Seminar Report, 2010

INTRODUCTION
Two major jet streams, the Sub-Tropical Jet and the olar !ront Jet e"ist in both #arth

hemispheres$ These enormous ener%& streams are 'ormed b& the combination o' tropical re%ion sunli%ht 'allin% and #arth rotation$ This wind resource is in(ariabl& a(ailable where(er the sun shines and the #arth rotates$ These jet stream winds o''er an ener%& bene'it between one and two orders o' ma%nitude %reater than e)ualrotorarea, %round mounted wind turbines operatin% in the lowest re%ions o' the #arth*s boundar& la&er$ In the US+, Caldeira and O*Dohert& and Roberts ha(e shown that a(era%e power densities o' around ,- ./0m1 are a(ailable$ In +ustralia, +t.inson et al show that ,2 ./0m1 is achie(able$These winds are a(ailable in northern India, China, Japan,+'rica, the 3editerranean, and elsewhere$ 4arious s&stems ha(e been e"amined to capture this ener%&, and these include tethered balloons, tethered 'i"ed-win%ed cra't, tether climbin% and descendin% .ites, and rotorcra't$ Our pre'erred option is a tethered rotorcra't, a (ariant o' the %&roplane, where con(entional rotors %enerate power and simultaneousl& produce su''icient li't to .eep the s&stem alo't$ This arran%ement, usin% a twin-rotor con'i%uration, has been described and 'lown at low altitude b& Roberts and 5lac.ler 6!i%$ ,7$ 3ore recent de(elopments ha(e produced a )uadruple rotor arran%ement 6!i%$ 17$ Commerciali8ation o' the )uad-rotor technolo%& could si%ni'icantl& contribute to %reenhouse %as reductions$ Tethered rotorcra't, with 'our or more rotors in each unit, could harness the power'ul, persistent jet streams, and should be able to compete e''ecti(el& with all other ener%& production methods$ 9enerators at altitude also a(oid communit& concern associated with %round-based wind turbine appearance and noise$ 5ird stri.e problems are also less$ :owe(er, tethered %enerators would need to be placed in dedicated airspace, which would restrict other aircra't$ +rra&s o' tethered %enerators would not be 'lown near population centers unless and until operatin% e"perience assured the sa'et& o' such a con'i%uration$

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

!i%$ ,$ hoto%raph o' earl& two-rotor protot&pe in 'li%ht$

+t this time, the best tether 'or the rotorcra't appears to be a sin%le, composite electromechanical cable made o' insulated aluminium conductors and hi%h stren%th 'iber$ /hen operatin% as a power source, two, 'our, or more rotors are inclined at an adjustable an%le to the on-comin% wind, %enerall& a ;< de%ree an%le$ The wind on the inclined rotors %enerates li't, %&roplane-st&le, and 'orces rotation, which %enerates electricit&, windmill-st&le$ #lectricit& is conducted down the tether to a %round station$ The cra't simultaneousl& %enerates li't and electricit&$ :owe(er, it can also 'unction as an elementar& powered helicopter with %round-supplied electrical ener%&, and with the %enerators then 'unctionin% as motors$ The cra't can thus ascend or descend 'rom altitude as an elementar&, tethered helicopter$ Durin% an& lull periods alo't, power ma& be supplied to maintain altitude, or to land on a small %roundbase$ + %round winch to reel the tether could be used to retrie(e the cra't in an emer%enc&$

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

!i%$ 1$ Renderin% o' S.& /ind ower Corp$*s planned 1;< ./, 'our-rotor demonstration cra't$

T:# 5#ST S OTS TO =+C# !#9s

5ased on the #R+-,> reanal&sis o' the #uropean Centre 'or 3edium-Ran%e /eather !orecasts, we calculated the seasonal-mean, climate-8one wind power densit& 'rom December ,2-? to !ebruar& ,22; $Computed power densities in hi%h altitude winds e"ceed a ,< ./0m1 seasonal a(era%e at the jet stream*s t&pical latitudes and altitudes$ This is the hi%hest power densit& 'or a lar%e renewable ener%& resource an&where on #arth$ It e"ceeds the power densities o' sunli%ht, near sur'ace winds, ocean currents, h&dropower, tides, %eothermal, and other lar%e-scale renewable resources$ !or comparison, #arth sur'ace solar ener%& is t&picall& about <$1; ./0m1 , and photo(oltaic cell con(ersion o' ener%& into electricit& has an e''icienc& se(eral times less than that o' wind power$ :i%h power densities would be uninterestin% i' onl& a small amount o' total power were a(ailable$ :owe(er, wind power is rou%hl& ,<< times the power used b& all human ci(ili8ation$ Total power dissipated in winds is about ,> times ,< /$ Total

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 :uman thermal power consumption is about ,@ times ,< /$ Remo(in% ,A o' hi%h altitude winds* a(ailable ener%& is not e"pected to ha(e ad(erse en(ironmental conse)uences$ :i%h altitude winds are a (er& attracti(e potential source o' power, because this (ast ener%& is hi%h densit& and persistent$ !urthermore, hi%h altitude winds are t&picall& just a 'ew .ilometres awa& 'rom ener%& users$ No other ener%& source combines potential resource si8e, densit&, and pro"imit& so attracti(el&$ The wind speed data 'rom across the %lobe is recorded at hei%hts 'rom 1B@ 'eet to almost ;<,<<< 'eet o(er the last @< &ears, and calculated which re%ions would %enerate the most power$ +ccordin% to the stud&, To.&o, Seoul, S&dne& and New Cor. Cit& all sit on a %oldmine o' stratospheric wind power$ Durin% the summer months, Delhi and 3umbai could also bene'it 'rom s.& hi%h turbines$ 5ut un'ortunatel& 'or India, the %usts die down in the 'all and sprin%, reducin% the ener%& densit& in the atmosphere$

