or the soil will gradually lose its fertility. The most important elements are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK). Organic and inorganic fertilisers can be added to soil to replace missing nutrients. What is in soil? Soils vary greatly from place to place, but they have some features in common. All soils contain: rock particles from weathered rocks organic matter (humus) produced from the remains of plants, animals and soil bacteria. We can classify soils according to the type and size of particles present.

Silt is made of fine particles which are smaller than sand particles but larger than those in clay. What are trace elements? Where do plants obtain most of the elements they need? Name one element needed to make chlorophyll. Problems with nutrients When one or more elements are missing from the soil, plant growth suffers. Nutrient deficient nitrogen symptom yellowing of leaves undersized leaves poor growth rate weakened root system stunted growth Leaves dull, blue-green or very dark green in colour low yield of grain or fruit leaf tips die back poor leaf growth and leaves will take on a pale green colour yellowing of leaves MACRONUTRIENTS
Replace macronutrients in soils regularly (at least once per growing season)

phosphorus

potassium magnesium sulphur

Nutrient Comments calcium (Ca) Desert soils and water generally have plenty of calcium, so deficiency problems are rare. Excessive calcium can limit the availability of other nutrients. nitrogen (N) Most plants absorb nitrogen in the form of ammonium or nitrate. These forms readily dissolve in water and leach away.

Fertilizer Sources Anything with the word calcium; also gypsum.

Anything with the words ammonium, nitrate, or urea. Also manures. magnesium Plants absorb magnesium as an ion (charged particle), which Anything with the word (Mg) can be readily leached from soil. May be readily leached from magnesium; also Epsom salts soil if calcium is not present. (magnesium sulfate). phosphorus Plants absorb phosphorus in the form of phosphate. This form Anything with the words (P) dissolves only slightly in water, but pH strongly affects uptake. phosphate or bone. Also greensand. potassium Plants absorb potassium as an ion, which can be readily leached Anything with the words (K) from soil. Desert soils and water generally have plenty of potassium or potash. potassium, so deficiency problems are rare. sulfur (S) Plants absorb sulfur in the form of sulfate. This readily leaches Anything with the word sulfate. from the soil. Sulfur may acidify the soil (lower the pH).

Why is humus important? Humus is the dark, sticky material in soil. It is made up of decaying organic matter and is essential for plant growth as it is rich in nutrients. Benefits of humus: combines with fine clay minerals in the soil. has the ability to absorb water and then release it to plant roots. gives soil an open texture and allows air into it. Mineral salts from soil particles dissolve in the soil water and become available for use by plants. If there is little humus, water drains away and the soil is less fertile. Improving the soil Some soils are acidic. Few plants grow well in acid soils so gardeners and farmers need to find ways of reducing the acidity. They can add lime to soil to neutralise the acidity (raise the pH value). Lime is a calcium compound and calcium is needed by plants for good growth.

The addition of lime improves soil texture (by causing small clay particles to stick together) releases other nutrients such as potassium. Problems can arise if a gardener adds both lime and an ammonium fertiliser at the same time. The two materials react together. ammonium salt + alkali ammonia gas + water NH4+ + OH- NH3 + H2O The soil loses nitrogen compounds as ammonia gas escapes into the air. Lime can be added to the soil in three ways: 1. as hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), 2. ground chalk or limestone (calcium carbonate) or 3. as burnt lime (calcium oxide). 4. What might be the cause of yellowing leaves on a plant? 5. What is humus? 6. How can you neutralise acidic soils? Herbicides A chemical which destroys weeds is called a herbicide. Some types of herbicide are selective in their action, for example one type kills broadleaved plants but leaves grasses and cereal crops untouched. This type is fine for using on lawns and cereal crops, but is no help if the crop itself is broadleaved, such as soya beans. Herbicides work in different ways, for example by disrupting photosynthesis in the plant or by causing the plant to grow rapidly and then die. Regular use of herbicides can lead to long-term problems. Some of them build up in the soil and do not easily biodegrade. Others may encourage the development of herbicide-resistant weeds. Herbicides can increase crop yields by reducing competition between crop plants and weeds but there is an environmental cost. Hydroponics (Growth without soil) It is possible to grow plants without any soil at all. The trick is to supply the plants with a solution of all the nutrients they require. There are arguments both for and against the use of hydroponics in agriculture. The advantages include: Plants can be grown anywhere, even in a desert, provided the facilities are available. There are no problems with weeds. Crops can be grown outside the normal growing season. a large crop can be obtained from a small growing area. The disadvantages are: The system is very expensive to set up. It requires heavy use of energy resources. It is regarded as 'unnatural' by some consumers. Highly trained staff are required to operate and maintain the system. It is only really suitable for 'luxury' crops rather than basic food crops. 7. What is a herbicide? Give two examples. 8. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using herbicides. 9. What is hydroponics and why is this system used for growing certain plants, even though it is expensive? Biological and chemical control of pests Crop yields can be severely reduced by attack from various pests. Various methods of pest control are employed to eradicate crop pests. In biological control, one living organism is used to control the population of another one. For example, if there are too many birds eating the seeds on a farm, one solution is to use a trained bird of prey such as a hawk. The hawk will kill or frighten the other birds away. Some insect populations can be controlled by introducing an insect predator. For example, ladybirds can be introduced to eat mealybugs. Some plants have the ability to repel insect pests. If these plants are grown around the crop, less of the crop will be damaged by insects. In chemical control, various chemicals, called pesticides, are used to destroy insects, rats or other crop pests. There are problems associated with the use of pesticides. Many pesticides can injure or kill other wildlife. The pesticides may accumulate in the bodies of animals that feed on the crop and move up the food-chain, causing damage to other species. Pesticides are often toxic to people, both those who work on farms and those who buy the food. In time, pest populations develop resistance to the pesticide and it is no longer effective.

