INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR MANAGERS

PRACTICAL FILE
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA 2012-2014) Under the supervision of Mrs. Ranjeeta Popli

Submitted by:VIJAY PURI ENROLLMENT NO. 10919103912

GITARATTAN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS SCHOOL (Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University)

Madhuban Chowk, ROHINI, DELHI - 110085

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topics

Page No.

1. MS-DOS 2. SPREADSHEETS 3. HTML 4. SQL

01 - 21 22 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 65

MS-DOS

DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS)

INTRODUCTION

DOS

Stands for "Disk Operating System." DOS was the first operating system used

by IBM-compatible computers.DOS is an Operating System. It works as an interpreter between user and computer. We give English like commands and it converts it into machine language and after the computer has processed the information, returns the results to you in English. Ms. Dos consist of four essential programs and a set of additional utilities.

Components of MS-DOS MS-DOS consists of four essentials programs and a set of additional utilities. Four main programs are Boot Record IO.SYS MSDOS.SYST COMMAND.COM

Booting: Process that starts up a computer is called booting. It checks for proper functioning of all the peripheral devices attached with the system. It searches for the operating system and, when located, loads it into the main memory.

Cold Booting is done by turning on the computer.

Warm Booting is performed by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del keys simultaneously. There are two name in DOS and is divided into 2 parts. 1. Primary Name 2. Secondary or extension.

Primary name is separated from the Secondary name extension with the help of a dot (.) look at the following example. Example: ENVOICE. TXT

Primary name can be from 1 to 8 characters long and Secondary name contains 3 or less than 3 characters and is optional. The extension tells DOS about what kind of file it is. A valid Character for naming a file are: from A to Z and the digit 0 to 9

C :\> Is known as DOS/command prompt, where we give the commands. DOS command divided into 2 parts. 1. Internal Commands or Memory-Resident Commands 2. External Command or Disk-Residence Commands

INTERNAL COMMAND
These are also called memory-resident commands. These commands are automatically loaded into the computers memory during the booting process. They actually included in the Command.com file. So these commands are executable immediately after getting the dos prompt.

A few internal commands are 1) VER 2) VOL 3) DATE 4) TIME 5) CLS 6) DIR 7) MD 8) CD 9) PATH 10) RD 11) COPY CON 12) TYPE 13) COPY 14) DEL 15) REN 16) PROMT

A command can be given in Capitals or Small letters also. The internal commands can execute immediately but External Commands require special files for their execution without which it is not possible to execute them.

1. VER: All O/S has its own edition number or release or version number. The version
number indicates which edition of O/S you are working on. Syntax: VER <Enter> Example: C:\> Ver <Enter> Output:

2. VOL: It is used to display volume label and serial number of the current drive
Syntax: Vol [drive:] Example: C:\> VOL Output:

3. DATE: used to display the current system date and prompt for entering new date.
Syntax: Date<Enter> Example: C:\> date <Enter> Output:

4. TIME: displays the current system time and prompt for entering new time.
Syntax: Time <Enter> Example: C:\> Time <Enter> Output:

5. CLS: clear the cluster screen.

Syntax: CLS <Enter> Example: C:\ CLS <Enter> Output

6. DIR: This command displays the list of directories and files with details like date of
creation whether it is directory or file etc. Syntax: DIR <Enter> Switches: /p /w /b /l : To view one screen of files at a time. : Displays only five column of filenames and directories. : Displays only file and directory. : Displays all the information in lower case letters.

/a stand for attributes that are given below. /-h - Hidden ( or not hidden) files s/-s - System ( or not systems) files d/-d - Directory ( or not Directory) names r/-r - Read only( or not read only) files

Example: 1. DIR *.txt 2. DIR D???.* : Display all the files with extension .txt : Display all the files starting with D and having less than or equal to

3. four characters in the file name and any extension. Here ? And * are called wild card character. * Stand for any number of the character ? Stands for any one character.

Output:

7. MD OR MKDIR: -Used to create a new Directory or nested Directories.

Syntax: MKDIR OR MD [DRIVE:] PATH DIRECTORY NAME Example: C:\> MD student <Enter> Output:

8. CD OR CHDIR: - This command allows you to change present directory to another

directory. Syntax: CD [DRIVE:] PATH Example: C:\> CD student and press <Enter> Output:

9. PATH: - This command defines a list of directories DOS Searches for external
commands Syntax: PATH (Display the current Search Path) PATH : - Clear the search path so DOS will search for external commands only in the current directory. Output:

10.

RD: - To delete the empty directory.

Syntax: RD [DRIVE:] PATH NOTE: -The directory must be empty when we use RD. Example: C:\> RD niharikaa and press <Enter> Switches: - 1. /s Remove with subdirectories and files. 2. /q Dont ask to confirm. Output:

11.