D#SCRI TION O! T:# SCST#3

R#!#RR#D #N#R9C CON4#RSION

The currentl& proposed new tethered cra't consists o' 'our identical rotors mounted in an air'rame which 'lies in the power'ul and persistent winds$ The tether*s insulated aluminum conductors brin% power to %round, and are wound with stron% De(lar-'amil& cords$ The conductor wei%ht is a critical compromise between power loss and heat %eneration$ /e propose emplo&in% aluminum conductors with tether transmission (olta%es o' ,> .4 and hi%her, because the& are li%ht wei%ht 'or the ener%& transmitted$ To minimi8e total per ./h s&stem cost and reduce tether costs, the desi%n allows hi%her per meter losses and hi%her conductor heatin% than does traditional utilit& power transmission$ Dependin% on 'li%ht altitude, electrical losses between the tether and the con(erted power*s insertion into the commercial %rid are e"pected to be as much as 1<A, and are included in ener%& cost estimates described in Section IE$ The 'l&in% electric %enerator units 6!#9s7 en(isioned 'or commercial power production ha(e a rated capacit& in the @ to @< 3/ ran%e$ 9enerators arra&s are contemplated 'or wind 'arms in airspace restricted 'rom commercial and pri(ate

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 aircra't use$ To suppl& all U$S$ ener%& needs, airspace 'or power %eneration is calculated to restrict 'ar less airspace than is alread& restricted 'rom ci(il a(iation 'or other purposes$ /hile similar in concept to current wind 'arms, in most cases 'l&in% %enerator arra&s ma& be located much closer to demand load centers$ /hen operatin% as an electrical power source, 'our or more rotors are inclined at an adjustable, controllable an%le to the on-comin% wind$ In %eneral the rotors ha(e their open 'aces at an an%le o' up to >< de%ree to this wind$ This dis. incidence is reduced in (arious wind conditions to hold the power output at the rated (alue without e"ceedin% the desi%n tether load$Rotorcra't can also 'unction as an elementar& powered helicopter as described in section II$ The capacit&, or %eneratin% 'actor calculations account 'or wind lulls or storms durin% which the %enerators must be landed$ :owe(er, the projected capacit& 'or 'l&in% electric %enerators is 'ar hi%her than 'or the best %round-based wind turbine sites because o' the persistent winds at hi%h altitudes$ :i%h altitude wind speeds and other conditions are measured at ,1 +$3$ and $3$ at major airports worldwide b& radiosonde weather balloons, and are reported on NO++ and other %o(ernment websites$ It is thus possible to calculate what the past capacit& o' 'l&in% %enerators at those locations would ha(e been$ The U$S$ a(era%e capacit& 'actor would ha(e been about ?<A 'or cra't 'l&in% at ,<,<<< meters$ +t Detroit*s latitude, the capacit& 'actor was calculated at 2<A, at San Die%o*s, -,A$ This compares to capacit& 'actors o' about @> percent 'or %round-based wind turbines operatin% at the best sites$ !i%$ 1 abo(e and !i%$ @ below show the 'our-rotor assembl& with 'our identical rotors arran%ed, two 'orward, and two a't$ The plan-'orm o' the rotor centerlines is appro"imatel& s)uare$ +djacent rotors rotate in opposite directionsF dia%onall& opposite rotors rotate in the same direction$ In this particular 'our rotor assembl&, cra't attitude in pitch, roll, and &aw can be controlled b& collecti(e rotor pitch chan%e$ No c&clic pitch control is needed to modi'& the blades* pitch as the& rotate, as is needed in helicopter technolo%&$ This should help reduce maintenance costs$ Rotor collecti(e pitch (ariation then (aries the thrust de(eloped b& each rotor in the 'ormat described below usin% 9 S09&ro supplied error si%nal data$ 6,7 Total cra't thrust 6and total power output7 is controlled b& simultaneousl& e)ual, collecti(e pitch action on all rotors$

SSET, Karukutty

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Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 617 Roll control is b& di''erential, but e)ual, collecti(e pitch action between the port and starboard pair o' rotors$ 6@7 itch control is b& di''erential, but e)ual, collecti(e pitch action between the 'ore and a't pair o' rotors$ 6;7 Caw control, (ia di''erential tor)ue reaction, is b& di''erential, but e)ual, collecti(e pitch chan%es on pairs o' opposin% rotors$ 9round-based wind turbines e"perience sur'ace 'eature turbulence not present at hi%h altitude$ In addition, turbulence reaction is di''erent 'or a !#9$ 9round-based turbines are, more or less, ri%idl& mounted on support towers$ #(en when 'le"ible units and procedures are used, direct and %ust-induced moment loads are si%ni'icant 'or these %round-based 'acilities$ Considerable #uropean and US research and de(elopment has been directed towards relie(in% load e"cursions 'rom nearsur'ace wind %usts$ !l&in% electric %enerators ha(e a %reat, inherent ad(anta%e o(er e)ui(alent %roundbased 'acilities in their abilit& to reduce %ust loads$ This is due to tether cable 'le"ibilit&, both as built-in elasticit& and as chan%eable shape 6drape7 under %ust conditions$ This 'le"ibilit& (er& si%ni'icantl& alle(iates %ust loads and tor)ues applied to the rotors, %earbo"es, etc$ This means that %ust loads in 'l&in% units are reduced b& more than an order o' ma%nitude compared to %round-based turbine %ust loads$ S.& /ind ower Corp$ has de(eloped pro%rams that demonstrate this %ust alle(iation process$ Section 4 details the 'li%ht per'ormance o' these 'l&in% %enerators$

