Low Cost High Current Waveform Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator
London South Bank University

Department of Engineering and Design,
BEng (Hons) Project in Electrical Engineering (SES)
Final Project Report

Title: Low Cost High Current Waveform Generator Author: Rahat Hasan Academic Session: 2012/13 Supervisor: Dr. G.H. Shirkoohi Course Title: BEng Electrical and Electronic Engineering Mode of Study: Full Time Date: 10/05/2013

TITLE: LOW COST HIGH CURRENT WAVEFORM GENERATOR NAME: RAHAT HASAN ID: 2822815 COURSE: BENG ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (SES) SUBMISSION DATE: 10/03/2013
This report has been submitted for assessment towards a Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering in the Department of Engineering and Design, London South Bank University. The report is written in the authors own words and all sources have been properly cited. Authors signature:

Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Project Aim ................................................................................................................... 2 Project Objectives ........................................................................................................ 2 Deliverables .................................................................................................................. 2 Technical Background and Context ............................................................................. 3 Buck converter and components .............................................................................. 3 How Buck converter (synchronous) works ............................................................... 4 Calculation of synchronous buck converters power stage ...................................... 5 What is Mosfet and how it works ............................................................................. 6 What is inductor and how it works ........................................................................... 7 What is Schmitt trigger and how it works................................................................. 9 What is optocoupler and how it works ................................................................... 10 What is a transistor and how it works .................................................................... 11 What is capacitor and how it works........................................................................ 11 Technical approach .................................................................................................... 14 Scope of the project ................................................................................................ 14 Specification of the product.................................................................................... 14 Design of the product ............................................................................................. 14 Generation of PWM waveform ............................................................................... 14 Approach 1 .............................................................................................................. 15 Problem with Approach 1 ....................................................................................... 17 Approach 2 .............................................................................................................. 17 Procedure of measurement .................................................................................... 19 Apparatus information (TDS 2004B Four Channel Oscilloscope) ........................... 19 Mosfet Driver Circuit (Generation of synchronous PWM waveforms)................... 19 Approach 1 .............................................................................................................. 19 Problem with the approach .................................................................................... 21 Approach 2 .............................................................................................................. 21 Problem with the approach .................................................................................... 23