COPY CON: -We use this command to create a new file.

Syntax: COPY CON <FILENAME> Example: C:\> Copy Con sharma <Enter> Output:

Note: - Typing here and when you are done, press Ctr+Z or F6 key followed by Enter to save the current document.

12.

TYPE: - This command allows you to see the contents of an existing file on the screen.

SYNTAX: TYPE <file name> Example: C:\> type class Output:

13.

COPY: - Using this command you can make duplicate files of an exiting file from one location to another or one directory to another with different name or exiting name.

SYNTAX: COPY < SOURCE FILE NAME> <TARGET FILENAME> Example: C:\> COPY class.TXT A:\TAJ Example: C:\> COPY SAMS.TXT C:\SAMS_1\FO\RECEPTION And Then Press Enter You can also have the option to change the name of files as you copy it.

Example: C:\> COPYold.TXT C:\dos\new.txt And Then Press Enter

Output:

14.

DEL/ERASE: This command removes one or more files from the disk or current working directories.

SYNTAX: DEL filespec [/p] or ERASE filespec [/p] Example: C:\> DEL Class And Then Press Enter Output:

15. REN: Used to change the name of the file or directory.

SYNTAX: REN <file name> Example: REN div division <Enter> Output:

16. PROMPT: This command allows you to customize the dos prompt.
SYNTAX: 1. PROMPT SOME SPECIAL $ PARAMETERS ARE GIVEN BELOW

CHARACTER $Q $$ $t $d tue $v $g $L

EXAMPLE = $ 12:30:06:92 09-07-2007 msdos version 6.2 > <

DESCRIPTION Equal Sign Dollar Sign Display current time Display current date show dos version number Greater than sign Less than sign

Most people like to set their prompt to $p$g which display the current directory followed by > sign. Example: PROMPT $P$G <Enter> Output:

17. TREE :-It is used to display directory structure of a specified directory graphically.
Syntax : TREE [drive:] [path] [/f] [/F] : displays the names of the files in each directory. Output:

EXTERNAL COMMAND: These are also called Disk-Resident Commands. These commands are meant for special purpose. These are found in separate files on Hard Disk or Floppy Disk, So that they dont typically consume valuable memory space. They are loaded into memory only when called. Some External Command are: 1. Xcopy 2. Move 3. FC 4. Doskey 5. Mem 6. FILTER a.. More b.. Sort c Find

7. Attrib 8. Deltree 9. Edit 10. Tree

1.

XCOPY: This command is faster than Copy Command and allows you to copy entire

directories/disk including all the sub directories and files to destination. Syntax: XCOPY Source [ Target][/Y][-Y] [/P][/E] SWITCHES : /-Y : Prompts before copying over existing files. /y : Overwrites existing files without prompting. /p : Ask before copying each file. /e : Copying empty directory also. /s : Copying subfolders. EXAMPLE: XCOPY C:\SAMS D:\SAMS /S/E

Output:

2.

MOVE : This command moves a file or group of files from one directory to another and also one disk to another disk. It can also be used to rename directories.

SYNTAX : Move [Path File Name] [Destination file name path] SWICHES : /-Y : Prompt before it overwrites while it copies file that already exists. /Y : Overwrites existing files without prompting. EXAMPLE : move c:\sams\fo.txt to d

Output:

3. FC: Stands for File Compare. If you wish to compare two files or two sets of files then you may use this command. This command has the capability to differentiate between the files and display the difference SYNTAX: FC <files spec 1> <files spec2> [/a][/b][/c][l][/n] Switches /a /b /c /l /n : This switch displays only the first and last line of each group. : Compare the files in library mode ( byte-by-byte) : Ignore the case of letters. : Compare the files in text mode. : Displays the line number for lines that are different.

EXAMPLE : FC first.txt second.txt\n and then Press <enter>

Output:

4.

DOSKEY: Dos can remember only the last command you had entered. But in order

to make DOS remember all the commands you enter you will have to load a DOSKEY utility. Also Used To Create Macros Syntax: DOSKEY and Press <Enter> Display message on the screen. DOSKEY Installed. NOTE: - To display all commands from the history list one the screen. Example: DOSKEY / History or /h < Enter>.