#=#CTRODCN+3IC T#T:#R
Tether is the connectin% media between the turbines up in the air to the %rid on the sur'ace$ #lectrod&namic tethers are lon% conductin% wires, such as the one deplo&ed 'rom the tether satellite, which can operate on electroma%netic principles as %enerators, b& con(ertin% their .inetic ener%& to electrical ener%&, or as motors, con(ertin% electrical ener%& to .inetic ener%&$ #lectric potential is %enerated across a conducti(e tether b& its motion throu%h the #arthGs ma%netic 'ield$ The choice o' the metal conductor to be used in an electrod&namic tether is determined b& a (ariet& o' 'actors$ rimar& 'actors usuall& include hi%h electrical conducti(it&, and low densit&$ Secondar& 'actors, dependin% on the application, include cost, stren%th, and meltin% point$

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 +n electrod&namic tether is attached to an object, the tether bein% oriented at an an%le to the local (ertical between the object and a planet with a ma%netic 'ield$ /hen the tether cuts the planetGs ma%netic 'ield, it %enerates a current, and thereb& con(erts some o' the orbitin% bod&Gs .inetic ener%& to electrical ener%&$ +s a result o' this process, an electrod&namic 'orce acts on the tether and attached object, slowin% their orbital motion$ The tetherGs 'ar end can be le't bare, ma.in% electrical contact with the ionosphere (ia the phantom loop$ !unctionall&, electrons 'low 'rom the space plasma into the conducti(e tether, are passed throu%h a resisti(e load in a control unit and are emitted into the space plasma b& an electron emitter as 'ree electrons$ In principle, compact hi%h-current tether power %enerators are possible and, with basic hardware, ,< to 1> .ilowatts appears to be attainable$

!=CIN9 9#N#R+TORS +#RODCN+3IC #R!OR3+NC#

The 'l&in% %enerator*s side (iew in !i%$ @ is 'or a t&pical 'li%ht con'i%uration in a wind o' (elocit& 4$ + sin%le tether o' len%th =c is attached to the cra't at a point + on the cra't*s plane o' s&mmetr&$ The aircra't*s center o' mass is at C$ The tether is assumed, herein 'or simplicit&, to be mass-less and non-e"tendible$ !or low altitude 'li%ht, around ,><< 't 6H ><< m7, the assumption o' a strai%ht, mass-less tether is reasonable$ :owe(er, 'or hi%her altitudes, the anal&sis has been e"tended to included tether mass and tether air-loads$ :i%her altitudes are achie(able usin% an aluminium-De(lar composite or an aluminium-Spectra composite 'or the electro-mechanical tetherin% cable$

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

!i%@I:i%h altitude jetstream windpower %eneration

This windmill, pictured abo(e, is in the protot&pe sta%e$ This project is called hi%h altitude jetstream windpower, and it*s wind ener%& that literall& captures the jetstream$ /h& do the& want to use the jetstreamJ 5ecause mid-le(el wind at a hi%h altitude in the jetstream produces winds o' ,1>-,B< mph, so it*s li.e capturin% the power o' a hurricane$

NO3#NC=+TUR#
Kc L Rotor*s control a"is an%le M L +n%le o' cable to the hori8ontal T, :, rotor Cp, NL ower coe''icient and tip speed ratio, component o' the wind normal to the rotor*s control a"is di(ided b& the speed o' the rotor bladeGs tip R, OL Tip radius and an%ular (elocit& o' rotors 4, P L 4elocit& and air densit& o' the 'ree stream 3, % L Cra't mass and acceleration due to %ra(it& E, C, Q L /ire 'i"ed, ortho%onal set o' a"es also 'orces in these directions$ +lternati(el& wind a"es are used$ L Thrust, :-'orce and power output o' a sin%le

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 ", &, 8 L Displacements in E, C, Q directions ,R,S, L +n%ular displacements about E, C, Q a"es Ro L Rotor*s collecti(e pitch an%le =c L Tether len%th 'rom %round to cra't a, L Rotor*s 'ore and a't 'lappin% an%le

!i%$ ;I!orces actin% on !#9 in 'li%ht Dia%ram o' the !#9 in 'li%ht, showin% the cra'tGs nose-up an%le, T, which is identical to the control a"is an%le, Tc, as no c&clic pitch use is planned$ The rotorGs 'ore and a't 'lappin% an%le, a,, is shown as the an%le between the normal to the tip-path plane and the control a"is$ The total rotor thrust component alon% the control a"is is T, and normal to this a"is is the component 'orce :$ I' T and : 'orces are combined (ectorall& the total rotor 'orce is almost normal to the tip-path plane$ !i%$ ; shows the power output coe''icient, Cp, 'or each rotor /here Cp L 0 6URs)rVWP4cube7 The power output is plotted a%ainst the control a"is an%le K c, 'or (alues o' constant tip speed ratio N $ 5& re'erence to !i%$ @ it can be seen that