Approach 3 .............................................................................................................. 23 Construction of an air cored inductor..................................................................... 25 Approach 1 .............................................................................................................. 27 Problem with the approach .................................................................................... 28 Approach 2 .............................................................................................................. 28 The size of the wire used ........................................................................................ 29 Measurement of the inductance ............................................................................ 30 Determining the capacitor for the buck converter ................................................. 30 Issue with the capacitive value ............................................................................... 31 Construction of a capacitor bank ............................................................................ 31 Measurement of the capacitance ........................................................................... 32 Time constant of the LC circuit ............................................................................... 32 Device under Test ................................................................................................... 33 How the whole circuit is expected to work ............................................................ 33 Initial rejected solution for the project ................................................................... 34 Solution 1 ................................................................................................................ 34 Solution 2 ................................................................................................................ 35 Research on similar product in the market ............................................................ 36 Cost of the Product ................................................................................................. 37 Results and Discussion ............................................................................................... 38 Conclusion and Recommendations for Further Work .............................................. 43 Reference .................................................................................................................... 44 Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 46 Approach 1 software code ...................................................................................... 46 Approach 2 software code ...................................................................................... 47 CD40106B Hex Schmitt Trigger datasheet .............................................................. 48 P14NF10 N-channel mosfet datasheet ................................................................... 49 Project Planning ......................................................................................................... 50 Work breakdown structure..................................................................................... 50 Gantt chart .............................................................................................................. 51
Abstract
The idea of the project is to develop a product which is capable of fluctuating the input voltage to a user defined output voltage. To achieve this, the hardware parts of the product was designed according to the concept of a synchronous buck converter, which converts a fixed input voltage into a regulated output voltage which is equal to or lower than the input voltage. The main problem encountered in designing the hardware was to operate it at a high frequency as mentioned in the specification. Since the components used cannot handle high frequency, the operating frequency of the whole product was brought down to a low value. The hardware part was then interfaced with the PC using an Arduino UNO development board which will allow the user to define the output voltage in a specified period in order to generate a sample of test waveforms. The product was tested by altering the duty cycle to observe the output voltage which was not exactly same as the expected value due to the mismatch of the operating frequency between parts of the hardware and this resulted in the failure to generate test waveforms. Also a research was conducted on similar products that exist in the market and a brief comparison was then made between products.
Introduction
The most common issue seen in cars is normally caused by disturbances in the car battery which is due to the faulty conditions arising when the car is in crank mode. This can result in damage to all the electronic components working in multiple buses such as FM/AM radio, speedometer, etc. To overcome this problem, automotive manufacturing industries have to ensure that their products are tested for tolerance to faulty conditions before they are fitted inside the car. Replicating similar faulty conditions on a test bench can be a problem due to the unavailability of proper instruments. The idea of this project is to come up with a product which is capable of replicating the faulty conditions on test bench by generating waveforms which can then be tested on the electronic components in the car to improve their tolerance. The waveforms need to be generated to test the faulty conditions are crank waveform, voltage drop out waveform, ramp up and ramp down waveform. The outcome product from this project would be able to create all these waveforms and also repeat them in sequence. [1] The Low Cost High Current Waveform Generator (LCHCWG) provides the user with four benefits mentioned below: The capability to generate waveforms with a high transient current of 0-50A which can then be tested across the device under test (DUT). The ability to generate waveforms with high voltage range, normally from 0 to 12V. This will allow the user to create a wide range of waveforms similar to the faulty conditions. The ability of the hardware part of the product to interface with PC via user-friendly software which makes it easier for the user to vary the output voltage. The capability to produce stable output.
The designed product LCHCWG is based on the concept of a synchronous buck converter which consists of two gate driven mosfets, an inductor and

capacitor. The mosfets are controlled via a TTL signal from a software development board allowing the user to output the desired voltage levels. By changing the voltage to different levels, the user can then simulate vehicle battery disturbances waveforms. One of the key benefits that can be gained by performing this project is that it will allow automotive companies to manufacture product testing tools at a lower price which means they can purchase more tools within the company budget and will allow the company to test more of their products at a short time.
Project Aim
The aim of this project is to identify a way of producing a cost-effective product which is capable of generating waveforms used to test the tolerance of car components.
Project Objectives
Generation of waveforms used for testing tolerance of electronic components in car. Research on similar products that already exists in the market. Production of a cost-effective hardware which is capable of fluctuating input voltage. Interfacing the hardware to the PC using user friendly software. Comparison between the market product and the outcome product from this project.
Deliverables
Progression, Interim and Final reports. The presentation talk. Simulating waveforms similar to faulty conditions such as crank waveform, voltage drop out waveform, ramp up and ramp down waveform with the help of a synchronous buck converter. Controlled variation of voltage over a time period with the help of an Arduino UNO development board. Generate very fast output transitions of high currents, thus exceeding the transient performance of power supplies.

Stable ripple free output. Able to interface with PC and/or possibly via vehicle control interface.
Technical Background and Context

The main aim of this project is to allow automotive companies to test their products within a short time and in a cost effective way which would be beneficial as it will reduce the man hour required for testing. The most common problem is when a car is subjected to high current surge caused by disturbances in the car battery during crank mode. This can result in damage to all the electronic components working in multiple buses such as FM/AM radio, speedometer, etc. In order to solve this problem, automotive manufacturing industries have to ensure that their products are tested for tolerance to faulty conditions by applying a test waveform across the electronic components. The main benefits obtained from this project is that it will allow automotive companies to manufacture product testing tools at a low price which means they can manufacture more testing tools within the company budget and will allow the company to test more of their products at a short time period as most of the test sequence is automatic and can be run for 24 hours without the need for human presence.
Buck converter and components