Now when DOSKEY is in memory, it can help store all the commands which you enter so that any of those commands need not be typed again to be executed. And this all are called HISTORY LIST. Now when you want the same command to be done you can use right arrow key or F1 or F3 Issuing following command. Output:

Second feature of DOSKEY is Doskey Macro. Using this macro you can create own command and latter you can run it on the system prompt. For example EXAMPLE: - DOSKEY C= CLS Now if you type at the system prompt only C and press enter it will clear the screen. Recalling Commands: Some key is provided to recall recent commands you have run since installing DOSKEY. Second feature output:

Key Strok Effect Up Arrow Display the Preceding Command and further list. Down Arrow Show the next command you executed after the one thats being displayed. Page Up Display the oldest command that is still in Doskey. Page Down Show the most recent command that you executed F7 Display the entire list of command that you executed. F9 Selects a commands

Alt+F7 Erase the command history list. Alt+F10 Erase all macros in memory Esc Clear the command line. Ctrl-T Command separator.

5.

MEM: This command displays amount of total available memory ( low,

Expanded and Extended) and all currently programs. Syntax: MEM [/f][/p][/m] Switches:

/f : Using this switch MEM display all the areas of memory that are fee. /p : Use this option to display the information one screen at a time. /m : Display information about how a specified program is using memory. Example: MEM/p and then press <Enter>

Output:

6. FILTER: A Powerful feature of DOS is its use of filters to process data directly. A DOS FILTER can process in unique way any data that passes through it and can change what we see on the screen. There are three FILTERS include in DOS.

A. MORE : More command used to pause vertical Scrolling on the display screen, after each screenful, The display pauses and the message - - More - - appears. Pressing any key display the next screen.

EXAMPLE: C:\> MORE < TYPE FILE.TXT and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> DIR /MORE and then press <Enter>

B. SORT: Reads, Sorts in Order and sends the data to the screen, file or to another device. Sort to arrange data in an order.

SYNTAX: SORT [drive:][Path][filename][/r][+n] Switches: [drive:][Path][filename] : Specifies the name and location of the file to be searches. It must be preceded by the redirection character (<). [/r] : Sort lines in reverse ASCII Order ( Z-A) [+n] : Sorts line starting with the contents in column n. The default is 1.

EXAMPLE: C:\> SORT < NAME .TXT and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> SORT /+20 < PHONE .TXT and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> DIR / SORT > PHONE .TXT and then press <Enter> Note: Sort command doesnt distinguish between upper and lower case. It can sort file of maximum 63 k size. Combining Input & Output redirection: EXAMPLE: C:\> SORT < NAME .DAT > SORTNAME.DAT and then press <Enter> Here the sort command is being directed to take its input from <name.dat and after sorting, send its output to the > sortname.dat file.

C. FIND: The find Filter is used to search a file one or more designated character (called a text string) Depending upon the form of the FIND Command. Each line having (or not

having) the text string is sent to an output devices. Such as the Screen, a file or the printer. The text string is always typed within quotes (Text Sring). SYNTAX: FIND [/v][/c][/n] String [d:] [path][filename] Switches: [/v] : Displays all the lines that do not contain string. [/c] : Display the total number of lines found to contain the string. [/n] : Display the line number as well as the line that contains the string. [/i] : Ignores uppercase or lowercase during the search. Where: String: Specifies one or more alphabet or numeric character whose maximum length should not be more than 250 characters and must be enclosed in double quotes. [d:] [path][filename] : Specifies the name and location of the file to be searches . EXAMPLE: C:\> FIND Rajni my.txt per.txt and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> DIR/ FIND TXT and then press <Enter>

7. ATTRIB: Every File on the Disk has its own description like size, space occupied, the type, the date it was created, etc. Likewise, every file has few attributes. The attributes of a file indicates whether it is a i) ii) iii) iv) Read-Only File: r Archive File Hidden File System File :a :h :s

With the ATTRIB command you can check the attributes of a file. SYNTAX: ATTRIB [+r][+a][+h][/+s] [filename] Switches: +r, -r: +r Read-Only attribute or, -r turn of Read-Only attribute. +a,-a: +a archive attribute, or -a turn of archive attribute. +h,-h: +h hidden attribute, or h turn of hidden attribute. +s, -s: +s system attribute and it should not be used generally. Note: While Creating a new file every file gets read only attribute and archive attribute by default.

EXAMPLE: C:\> ATTRIB my.txt +R and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> ATTRIB my.txt +H and then press <Enter>

Output:

8.

DELTREE: This command used for deleting an entire directory whether in that

directory contains files or subdirectories and also it will delete hidden files. Syntax: DELTREE [drive:][path] directories [/y] EXAMPLE: C:\> DELTREE my.txt and then press <Enter>.

9.