SSET, Karukutty

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 K c L and NL 64cos K c70 R The dotted cur(e represents the ma"imum power output under conditions o' 8ero pro'ile dra% on the rotor blades$ :ence it 'ollows that when c L 2<X the (alue o' Cp will e)ual the 5et8 =imit o' <$>2@$ Usin% the methods o' 9essow and Crim the practical (alues o' Cp ha(e been calculated 'or a rotor solidit& o' <$<>$ !or a 'i"ed (alue o' N,the power coe''icients adopt an in(erted U-cur(e shape$ On each o' these cur(es, the power coe''icient can be 8ero$ These are the autorotation conditions where no power is bein% de(eloped or supplied to the rotors$ The 'a(ored autorotation condition, to be discussed below, is the le't-hand side 8ero crossin% o' each in(erted U-shaped cur(e$ In these conditions the cra't is sel'sustainin% in the pre(ailin% wind, 4, and rotor speed $ The autorotation conditions ph&sicall& relate to conditions when wind speed is insu''icient to support the cra't and its tether, and the s&stem is on the point o' collapse$ The le't-hand side cuttin% o' the in(erted U-shape cur(es in !i%$ ; with the ordinate a"is, implies that all the wind*s .inetic ener%& is bein% used to %enerate li't and that no power is bein% de(eloped$ The le't-hand cuttin% with the ordinate is pre'erred because in this condition it 'a(ors the tether cable more than does the companion ri%ht-hand crossin% o' the ordinate$ This implies that the cra't*s lesser nose-up attitude allows a more near (ertical application o' 'orce at the top o' the tether$ The )uestion now arises as to which o' the le't-hand crossin%s is most 'a(orable 'or our purposes$ It has been 'ound that the minimum wind speed to sta& alo't occurs when the cra't noseup attitude is around 1; de%ree with a correspondin% tip speed ratio o' <$,<$ These (alues will (ar& somewhat with di''erent rotor and tether parameters, but it is important to reali8e that autorotation at a minimal wind speed is 'undamental to the s&stem*s per'ormance$ + t&pical minimum wind speed 'or autorotation is around ,< m0s at an operatin% altitude o' ,>,<<< 'eet 6;B<< m7$

#=#CTRIC+= SCST#3 D#T+I=S

!l&in% electric %enerators need to ascend and remain alo't 'or short periods on %ridsourced ener%&$ In low-wind conditions, onl& a small proportion o' output ratin% as %rid sourced ener%& is re)uired to raise or maintain the cra't alo't$ 4olta%es at the terminals o'

SSET, Karukutty

,<

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 both the %enerator0motor and at the %rid inter'ace need to be .ept within desi%ned tolerances and0or be adjusted b& timel& (olta%e re%ulation$ In a national re%ulated electricit& mar.et, such as that 'ound in #urope and elsewhere, a S&stem Impact Stud& 6SIS7 is re)uired to connect a new %enerator to the %rid i' the %enerator*s capacit& is abo(e a minimum le(el, e$%$ > 3/$ #(en non-dispatchable Yembedded %eneratorsY re)uire 9rid S&stem Impact +ssessments$ The %enerator proponent usuall& pa&s 'or the %enerator-to-%rid networ. connection$ =and and sea locations 'or %eneration 'rom renewable ener%& sources, especiall& wind ener%&, are o'ten remote 'rom the e"istin% %rid, hence, connection costs are o'ten ><A o' the total in(estment 'or new %eneratin% capacit&$ +lso where a renewable ener%& source %enerator is not n-, reliable 'or a(ailabilit&, the Networ. Connection Contracts usuall& include the costs o' bac.-up suppl& contin%encies$ These relate to networ. char%es when the renewable %enerator is not suppl&in%$ !l&in% electric %enerators at altitude will ha(e a relati(el& hi%h a(ailabilit&, around ?<A$ Reliabilit& and pea. premium sales could be enhanced b& a lin. to a pumped stora%e 'acilit& 'or o''-pea. 'illin%0stora%e and pea.-release ener%& sales and deli(er&$ #ner%& could be stored as h&dro%en %as produced 'rom electrol&sis, or as water pumped-bac. and re-released 'or h&droelectric %eneration$ Con(entional %round-based wind ener%& s&stems har(est onl& about @<A a(ailabilit&$ !l&in% electric %enerators, in sin%le units o' 1< 3/ or more, can achie(e about ?<A a(ailabilit& with suitable sittin% at land or sea locations$ These %enerators at altitude in(ol(e power transmission o(er len%ths o' between ; and ? .m$ !l&in% %enerator0tether (olta%es between ,, .4 and 1> .4 ac could be used on units o' @< 3/ at the most e"treme altitudes$ +lso there are recent modern inno(ations, which use power'ormers0motor'ormers$ The latter, bein% de(eloped b& e)uipment suppliers such as +55, Siemens, 3itsubishi, etc$, would allow pol&meric cable stators and tether (olta%es at sa& @@ .4ac or more$ 9rid inter'acin% would then be easier at bul. ener%& le(els$ The jet-stream location can dri't north and south, so seasonal mobilit& 'rom one prepared site to another could be a 'eature o' 'l&in% %enerators* %rid utili8ation and optimi8ation$ This could be ad(anta%eous in seasonal summer0winter demand-side mana%ement throu%h pea.-matchin% %enerator placement or relocations$ This would include matchin% seasonal pea.s 'or rural industries, such as %rape processin%, cotton har(estin%, and irri%ation to urban air-conditionin% etc$ 5ecause arra&s o' 'l&in% %enerators could mo(e north or south to 'ollow seasonal shi'ts in wind patterns or power demand, it could be ad(anta%eous to ha(e Yplu%-inZ 'l&in%