10. What is biological pest control? 11. Describe one advantage of using biological pest control over the use of pesticides. 12. How can pesticides harm animals that are not crop pests?

Nitrogen Cycle

How does the Nitrogen Cycle work? Although nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78% of the air, plants cannot use it for growth unless it is turned into nitrate (NO3) in the soil.

Making nitrogen in the atmosphere into nitrate in the soil is called fixing. Nitrogen fixing occurs naturally in four ways. Nitrogen fixing also occurs with the Haber process - see below. 1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil turn nitrogen in the soil into nitrate. 2. Nitrogen fixing bacteria on some plant root nodules turn nitrogen into nitrate. Plants that have these kinds of root nodules include peas, beans and clover. 3. Compounds containing ammonia occur in animal excretion and in dead animals. The ammonia turns into nitrite and there are nitrifying bacteria in the soil that turn nitrite (NO2) into nitrate (NO3). They are called nitrifying bacteria because they increase the amount of nitrate in the soil.
4. Lightning fixation. Lightning can cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere that make nitrogen react with

oxygen producing nitrous oxides. Nitrous oxides are also made from petrol engine pollution. The nitrous oxides can react with more oxygen and dissolve in rain water to make dilute nitric acid (HNO3(aq)) (see acid rain). HNO3 contains nitrate and so rain water containing HNO3 increases the amount of nitrate in the soil. Most of the fixing of nitrogen occurs through the natural processes described above. The Haber process for making fertilisers accounts for about 30% of nitrogen fixing. Nitrate in the soil is essential for plant growth. 5. There are denitrifying bacteria in the soil that turn nitrate (NO3) into nitrogen gas (N2) and the nitrogen gas goes back into the atmosphere. They are called denitrifying bacteria because they decrease the amount of nitrate in the soil. Compare this with the nitrifying bacteria described above at number 3. The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is simply the process by which Carbon Dioxide is put into and removed from the atmosphere. This process is very finely balanced to keep the percentage of CO2 in the atmosphere at 0.03%. Even so, man is doing his part to unbalance this cycle by excess burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. The reactions involved in the carbon cycle are as follows: 1. Combustion - exothermic reactions at a very fast rate Fuel [Methane] + Oxygen ----> Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ energy) CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ----> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) 2. Evaporation of Sea Water (containing dissolved CO2). Carbon Dioxide dissolves in sea water. Some of the water evaporates and CO2 is released. This is a reversible reaction: Sea Water + Sunlight <----> Water + Carbon Dioxide H2O (l) + CO2 (g) <----> H2CO3 (aq) [Carbonic Acid] 3. Decay of Organic Matter. Plants and animals decay to leave behind coal, oil, and gas after millions of years of being squashed by materials above. Some materials just decay and a form of respiration occurs that releases Carbon Dioxide. CO2 is also given off when the raw materials mentioned above decay. 4. Photosynthesis. Plants make sugar from light using carbon dioxide and water. These constituents are catalysed by chlorophyll in green leaves to form glucose, which the plant requires. The biproduct is Oxygen.

5. Respiration is the name of the process which involves animals ingesting food and inhaling air. The inhaled air dissolves in the blood and is transported around the body. Some of the oxygen is used within cells to oxidise sugars. When this occurs, CO2, H2O, and O2 are released. Glucose + Oxygen ----> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy 6. Sedimentation. Under extreme pressure, dead sea creatures decay without air deep underground. Over millions of years, the sea creatures become oil, or natural gas. Also, when shells of sea creatures etc... build up in layers over millions of years, sedimentary rock can be formed.

Water Cycle

Processes
Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water Precipitation Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, and sleet. Runoff The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses. Infiltration The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. Evaporation The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.[6] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean. Condensation The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog. Transpiration The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen. Percolation Water flows horizontally through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.