EDIT: This is the DOS Editor, which you can use to edit the text file and also

creating new file. Syntax: Edit [drive:][path][filename] EXAMPLE: C:\> EDIT c:\sams\FO.TXT and then press <Enter> EXAMPLE: C:\> Edit NEW FILE and then press <Enter>

Output:

10. BATCH FILES: It is a collection of DOS commands to perform a certain task. or A batch file is nothing but sequence of commands to perform sequence of operations step by step. Look at the following commands you give step by step to perform an operation. Suppose your job is First - Check the directory Second - Copy a file called ABC.txt to another disk Third - Delete ABC.TXT from the present disk Fourth - Clear the screen If you do all this steps daily after your hour, then the commands you give would be: i) ii) iii) iv) C:\> DIR <Enter> C:\> COPY C:ABC.TXT D: <Enter> C:\> DEL ABC.TXT <Enter> C:\> CLS <Enter>

Instead of heating yup your head daily giving the same set of commands you can do it in a much simpler manner. All you do is put all the commands in a batch file. How to create a batch file: C:\> COPY CON A.bat <Enter> Note: Here Con means Console that is Keyboard, A the file name and .bat is extension. It is compulsory that a batch file must have extension .BAT. You will find the cursor below A now type C:\> DIR <Enter> C:\> COPY A.TXT D : <Enter> C:\> DEL A.TXT <Enter> C:\> CLS <Enter>

Now Press the F6 or Ctrl+Z key combination. You shall find ^Z symbol below CLS, Now press Enter. You will receive the following message 1files Copied. And you are returned to the prompt C:\> Now to execute the Batch File simply type the name of the file. C:\> A <Enter> You will see all the commands in the A.Bat come right into action. So instead of typing all those command one after another performed the same job by just typing the file name.

11.

Defrag: The defrag command is used to arrange the files in contiguous sectors. Files

become fragmented over a period of time. Hence, the defrag command should be periodically used to increase the performance of the system. Syntax: defrag drive:/switches. Output:

SPREADSHEETS

Spreadsheets

INTRODUCTION Meaning of Microsoft Excel Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program that can be used for storing, organizing and manipulating data. Excel is mainly used for making calculations and mathematical works. Microsoft excel is a spread sheet application in which no of sheets we can add as per our requirements. In a single sheet, it consists of rows and columns and cells. Every cell has different address. In excel sum, product, subtraction, division and many mathematical, logical functions are available with this application. Other features tables, charts, clip art etc. you can find with Excel. It basically used for payroll, accounts, mathematical and for other business purposes.

Features of Excel Hyperlink - We can link one file to another file or page with the use of Excel. Clip art - In this we can add images and also audio, video clips can be added here. Charts - With charts, we can clearly shown products evaluation to the clients. For example which product sale is more or less in this month. Tables - Tables are created with different fields eg -name, age, address, roll no so we add a table to fill these values. FunctionsMATHEMATICAL: Add, subtract, div, multiply. LOGICAL: Average, sum, mod, product. Images & Backgrounds In this we add images and backgrounds in sheet. Macros Macros are used for recording events for further use. Database We can add database from other sources with data feature. Sorting & filter In sorting we can sort our data and also filter our data so that repetitions will be removed. Data Validation In data tools there are data validations consolidate etc are used. Grouping - In this we can use group, ungroup subtotal etc. Page Layout - In this themes, colors, sheets, margins, size, backgrounds, breaks, print, titles, sheets height, width, scaling, gridness, headings, views, bring to front of font or back alignment etc will be used.

Some examples of spreadsheet usage: Spreadsheets act like a calculator by automatically doing calculations. Spreadsheets are used for tracking personal investments, budgeting, invoices, inventory tracking, statistical analysis, numerical modeling, address books, telephone books, printing labels, etc. Spreadsheets are used in almost every profession to calculate, graph, analyze and store information. Spreadsheets are used for What-if calculations. Change one number in a spreadsheet and all the calculations in a large spreadsheet will re-calculate, will automatically change. Objectives of Microsoft Excel Microsoft Excel isn't much to look at when you first open it. A new spreadsheet looks like a big empty grid with some controls at the top. Yet millions of people find this powerful program to be very useful for a number of tasks. It's hard to know what to use Excel for if you are unfamiliar with it, but the program can help you complete several objectives when you know how to use it correctly.

Record Data - Microsoft designed Excel spreadsheets to be ideal for recording almost any type of data imaginable. Budgets, agendas, inventories, lists and calendars are a few common examples. Each "workbook" contains multiple sheets, helping you organize your information as your store it.

Calculate & Analyze Data - Once you have recorded data, Excel has dozens of powerful functions that make sense of it. It does simple tasks, such as completing the sum or average value of a list, as well as complicated calculations useful in statistical analysis and engineering. Some functions even help you check your work to ensure that you did not enter values that do not make sense.