SSET, Karukutty

,,

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 %enerators at pre-arran%ed sites alon% an e"istin% %rid @@ .4, or more, o(erhead 'eeder with minimal inter'acin%$ This would use, 'or e"ample, a :4 =i(e =ine :4 5&pass cable, sometimes called Temporar& cable, with a mobile or transportable :i%h 4olta%e 9enerator switch&ard circuit brea.er0meterin% unit$ I' the tether arran%ement were to contain three conductors, two could 'orm the sin%lephase circuit, while the third could be the %round wire and control cablin% 'unction$ Threephase balance is then achie(ed b& addin% other nearb& %enerator outputs to 'orm sin%le-phase combinations 'or %rid connection$ +lternati(el&, i' necessar&, a trans'ormer with O=TC could be used, similar to that used 'or monople" or >< .4ac duple" rail electric traction suppl&$ This would be similar to a rail traction suppl& trans'ormer o' >< 34+ and ,@1 .4 three phase to 1> .4 ac positi(e and 1> .4 ac ne%ati(e to centre tap earth$ /hen usin% a shipboard site, 'i"ed ocean site, or a site adjacent to a water-reser(oir which is remote 'rom the desired !#9 %round-sur'ace connection location, then the use o' :4DC on tethers, with sur'ace0submarine cablin%, should be considered in combination with a :4DC (olta%e motor'ormer0power'ormerT3 desi%n$ In addition, a unit*s DC motor0%enerator commutation b& con(entional brushes mi%ht be 'acilitated b& more modern electronic switchin% or b& tri%%ered 4acuum 9aps 6T497$ /here an +C inter'acin% trans'ormer, or a :4 +C 0DC Con(erter Station 6usuall& with an included trans'ormer7 is re)uired 'or %rid inter'acin% connecti(it&, the economics o' scale would encoura%e more multiple-unit connections$ + B< 3/ to ,>< 3/ %rid connection composed o' three 1< to >< 3/ airborne units with a power'ormerT3, or :4DC +C0DC connection, can per'orm as a s&nchronous condenser, thereb& addin% +C %rid stabilit& ad(anta%es in the SIS$ This will depend on %rid sitin%$ Startin% and retrie(al characteristics o' 'l&in% units at speci'ic %rid connections could be an important SIS re(iew item$ + hi%her 'ault le(el at the connection site is desirable 'or a lar%e motor start up$ 9enerator and tether per'ormance depend on a %ood li%htnin% storm detection s&stem$ Sur%e protection schemes and hardenin% o' the control s&stems are also under e"amination$

!=I9:T CONTRO= USIN9 9 S +ND 9CRO D+T+

SSET, Karukutty

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Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

4er& accurate control is needed to precisel& maintain a desired position in the s.&$ 9 S with %&roscopes is an ideal wa& to pro(ide the re'erence data necessar& to pro(ide this control$ The 9lobal ositionin% S&stem 69 S7 consists o' a constellation o' 1; satellites that pro(ide a continuous na(i%ation capabilit& to users at an& location on 6or near7 #arth in all weather conditions$ /ith this s&stem, currentl& operatin% with 12 satellites, real-time, three dimensional position in'ormation with accuracies on the order o' >-,< m can be achie(ed$ 3ain error sources 'or the s&stem include si%nal propa%ation e''ects throu%h the atmosphere, satellite orbit and timin% errors, and 9 S recei(er noise and si%nal re'lection6multipath7$ /hen used in di''erential mode, where measurement corrections are computed at a 9 S re'erence station sited on a .nown location, accuracies can be impro(ed )uite easil& to within a 'ew meters 6D9 S7$ +lthou%h %enerall& used 'or positionin% and na(i%ation, 9 S can also be used 'or plat'orm attitude determination and control$ I' three or more 9 S recei(ers and antennas are mounted on a plat'orm, such as an !#9, the 9 S carrier phase data can be used to directl& estimate the roll, pitch, and headin% o' the plat'orm in real-time at a rate o' ,-1< :8 [,?\$ The attitude parameter accurac& is primaril& a 'unction o' the si%nal multipath, and antenna separation 6wider spacin% &ields hi%her attitude accuracies ] !i%$ >7$ !or the !#9, multipath could occur throu%h the re'lection o' the si%nals o'' the structure itsel'$ :owe(er, when antennas are separated b& o(er > m on the !#9, attitude accurac& should be better than <$1> de%ree with multipath present, which is well within the re)uired attitude control speci'ications$

SSET, Karukutty

,@

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

!i%$ >$ Relationship between the achie(able 9 S-deri(ed headin% and pitch accurac& and antenna separation Two other 'actors must be considered when usin% 9 S 'or attitude determination and control on the !#9$ One is the ri%idit& o' the structure itsel'$ +ntennas with ma"imum separation increase the achie(able accurac&, but 'unction best with antennas located on a ri%id 'rame$ + second 'actor is s&stem per'ormance durin% si%ni'icant !#9 nose-up an%les$ These an%les ran%e 'rom < de%ree when ho(erin% up to ;> de%ree when %eneratin%$ /hile ho(erin%, some 9 S satellites ma& be obscured since the !#9 ma& bloc. reception si%nals alon% the line-o'-si%ht$ Tests show that attitude parameters can still be estimated up to at least a ;> de%ree tilt, howe(er, a %&roscope used as an au"iliar& attitude sensor, au%ments 9 S a(ailabilit& and reduces noise$ This has been implemented 'or man& applications, and o(erall accurac& is a 'unction o' the %&ro sensor characteristics$

SSET, Karukutty

,;