There are two components to the project: hardware and software. The hardware part of this project is based on synchronous buck converter. A synchronous buck converter is step-down dc to dc converters which converts a fixed input voltage into a regulated output voltage which is equal to or lower than the input voltage. They are mostly used in electronics for achieving an ideal low voltage level for a particular component from a constant input voltage level. A synchronous buck converter consists of two switches- a high side switch and a low side switch (nowadays switches are replaced with mosfets to reduce power loss), an inductor and a capacitor. The output voltage from the converter is then fed into a resistive load. A basic design of a synchronous buck converter is shown below in figure 1. [2]
Figure 1: A basic synchronous buck converter [2]
How Buck converter (synchronous) works

In synchronous buck converter, the duty cycle in the two Mosfets used controls the output voltage by varying the ON and OFF durations for the mosfets where the frequency at which the two mosfets operates is kept constant. The two mosfets are operated via a TTL PWM (Pulse Width Modulaion) signals which are complementary to each other, i.e. when Q1 is on, Q2 is off. When the Mosfet Q1 is on, the energy is transferred from the d.c supply to the inductor and the amount of energy that is transferred depends on the Mosfet Q1 ON time. This produces a voltage drop across the inductor, the capacitor and the load. The voltage that is developed across the inductor during the Q1, the time is equals to (Vin Vo). The circuit for the Mosfet Q1 on time is shown below in figure 2. [3]
Figure 2: Circuit when Q1 is on When Mosfet Q1 is switched off and Mosfet Q2 is turned on, the supply is removed from the circuit and all the energy in the inductor is then passed to the capacitor and the load. At this point, the voltage across the inductor equals

to Vo. The circuit for the Mosfets Q1 off and Q2 on is shown below in figure 3. [3]
Figure 3: Circuit when Q1 is off and Q2 is on When the inductor is in steady state, the average current flowing through it is equal to the average output current as the average current in the capacitor is zero. In synchronous buck converter, there are two different types of operations: continuous and discontinuous conduction mode, where continuous conduction mode is the most preferred mode of operation. In discontinuous conduction mode, current in the inductor reaches zero due to all the energy stored in the inductor being transferred to the capacitor before mosfet Q1 is turned on again. In continuous conduction mode, the mosfet Q1 is turned on again before the current in the inductor reaches zero. [3]
Calculation of synchronous buck converters power stage

The parameters required to calculate the power stage are as follows: Input voltage Nominal output voltage Maximum output current Switching frequency
The first step is to calculate the inductor ripple current ( ) which is often estimated to be 20% to 40% of the output current of the buck converter. .eq1. Where = Maximum output Current
The next step to then to determine the inductor value. A higher inductor value will allow larger maximum current output as the ripple current of the converter is reduced. Therefore, a smaller inductor will give a smaller solution size. It is often recommended to use an inductor with higher current rating than the

maximum output current as the current will increase when the inductance decreases. The equation for the inductor is shown below: eq2. Where = Input voltage; = Inductor ripple current. = Output voltage; = Switching frequency;
The last step is to calculate the value of the capacitor for the filter. It is required to use a capacitor with low Effective Series Resistance (ESR) value as it will reduce the output voltage ripple. In most cases, ceramic capacitors are preferred. For a converter with internal compensation, the output capacitor value has to be adjusted in the ratio of L and C whereas for a converter with external compensation, the equation shown below is used to adjust the value of the capacitor for a desired output voltage ripple: .eq3. Where = Ripple output voltage; ripple current. [4] = Switching frequency; = Inductor
What is Mosfet and how it works