Share Data - A spreadsheet that makes sense to you is a list of meaningless numbers to someone else. Excel helps you share your data with others in visually compelling ways with charts. Bar charts, pie charts and line charts are some of the basics. You can create a chart

and put it anywhere on the spreadsheet so it is most useful or copy and paste it into another program. Excel has display options so that small charts appear in cells right alongside your data. Aside from charts, Excel also has a number of page layout options, such as the ability to highlight cells and change fonts and sizes for optimal presentation quality.

Be Productive & Efficient - With all of Excel's features, the overarching objective of the program is to help you be productive and efficient in your home or office. As the product improves with new versions, it adds abilities that contribute to this objective. Excel helps you recover lost files quickly, manage your work more efficiently with its "backstage" layout, work on a spreadsheet together with someone else on your network and access spreadsheets from the Internet with the Excel Web App and Excel Mobile.

Purpose OF MS Excel & Its Functions Excel is an electronic spreadsheet program that can be used for storing, organizing and manipulating numbers and data. It's an amazingly flexible program to find answers to logic based questions. It is a program that can compile lots of data into graphs and tables. Step of Opening Ms-Excel Start All Programs - Microsoft Office Microsoft Office Excel Or Start Run Type Excel and press OK The first page of Microsoft Excel 2007

The Formula Bar If the Formula bar is turned on, the cell address of the cell you are in displays in the Name box which is located on the left side of the Formula bar. Cell entries display on the right side of the Formula bar.

The Status Bar The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the Excel window and provides such information as the sum, average, minimum, and maximum value of selected numbers. You can change what displays on the Status bar by right-clicking on the Status bar and selecting the options you want from the Customize Status Bar menu. You click a menu item to select it.

Categories of function 1) Mathematical and trigonometric functions 2) Statistical functions 3) Date and time functions 4) Logical functions 5) Text functions o Mathematical Functions o SUM - Adds up all the values in a range. o Output:

ROUND - Round a number to a specified number of digits

SQRT square root of the number.

ABS Return the absolute value of the number.

TRUNC truncate a number to an integer by removing fractional part of a number.

SUMIF - Adds all the values in a range that meet specific criteria. SUMIFS (2007 and 2010 only) - Adds values in a range based on multiple criteria. SUMPRODUCT - Sum a range of cells that meet multiple criteria ROUNDUP - Round a number up to a specified number of digits ROUNDDOWN - Round a number down to a specified number of digits CEILING - Round a number up to a multiple of significance FLOOR - Round a number down to a multiple of significance

o Statistical Functions COUNT - Counts all the values in a range. Output:

AVERAGE - Calculates the average number from a range of values.

MAX - Finds the maximum value in a range.

MIN - Finds the minimum value in a range.

COUNTA - Counts all non-empty cells in a range. COUNTBLANK - Counts all blank cells in a range. COUNTIF - Counts all the cells in a range that meet specific criteria. LARGE - Return a value dependent upon its ranking in a range of values in descending order. SMALL - Return a value dependent upon its ranking in a range of values in ascending order.

RANK - Returns the rank or position of a number within a range of numbers. o Text Functions LEN - Returns the length, in number of characters, of the contents of a cell. Output:

REPT - Repeats a character a specified number of times.

TRIM - Remove unwanted spaces from cells.

LEFT - Extracts a specific number of characters from the start of a cell.

RIGHT - Extracts a specific number of characters from the end of a cell.

MID - Extracts a specific number of characters from the middle of a cell.

UPPER - Converts the contents of a cell to uppercase.

LOWER - Converts the contents of a cell to lowercase.

PROPER - Converts the contents of a cell to proper case.

REPLACE - Replace existing characters in a cell with a different set of characters.

SUBSTITUTE - Replace existing characters with a different set of characters. o Financial Functions PMT - Calculates loan repayments based on constant payments and a constant interest rate. RATE - Returns the interest rate per period of a loan or investment. PV - Returns the present value of an investment based on a constant interest rate and payments. FV - Returns the future value of an investment based on constant payments and a constant interest rate. IPMT - Calculates the interest paid during a period of a loan or investment.

PPMT - Calculates the principal payment made in a period of an investment. IRR - Returns the internal rate of return on a series of regular investments. XIRR - Returns the internal rate of return on a series of irregular payments on an investment. NPV - Returns the net present value of an investment based on a series of cash flows and a discount rate. XNPV - Returns the net present value of an investment based on a series of cash flows, the dates of the cash flows and a discount rate. o Logical Functions IF - Tests a condition and takes an alternative action depending on the result. AND - Test up to 30 conditions using logical AND.

OR - Test up to 30 conditions using logical OR.

NOT Reverse the value of its argument.

o Date & Time Functions TODAY - Returns the current date

. NOW - Returns the current date and time.