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010

D#T+I=S O! + 1;< D/ D#3ONSTR+TION CR+!T

S.& /ind ower Corp$ has completed the desi%n 'or a 1;< ./ demonstration cra't$ !i%$ 1 is an isometric (iew o' this cra't$ Two units will demonstrate the commercial (iabilit&, or otherwise, o' the 'l&in% %enerator concept$ These cra't ha(e 'our, two-bladed rotors turnin% in paired counter-rotation as described abo(e$ The rotors are ,<$- m in diameter with solidit& o' >A, and the un-twisted blades are o' con(entional construction$ Collecti(e pitch control on the rotors will be (ia electric actuators$ The cra't is desi%ned 'or operations up to ,>,<<< 'eet 6;B<< m7$ The rotors are connected to 'our separate %earbo"es, which dri(e 'our motor0%enerator units supplied b& +C ropulsion$ These electrical machines are o' hi%h armature speed to ensure a satis'actor& power-to-wei%ht ratio$ The& are also electricall& lin.ed to ensure that rotor speeds do not (ar& with one another$ T&pical armature speeds are 1;,<<< rpm$ The 'our power units are mounted in an elementar&, low-dra% 'usela%e o' 'iber composite construction$ The all-up wei%ht o' each cra't is estimated at around ,,;< lbs 6>1< .%7$ The electro-mechanical tether is desi%ned to transmit 1;<./ at a (olta%e o' ,>.4$ The electrical transmission e''icienc& is 2<A$ The tether has two insulated aluminium conductors embedded in a 4ectran 'iber composite$ The tether*s speci'ic wei%ht is around ,,> .%0.m at a diameter o' ,<mm$ + sample has been constructed$ The electrical %round 'acilit& is con'i%ured 'or a DC suppl& to and 'rom the plat'orm$ The motor0%enerators are series connected$ The cra't*s rated output is de(eloped at an ,?$; m0s wind speed at an altitude o' ,>,<<< 'eet 6;B<< m7$ The ,,$> m0s autorotation speed is at the same altitude$ The power consumption in no wind 6ho(er7 at ,>,<<< 'eet 6;B<< m7 is estimated to be around -> ./$ Rotor speeds are in the ran%e o' ,@< to @<< rpm$ The cra't in this demonstrator is desi%ned to withstand a wind o' @> m0s at ,>,<<< 'eet 6;B<< m7$ Throu%hout the operatin% en(elope the cra't*s nose-up attitude (aries in the ran%e ,< and ;> de%ree$ +t no time durin% these operations does the blade incidence on the retreatin% blade e"ceed acceptable (alues at the con(entional re'erence station, while tip 3ach numbers ne(er e"ceed about <$B$ !inall&, there is some merit in the (iew that the best return on in(estment o' these cra't will be dependent on an optimal, operatin% altitude$ +t low altitudes the a(era%e wind (elocit& wanes, while at hi%her altitudes, adjacent to the jet stream

SSET, Karukutty

,>

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 core, the costs produce a less than bene'icial return, because o' the need 'or a hi%her transmission (olta%e as the altitude increases$ Thus it will be necessar& to 'ind the best return 'rom an in(estment as a 'unction o' the ma"imum operatin% altitude$ This aspect will be de(eloped and con'irmed o(er ,1 months o' 'li%hts planned durin% the demonstration pro%ram$

COST +ND SC+=#

#R!OR3+NC#

ROJ#CTIONS +T T:# =+R9#

+$ Scalabilit& Considerations
+s discussed in section I4$ , the tethered rotorcra't is inherentl& scalable in si8e and output, 'rom small protot&pe con'i%urations o' below 1;< ./, throu%h commerciall& (iable s&stems with competiti(e costs o' ener%&, in the ran%e o' @ 3/ to @< 3/ per cra't$ =ar%er si8es are more economical and ma& utili8e more than 'our rotors to maintain econom& and mana%eabilit& o' materials$ In this section we anal&8e cost and per'ormance o' a 'our rotor, @$; 3/ 6plat'ormrated7 con'i%uration as mi%ht be deplo&ed in an arra& o(er (arious sites in the U$S$ 5ecause o' losses described earlier, the actual output a'ter conditionin% would be about 1<A lower$ The @$; 3/ si8e was chosen because it is lar%e enou%h to pro(ide competiti(e economics in a 'our-rotor con'i%uration, and a rotor desi%n that is within the scope o' currentl& a(ailable methods and materials$

5$ /ei%hts and Costs

!or cost illustration purposes, we use a ,<< 3/ arra&, comprised o' @$; 3/ !#9s$ The cost estimates are based on 1>< !#9s0&ear production rate assumin% prior production o' ,>< !#9s, in accordance with NR#= %uidelines$ + @$; 3/ plat'orm-rated cra't is estimated to wei%h 1,,<<< lbs 62><< .%7 and cost ^,,@B<,<<<$ +ddin% %round s&stems and production pro'its brin%s the total to ^1,1B<,<<< per @$; 3/$ The balance o' station costs 'or the ,<< 3/ arra&, includin% site preparation, 'acilities and e)uipment, spare parts and construction is ^;,1,<,<<<$ Ta.en to%ether these initial capital costs come to ^-,,1<<,<<< per ,<< 3/$