A mosfet is a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor normally found in digital ICs. Mosfet consists of a gate (G), a source (S) and a drain (D). Mosfets are normally categorized into two types: then MOS transistor and the MOS transistor where the polarity of the conduction is opposite to each other. Figure of a basic mosfet and the different types of mosfets are shown below:
Figure 4: Structure of a basic mosfet, nMOS and pMOS. A mosfet can be used as a digital switch where the gate terminal is similar to a switch on the wall. At a high gate voltage, the mosfet acts as a closed switch

and electricity flows from the drain to the source. A mosfet requires a certain voltage for the drain and the source to be electrically connected which is the mosfets threshold voltage. For the nMOS, the threshold voltage is positive whereas for pMOS, the threshold voltage is negative. When a mosfet acts as a switch, there are only two conducting states on and off which are normally controlled via the gate voltage. At the on state, there is no resistance across the drain and the source whereas at off state, the resistance is infinite. In non-ideal condition, the resistance during on state is non-zero and there is a delay during the change of state. In an nMOS, at an input voltage lower than the gate-source voltage, the device stops conducting and it acts as an open switch. At an input voltage higher than the gate-source voltage, the drain and the source become electrically connected and the device acts as a closed switch. For a pMOS, the signals have an opposite polarity so during an off state, the gate-source voltage becomes higher than the input voltage and during on state, the gate-source voltage becomes lower than the input voltage. The different states of nMOS and pMOS are shown below in figure 5: [5]
Figure 5: Different states of nMOS and pMOS. [5]
What is inductor and how it works

An inductor is a passive device which stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. In an inductor, a conductor is coiled into a core where electricity flows from left to right which produces a magnetic field in the clockwise path. The direction of the magnetic field is shown below in figure 6: [6]
Figure 6: Direction of the magnetic field. [6] One of the main properties of the inductor is dependent on the number of turns of conductor used. The more the number of turns coiled around the core, the more magnetic fields are produced. The magnetic field is also proportional to the cross-sectional area of the coil i.e. the larger the cross-sectional area the more the magnetic field produced. The equation used to calculate the inductance of an inductor is shown below:
Where: L = Inductance required. = Permeability of free space, 4 .
= Relative permeability, 1 (Due to the presence of air core). A = Cross-sectional area of the coil. l = Length of the coil. N = Number of turns of the coil. [6] The behaviour of an inductor is very different when an AC current flows through it. The magnetic field produced when the AC current flows through it cuts the conductor winding and therefore producing an induced voltage which hinders any current change. When there is a rise in the current, an electromotive force is produced in the opposite direction which then hinders the current to rise. The behaviour of an inductor to current change is shown below in figure 7: [6]
Figure 7: The behaviour of an inductor to current change. [6] When a DC current is applied across an inductor, no magnetic field is produced and as a result, no induced voltage is generated. Therefore, an inductor only allows a DC current to flow through it. The behaviour of an inductor under DC current is shown below in figure 8:
Figure 8: The behaviour of an inductor under DC current. [6]
What is Schmitt trigger and how it works

A Schmitt trigger is a type of comparator which produces a negative output when the input fed into it is positive compared to the reference voltage. Using the negative feedback built into it, it stays in that state until the input is lower compared to the threshold voltage. A schematic diagram of the Schmitt trigger and the input and output waveforms are shown below in figure 9:
Figure 9: A schematic diagram of the Schmitt trigger and the input and output waveforms. The main function of a Schmitt trigger is to produce a stable level-crossing switch. [7]
What is optocoupler and how it works

Optocoupler is a device used to transfer signals from one part of the subsystem to another without a direct electrical connection. An optocoupler normally contains two devices: a light-emitting diode (LED) and a photo transistor. When current flows through the LED, it shines light onto the base of the photo transistor which then allows current to flow through the collector and the emitter. The optocoupler can be operated as a switching device by switching the LED on and off and therefore output an on-off controlled signal from the phototransistor. A schematic diagram of a phototransistor is shown below in figure 10: [8]
Figure 10: A schematic diagram of an optocoupler. [8]
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What is a transistor and how it works
A transistor is normally used as an amplifier or a switch. There are three parts in a transistor: base, collector and emitter. The base is where signals are applied to trigger the transistor. The collector is the positive part of the transistor and the emitter is the negative part. The amount of current flow in the transistor can be controlled by applying different levels of current at the base of the transistor. A schematic diagram of a NPN transistor is shown below in figure 11: [12]
Figure 11: A schematic diagram of a NPN transistor. [9] There are two different types of junction transistor: NPN and PNP. In this report, the main focus is on the NPN transistor. In an NPN transistor, the middle layer is P-type whereas the outside layer is N-type. In order for the NPN transistor to operate, the base voltage has to be more positive than the emitter voltage and the collector voltage has to be more positive than the base voltage. This allows electrons to flow from the emitter to the base and therefore electricity will flow through the transistor.
What is capacitor and how it works