DATE It will display the date in correct format i.e. excel date.

Time it will display the time in correct format i.e. time code.

External function EUROCONVERT - Converts a number to euros, converts a number from euros to a euro member currency, or converts a number from one euro member currency to another by using the euro as an intermediary (triangulation).

SQL.REQUEST - Connects with an external data source and runs a query from a worksheet, then returns the result as an array without the need for macro programming.

Different Types of Charts in MS Excel o Column and Bar Charts - Both column and bar charts are commonly used to show comparisons among items. Column charts are also convenient for illustrating data changes over time. Column and bar charts are visually similar, with column chart data measured along the y axis, while bar chart data is measured along the x axis. o Cylinder, Cone and Pyramid Charts - Cylinder, cone and pyramid charts display data in the same way as column charts. Instead of rectangular shaped indicators, 3-D cylinders, cones or pyramids represent the data. o Pie Charts - Pie charts visually display the size of items (in the form of slices of pie) that make up a data series (represented by the whole pie). For example, if you wish to show the types and number of acres of crops grown in a specific area, the whole pie would represent the total crop acres, and each slice would represent a crop (such as blueberries, soybeans, oranges, horseradish). The size of each slice of pie corresponds to the item's percentage of the whole data series. o Surface Chart - Surface charts are commonly used to find desired combinations between two sets of data. To use a surface chart, both data series and categories must be

numerical values. Data is represented as a surface, with each data type a different color. Surfaces can be smooth, 3-D, contour or wireframe.

o More Chart Type - Other available chart types include line charts, which are used to plot continuous data at evenly spaced intervals of time. Radar charts are used to compare overall values of a number of data series. Doughnut and exploded doughnut charts show the relationship of data items to a data series and can be used for more than one data series. See "Chart Help" reference below for a complete list and descriptions of chart types. o Choosing Chart Type - If you are unsure about what type of chart to use, Microsoft's website has more detailed information on each chart type. Also available are a training presentation and an online quiz to assist you in choosing a chart that will best fit your needs.

Define Row & Column in Excel In Excel, as well as most other spreadsheet applications, a row is a grouping of cells that run from the left to right of a page and a column is a grouping of cells that run from the top to the bottom of a page. Rows run horizontally in an Excel worksheet. They are identified by a number in the row header. There are 65,536 rows in each Excel worksheet. The intersection point between a row and a column is a cell, which is the basic storage unit for data in a spreadsheet.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Microsoft Excel Database Application

Advantages

If you have the Microsoft Office in your PC, you don't need anything else to be installed in your computer. You are good to go and can start with your programming straight away.

If you are a beginner, you can easily learn the Excel VBA Programming because you are half familiar with the programming platform that you are going to use, which is Excel.

You can start with small Excel database application and as the need grows especially on records that are getting huge, you can still use the same Excel application and upgrade your database platform from Excel to other high-end databases like Access, SQL Server, Oracle, My SQL, etc.

Excel is capable of connecting directly to OLAP databases and can be integrated in Pivot Tables.

You don't need to create your own financial modules. Excel is rich in financial functions like Fixed Assets Depreciation, Amortization, etc.

Excel is portable. You can send it to someone through email. Disadvantages

When you develop your application into one file it can be huge and will make your program execution very slow. But as I told you, there are workarounds. Design your program to have compact codes to lessen the bloating of the file. Another way is to separate each application function into more than one files. For example, if you are going to design a purchasing program, you can separate each of them; the purchase requisition function, itemand-price comparison matrix function, vendor master list maintenance, item master list maintenance, purchase order function, etc. Each will have small file, therefore execution is faster.

When you separate functions to multiple files, Excel files are prone to get lost in your hard drive especially when you break your application to too many files. You should practice a good folders/sub-directories management.

Excel worksheet as a database has a limited number of rows or records that you can store. But when you reach the 65k lines limit, you can convert it easily to Access and the rest of the application is can still be used.

If you can send Excel via email, you can accidentally send your file to someone who should not have it or not authorized to have it. Solution? You can password protect your Excel file. You can do it in two ways. First, Excel is capable of password protection in many ways. Second, you can create your own password protection by Macro/VBA programming.

HTML

HTML
Introduction Meaning of HTML Hypertext markup language (HTML) is a markup language that web browsers use to interpret and compose text, images and other material into visual or audible web pages. It is developed by World Wide Web consortium (W3C). It is not a programming Language. HTML is the set of markup tags. Extension of HTML files is .htm or .html.