C$ er'ormance and Net +nnual #ner%& roduction

SSET, Karukutty

,B

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 Three desi%n sites were chosen 'or anal&8in% the output o' the ,<< 3/ arra&, Tope.a, Dansas, Detroit, 3ichi%an and San Die%o, Cali'ornia$ Tope.a is a _9reat lains_ site, Detroit is a site where a %reat deal o' ener%& is used, and San Die%o is a site where capturin% power 'rom the wind is not normall& thou%ht to be practical$ Net +nnual #ner%& roduction ./h0&r is determined b& multipl&in% rated power b& a site capacit& 'actor$ Capacit& 'actors 'or !#9s o' the proposed desi%n are based on wind statistics pro(ided b& NO++ radiosonde readin%s 'or major airports near the desi%n sites, normall& ta.en dail& at noon and midni%ht$ !#9s are to be 'lown at the most e''icient altitude 'or pre(ailin% wind conditions, and capacit& 'actor is calculated in the normal manner$ In ma.in% these calculations we ha(e ta.en into account the projected operatin% characteristics o' the @$; 3/ desi%n throu%h the ran%e o' altitudes up to 2,<<< meters$ O(er the current ran%e o' interest the rated wind speed has been appro"imated to the linear (ariation 6;7, while the air densit& (aries accordin% to N+C+ Standard +tmosphere (alues$ Capacit& 'actors ha(e been computed 'or the three desi%n sites usin% so'tware we de(eloped, 'rom data downloaded 'rom NO++$ The data is 'or the &ear startin% September 1<, 1<<< and endin% September 1,, 1<<,$ 4 L ,;m0s ` >$-m0s V :0,<<<<m /here, 4 Re)uired wind speed in meters per second to operate at rated capacit&, and : is +ltitude in meters$ Capacit& 'actors 'or Tope.a, Detroit, and San Die%o are 2,A, 2<A and -<A, respecti(el&$ +s a reser(e a%ainst storms, maintenance and mechanical problems, we assume ,<A downtime$ This %i(es Net +nnual #ner%& roduction 'i%ures o' >?, 9/h0&r, >-> 9/h0&r and ;;- 9/h0&r, respecti(el& 'or a ,<< 3/ arra& at each o' the three sites$

D$ rojected Cost o' #ner%&

+nnual Operatin% #"penses 6+O#7 include =and =ease Costs 6==C7, Operations a 3aintenance 6Oa37 and =e(eli8ed Replacement0O(erhaul Costs 6=RC7$ +O# projections are necessaril& subjecti(e, since no plant li.e this

SSET, Karukutty

,-

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 currentl& e"ists$ Oa3 costs are deri(ed 'rom an ^?1,<<<0&r estimate 'or a @$; 3/ !#9, multiplied b& 12$; !#9s0,<< 3/ plant$ =i'e-limited components are anticipated to re)uire replacement at ,< &ears and 1< &ears$ Tether lon%e(it& is a ris.$ Replacement cost is estimated at ?<A o' the initial capital cost 'or the whole s&stem$ #"pressed in per ./h terms, the +O# 'or the Tope.a, Detroit, and San Die%o sites are estimated at ^<$<,<10./h, ^<$<,<@0./h, and ^<$<,120./h, respecti(el&$ /e ha(e assumed a !i"ed Char%e Rate 6!CR7 o' <$<-><0&r$ The cost o' ener%& was computed usin% the 'ormula 6>7$ !or the Tope.a, Detroit, and San Die%o sites the costs o' ener%& 6CO#7 are ^<$<,2;0./h, ^<$<,2B0./h, and ^<$<1;20./h, Respecti(el&I COE =( FCR * ICC )/ AEPnet + AOE

#N#R9C STOR+9# ISSU#S

#lectric utilities want constantl& a(ailable YdispatchableZ power, which cannot be pro(ided economicall& i' capacit& 'actors are low, such as the thirt& percent that is t&pical o' %round based wind turbine sites$ :owe(er, with the hi%h capacit& 'actors, such as ?> percent, that are e"pected at a(era%e !#9 sites in the United States and man& other places in the world 6especiall& in the mid-latitudes7, this dispatchable electricit& becomes economical$ This is because the e"pected stora%e re)uirement in connection with !#9 deri(ed electrical ener%& is stora%e 'or onl& the shorter periods when !#9s are %rounded due to inade)uate winds or bad storms$ umped water stora%e, where a(ailable, is a (er& economical means used now 'or such temporar& stora%e$ + well .nown e"ample is used b& the utilit& 9a# in Cali'ornia to pump water up to a hi%h la.e durin% low electrical-use hours and then ha(e that water %enerate electricit& at hi%h demand times on the wa& bac. to a lower la.e$#"istin% h&droelectric power at dams ma& be considered to be the e)ui(alent o' pumped water stora%e 'acilities b& deliberatel& phasin% in and out %eneration in complementar& 'ashion to wind a(ailabilit& at a nearb& !#9 arra&$ In that combination the combined output could be dispatchable power with as much as 'our times the capacit& o' the e"istin% h&droelectric site$ Compressed +ir #ner%& Stora%e 6C+#S7 is another ener%& stora%e means presentl& comin% into use$ In special circumstances, where pumpin% compressed air into e"istin% lar%e ca(es or

SSET, Karukutty

,?