A capacitor is a device which is capable of storing electrical energy in the form of electrons. It consists of two conducting plates separated by a dielectric which is a non-conducting substance. Depending on the type of dielectric used, the capacitor is capable of handling high voltages. A picture of dielectric used in between a two conducting plates in a capacitor is shown below in figure 12: [10]
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Figure 12: A picture of dielectric used in between a two conducting plates in a capacitor. [10] When a capacitor is connected across a battery with voltage V, a capacitance of C and a current of I is produced. The electrons flow from the metal plate which is connected to the negative side of the battery to the metal plate which is connected to the positive part of the battery. The charging equation of a capacitor is shown below: dQ = C dV and I = C dV/dt. Where: dQ = Minute change in charge. dV = Minute change in voltage. The figure 13 below shows a circuit where a capacitor is connected across a battery. [10]
Figure 13: A capacitor connected across a battery. [10] When two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected across a battery of voltage V, the voltage is distributed between C1 and C2 depending on the capacitance. The current I remains the same throughout the series circuit. Total voltage, V = V1 + V2. Total capacitance, C total =
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The total capacitance for a circuit with n capacitors connected in series:
When two capacitors are connected in parallel across a battery of voltage V, the voltage across the capacitors remain same whereas, the charge flowing through the capacitor is distributed between C1 and C2. Total charge, Q = Q1 + Q2. Total capacitance, C total = C total = C1 + C2. The total capacitance for a circuit with n capacitors connected in parallel:
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Technical approach
Scope of the project
The scope of the project is to design a waveform generating unit which is capable of producing power disturbances waveform such as random cranking waveform, fast transient burst, multi-step Square waves, ramp waveform, etc. One possible way of achieving the project is by using Buck Converters [4] where the input voltage from the battery supply is regulated to give output voltage which ranges from 0 to input voltage. Using Pulse Width Modulation technique, the user is capable of creating any desired waveforms by changing the level of the voltage over a period of time. Moreover, in order to make the product user friendly, microcontroller based control is introduced in to the product. The development board used to control the buck converters is Arduino Uno. The main feature of the board is the capability to have six PWM outputs which can be used to control the Buck Converters [5].
Specification of the product

The input voltage of the product, . The nominal output voltage of the product, resolution of 0.1 steps. The maximum output current of the product,
at a
Design of the product

The product is composed of two important parts: the hardware and the software. The hardware part of the product contains a buck converter, a circuit to generate synchronous waveforms to drive the buck converter and a software development board. The buck converter consists of two mosfets, an inductor and a capacitor. The two mosfets used are synchronised i.e. when one mosfet is on, the other mosfet is off.
Generation of PWM waveform