HTML Tags HTML markup tags are usually called HTML tags

HTML tags are keywords surrounded by angle brackets like <html> HTML tags normally come in pairs like <b> and </b> The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag Start and end tags are also called opening tags and closing tags

HTML Element Syntax

An HTML element starts with a start tag / opening tag An HTML element ends with an end tag / closing tag The element content is everything between the start and the end tag Some HTML elements have empty content Empty elements are closed in the start tag Most HTML elements can have attributes

HTML Attributes

HTML elements can have attributes Attributes provide additional information about an element Attributes are always specified in the start tag Attributes come in name/value pairs like: name="value"

Getting started with Examples. HTML Headings Headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags. <h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important heading.

Save this file in [filename].html.

HTML Lines The <hr /> tag creates a horizontal line in an HTML page.

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HTML Text Formatting <b> tag is used for bold the text. <i> tag is used for italic the text. <u>tag is used for underline the text.

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HTML Fonts

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HTML Style

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HTML Links <a href> is used for HTML link.

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HTML Images

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HTML Tables A table is divided into rows (with the <tr> tag), and each row is divided into data cells (with the <td> tag). td stands for "table data," and holds the content of a data cell. A <td> tag can contain text, links, images, lists, forms, other tables, etc.

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SQL

RDBMS Relational database was proposed by Edgar Codd (of IBM Research) around 1969. It has since become the dominant database model for commercial applications (in comparison with other database models such as hierarchical, network and object models). Today, there are many commercial Relational Database Management System (RDBMS), such as Oracle, IBM DB2 and Microsoft SQL Server. There are also many free and open-source RDBMS, such as MySQL, mSQL (mini-SQL) and the embedded JavaDB (Apache Derby). A relational database organizes data in tables (or relations). A table is made up of rows and columns. A row is also called a record (or tuple). A column is also called

a field (or attribute). A database table is similar to a spreadsheet. However, the relationships that can be created among the tables enable a relational database to efficiently store huge amount of data, and effectively retrieve selected data. A language called SQL (Structured Query Language) was developed to work with relational databases. Structured Query Language Introduction Many database applications, such as Access LCTA, offer analyses and utilities to summarize data. In order to summarize data beyond these programs and maintain the database, Structured Query Language (SQL) is required. Although many databases allow for generating queries through the use of a point-and-click tool, this is often time consuming. Once the basic SQL statements are understood, summarizing and maintaining the data will become easier and faster.

Characteristics of SQL a) SQL is oriented specifically around relational databases. b) SQL commands can operate on several groups of tables as single objects. Also it processes any quantity of information , retrieved from these tables, as a single unit.

c) SQL allows use of temporary tables. Temporary tables are used for storing intermediate results. They are useful only for the duration the program is in execution, and gets deleted when the program terminates. d) SQL is well suited to a client server environment, where the DBMS resides on a server and services the clients requests. Features such as connection management, locking schemes and error diagnostics enable clients to communicate with a variety of DBMS packages. e) SQL provides a flexible transaction management. A transaction is a group of SQL statements that succeed or fail as a group. That is, if any one of the SQL statements fails, the whole transaction is aborted. f) SQL allows users to create domains as objects in a schema. The users can then declare table columns to be of domains rather than that of data types. g) SQL allows one to specify constraints. Constraints are rules for restricting the values that can be placed in a table column. h) Privileges can be granted or denied using SQL commands. Privileges are the rights to perform actions on data base objects.

Advantages of SQL SQL has several simple to use commands for data processing activities. You can use SQL commands for the following purposes: a) Creating (defining), deleting, and modifying table structure. b) Defining the relationships between two or more tables. c) Inserting data into tables. d) Extracting data in meaningful ways, based on the tables defined relationships. e) Updating data. This includes maintaining data in a data base, and manipulating the stored values to keep the information current.

f) Controlling a database. This includes system security and authorization which must be controlled and maintained.

SQL DATA TYPES AND LITERALS Every field or column in a table is given a data type when a table is defined. These data types describe the kind of information which can be stored in a column. Since relational-database systems are based on the relationships between pieces of information, various types of data must be clearly distinguished from one another, so that the appropriate processes and comparisons can be applied. In SQL, this is done by assigning each field a data type that indicates the kind of values the field will contain. All the values in a given field must be of the same type. Some of the common data types that we shall be using in this chapter are: a) CHAR b) VARCHAR2 c) NUMBER d) DATE e) LONG CHAR(size) A column defined with a CHAR data type is allowed to store all types of characters which include letters both uppercase and lowercase letters such as A, B,.....,Z and a, b,....,z , special characters like @ # & $, etc. and numerals that are perceived by the systems as letters. However, you cannot perform any mathematical operations on these numbers. This means that such numbers are accepted and manipulated as characters only. VARCHAR2(size) It is similar to CHAR but can store variable sized string having maximum length determined by size. Maximum value the size can have is 2000 characters.