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 porous roc. strata is 'easible, it ma& well be especiall& economic$ Commercial tan.s built 'or the purpose ma& be the most economic stora%e means where (er& shortterm ener%& stora%e is needed$ :&dro%en, not currentl& a means o' economic stora%e as are some o' the methods mentioned abo(e, has the ad(anta%e that it can be stored in one season and used in another$ :&dro%en can be produced 'rom low cost !#9 electricit& supplied b& water electrol&sis, stored in t&picall& %ood wind winter months, and then used to %enerate electricit& in t&picall& low wind summer months$ !or e"ample, the capacit& 'actor at atiala, India 'or an !#9 'l&in% at @>,<<< 'eet 6,<-<< m7 is calculated at onl& about @- percent 'or the summer months, but appro"imatel& 2< percent 'or the remainin% months$ There'ore, north India*s h&dro%en %eneration usin% !#9s in the %ood months should su''icientl& suppl& all its ener%& needs$ Summer electricit& would be %enerated 'rom stored h&dro%en 'uelin% turbines in the south, not directl& 'rom !#9 arra&s$ !urthermore, hi%h altitude winds are o'ten described b& the planetar& scale thermal wind e)uations$ These thermal winds, includin% the jet stream, tend to shi't latitudinall& but rarel& stop blowin%$ Thus, a latitudinall& spaced con'i%uration o' 'l&in% electric %enerator arra&s, coupled with lon%-distance electricit& transmission, could potentiall& smooth out much o' the local (ariabilit& in hi%h altitude wind power %eneration$ Thus, the economics o' suppl&in% the dispatchable electricit&, which electric utilities want, should be 'a(orable in connection with ener%& stora%e when that electricit& is %enerated b& !#9s with their hi%h capacit& 'actors$ This is an important 'actor in determinin% the relati(e worth o' !#9 %enerated electricit& compared with that o' 'ossil 'uels such as natural %as, and, there'ore, also the 'inancin% costs o' !#9 'acilities$

+D4+NT+9#S a DIS+D4+NT+9#S O! !#9

+D4+NT+9#S

#n(ironment 'riendl& !#9 technolo%ies are just cheaper, cleaner and ha(e more e''icienc&$ =ow cost a(ailabilit& o' electricit&$ !#9*s are una''ected b& sur'ace 'eature turbulence$

SSET, Karukutty

,2

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 The en(ironment impact at hi%h altitude is minimal with (irtuall& no (isual or noise intrusion and no bird stri.es$ !#9 wind 'arms would %i(e capacit& 6%eneratin%7 'actors around three times %reater than that 'rom con(entional wind 'arms$

DIS+D4+NT+9#S
Restricted airspace 'or airplanes to 'l&$ Not suitable 'or hi%hl& populated areas, unless there are ade)uate sa'et& measures pro(ided$ Seasonal (ariations in jet streams speed across the %lobe can create dull periods 'or electricit& production b& !#9$

CONC=USION
It has been shown that 'l&in% electric %enerators can harness the power'ul and persistent winds alo't to suppl& electricit& 'or %rid connection, 'or h&dro%en production or 'or h&drostora%e$ 9loball&, upper atmospheric winds pro(ide an enormous resource 'or this application$ The en(ironmental impacts at altitude are minimal with (irtuall& no (isual, or noise intrusion and no bird stri.es$ The proposed s&stems lead lo%icall& to rural0remote area installations in re%ions o' restricted airspace$ !ull-scale 'acilities, usin% indi(idual !#9 units o' rated power around @< 3/, could easil& 'orm wind-'arms e)ui(alent in output to re%ular coal, %as and nuclear 'acilities$ These wind-'arms would %i(e capacit& 6%eneratin%7 'actors around three times %reater than that 'rom con(entional wind-'arms$ The estimated bul. electricit& cost 'or the power so produced is estimated to be o' the order o' ^1<03/h$ :i%h altitude wind power is not science 'iction$ It depends on currentl& a(ailable technolo%ies and en%ineerin% .nowhow, buildin% on decades o' e"perience with wind turbine and %&roplane technolo%ies$ :arnessin% hi%h altitude wind ener%&, usin% a combination o' essentiall& e"istin% technolo%ies, appears to be thorou%hl& practical and su%%ests that this ener%& source can pla& an important part in addressin% the worldGs ener%& and %lobal warmin% problems$

R#!#R#NC#S
,$ :arnessin% :i%h-+ltitude /ind ower

SSET, Karukutty

1<

Department Of EEE

Seminar Report, 2010 5r&an /$ Roberts, Da(id :$ Shepard, Life Senior Member, IEEE, Den Caldeira, 3$ #li8abeth Cannon,Da(id 9$ #ccles, Member, IEEE, +lbert J$ 9renier, and Jonathan !$ !reidin 1$ O*Dohert&, R$ J$, Roberts, 5$ /$ +pplication o' Upper /ind data in One Desi%n o' Tethered /ind #ner%& S&stem$ Solar #ner%& Res$ Institute, TR-1,,-,;<<, 9olden Colorado, US+, !eb ,2?1, pp$ ,-,1-$ @$ +t.inson, J$ D$ et al, The Use o' +ustralian upper /ind Data in the Desi%n o' an #lectrical 9eneratin% lat'orm$ Chas$ Dollin% Res$ =ab$, TN D-,-, Uni($ o' S&dne&, June ,2-2, pp$ ,-,2$ ;$ Roberts, 5$ /$, 5lac.ler, J$ 4arious S&stems 'or 9eneration o' #lectricit& Usin% Upper +tmospheric /inds, 1nd /ind #ner%& Inno(ation S&stems Con'$, Solar #ner%& Res$ Institute, Colorado Sprin%s, Dec$ ,2?<, pp$ B--?<$ >$ 9essow, +$, Crim, +$ D$, +n #"tension o' li'tin% Rotor theor& to co(er operation at =ar%e +n%les o' +ttac. bN+C+ TN-1BB>, +pril ,2>1

SSET, Karukutty

1,

Department Of EEE