NUMBER(p, s) It is used to store variable length numeric data. The value of p determines the total number of digits possible to the left of decimal point. The second syllable s, determines the total number of digits possible to the right of decimal point. DATE This type of data is used to store date and time information. Default format is DD-MM-YY. Using DATE data type instead of CHAR is advantageous. When you enter date in a date field, SQL confirms the entered date before writing it in the database. For example, if you enter a date such as the 13th month or 31st day in April, then SQL will not allow such a specification in the DATE field. Also the DATE type data can be compared, added and subtracted just like the integer data. SQL also supports several functions that can be used to find the day of the week, month, etc. from the DATE type of data.

LONG LONG data type stores variable length character strings containing up to 2 gigabytes size. But use of LONG data type has got the following limitations: a) A table cannot have more than one LONG type or data field. b) It cannot be indexed. c) It cannot be used with SQL functions. d) It cannot appear in WHERE, GROUP BY, ORDER BY clauses.

TYPES OF SQL COMMANDS SQL commands can be classified into the following three types: a) Data definition language commands b) Data manipulation language commands c) Data control language commands

1. Data Definition Language Data Definition Language (or DDL) is a part of SQL which consists of those commands that create the objects (tables, indexes, view, etc.) in the database. Create, Drop and Alter are a few commands of DDL language. 2. Data Manipulation Language Data Manipulation Language (DML) is that part of SQL which consists of a set of commands that determine which values are present in the tables at any given time. Data Manipulation language is divided into three categories: a) retrieving data b) manipulating data and c) Updating data.

Retrieving Data Retrieving data means getting information out of a table. A selection of data items stored in a table is presented on the screen. The command for retrieving data items is SELECT. Manipulating Data Manipulating data refers to the DML features that allow us to perform statistical functions on data, namely averaging and summing columns and other arithmetic functions like multiplying values in two or more columns of a table.

Updating Data Updating data refers to inserting and deleting rows in tables and changing values in the columns. In other words it performs the maintenance of a database. Integrity Constraints While creating a table, you can place certain limitations on the values stored in the table. Different constraints applicable to SQL are: a) NOT NULL b) UNIQUE c) PRIMARY KEY d) CHECK e) DEFAULT f) REFERENCES NOT NULL NOT NULL constraint prevents a column from accepting null values. If you try to insert a null value in such a column, it will be rejected. Note the NULL value does not mean a zero value. It just means absence of any data, in that column. UNIQUE UNIQUE constraint ensures that values entered into a column are all different, i.e. unique. A column with this constraint will not accept any duplicate values. PRIMARY KEY In order to declare a column as primary key of the table, use the PRIMARY KEY constraint. There can be only one primary key in a table. CHECK CHECK constraint is used to control the values entered into a field. A condition is specified along with the CHECK constraint which must be satisfied by all the values being entered into the column. Otherwise the value will be rejected.

Create a Database Syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database name> <additional parameters> Example: CREATE DATABASE gibs

Create A Table And Display The Table CREATE TABLE COMMAND Tables are defined with the Create Table command. Create Table commands basically defines a table name describing a set of named columns in a specified order. It also defines the data types and sizes of the columns. Each table must have at least one column.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <table name>

( <table element>, <table element>,); Syntax: Desc table studentt Example :Create table studentt(rollno number(10),name varchar(10),age number(3));

Insert values into Table Syntax: Insert into <table_name> values (<value>, <value> , .); Example: Insert into studentt(rollno,name,age)values(100,niharika,22);

Retrieving Data from Table Syntax: Select * from <table name> Retrieve some specific data. Select <table element > from <table name> where <condition> Example Select rollno,name from studentt;

Syntax: Select * from <table name> where <condition> Example Finding the name of the student whose name starts with v Select * from studentt where name like n%

Syntax: Select * from <table name> where <condition> Example Finding the name of the student whose 3dr letter in name is n Select * from studentt where name like __h%;

Alter Table Syntax: Alter table <table name> Add <table element> Example: Alter table studentt Add address varchar (10);

Drop table Syntax: Drop table <table name> Example: Drop table student_detail;

JOIN CONDITION A join is used when a sql query requires data from more than one table on database. rows in one table may be joined to rows in another according to common values exiting in corresponding columns. There are two main types of join conditions: equi-join and non-equijoin.

Creating a table using Integrity Constraints

Syntax: CREATE TABLE <table name>(<table element>, Constraints , <table element> Constraints);

Example: create table student_detail(rollno varchar(3)primary key,name varchar(10)not null,age number(2)check(age>18));

create

table

student_class(rollno

varchar(3)references

student_detail(rollno),class

varchar(10)not null);