Arduino Uno SMD board is used for the purpose of generating high frequency PWM waveform. It is designed with an ATmega328 microcontroller with 14 digital input/output pins of which 6 output PWM waveform. One of the timers (TimerOne is used in this case) embedded in the board are used to output PWM at high frequency through one of the six PWM pins (pin 10 is used in this project). A snapshot of the Arduino board used is shown in figure 14: [11]
14
Figure 14: Arduino SMD development board. [11] The step by step procedure to generate the high frequency PWM waveform is described below: The Arduino Uno software is installed on laptop from the official website of Arduino. The library for timer1 is downloaded from http://arduino.cc/playground/Code/Timer1. The maximum PWM frequency that can be achieved from Timer 1 is 1 MHz and the PWM waveform can be varied from a duty cycle range of 128 - 1024 bits.
Approach 1
The code used to generate high frequency PWM is compiled and uploaded into the Arduino board. The code used to generate high frequency PWM is shown below: # include TimeOne.h // select TimerOne in the Arduino Uno board. void setup () { pinMode (10, OUTPUT); // select digital pin 10 and use it as an output Timer1.initialize (1); // set the period of the PWM waveform in us. Timer1.pwm (10, 512); // set the duty cycle of the PWM waveform from pin 10. } void loop (){
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} The actual code in the Arduino software window is shown below in figure 15:
Figure 15: Code in the Arduino software window. The PWM waveform obtained from the Arduino board was distorted at a higher frequency. As a result, the period of the PWM waveform was increased to 100 us. The waveform observed is shown below in figure 16:
Figure 16: A PWM waveform with a period of 100 us.
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Problem with Approach 1
The main problem with approach 1 is that it produced PWM signal from pin 10 only and therefore the PWM signal has to be divided into two and then inverted in the hardware before they are passed into the gate of the two Mosfets in the buck converter. This will not allow any propagation delay between the two signals which might cause the mosfets to short out.
Approach 2
Approach 2 involves generating two out of phase PWM signals from pin 9 and pin 10 of the Arduino board. The code shown below is capable of generating two PWM waveforms: one at 70% duty cycle and another at 30% duty cycle. int pinA = 9; // introducing a variable pin A. int pinB = 10; // introducing a variable pin B. void setup() { pinMode (pinA, OUTPUT); // set pin A to be output. pinMode (pinB, OUTPUT); // set pin B to be output. } void loop() { digitalWrite (pinA, LOW); // set pin A to low (0V). delayMicroseconds (70); // set a delay of 70 us. digitalWrite (pinA, HIGH); // set pin A to high (5V). delayMicroseconds (1); // set a delay of 1 us. digitalWrite (pinB, LOW); // set pin B to low (0V). delayMicroseconds (30); // set a delay of 30 us. digitalWrite (pinB, HIGH); // set pin B to high (5V).
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delayMicroseconds (1); // set a delay of 1 us. } The outputs from pin 9 and pin 10 are then passed into a Mosfet driver circuit which then generates two out of phase PWM waveforms of 70% and 30% duty cycle to be passed to the gates of the two Mosfets in the buck converter. The waveforms produced are at a frequency of about 10 kHz which provides a suitable frequency as well as a propagation delay between the switching of the two Mosfets. The actual code in the Arduino software window is shown below in figure 17:
Figure 17: Code in the Arduino software window.
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Procedure of measurement
The procedure of observing the PWM waveform generated by the Arduino Uno board is by connecting channel 1 of TDS 2004B Four Channel Oscilloscope to pin 10 of the Arduino board and then pressing Autoset on the oscilloscope.
Apparatus information (TDS 2004B Four Channel Oscilloscope)

The main application of this apparatus is for designing, debugging and educational purposes. It is capable of performing full sample rate and full record length which is important for accurate acquisition. One of the important features is a front panel USB port which makes it easier to analyse the data by transferring it to PC. Other features include multipurpose knob, AUTORANGE function and AUTOSET button used to detect a waveform. The other specifications of the apparatus are listed below: [12] Bandwidth 60MHz. Time base (maximum) 50s/div. Vertical sensitivity (maximum) 2V/div. Time base (minimum) 5ns/div. Vertical sensitivity (minimum) 2mV/div. Sample rate 1Gsps. Vertical resolution 8bit.
Mosfet Driver Circuit (Generation of synchronous PWM waveforms)

Two methods are being proposed to generate two PWM waveforms that are complementary to each other, i.e. when one waveform is high, the other waveform is low. The methods used are mentioned below:
Approach 1
In this circuit, a Schmitt trigger is used to generate two synchronous waveforms and it works in conjunction with approach. It is used to generate PWM waveform from the Arduino board. The schematic diagram of the Schmitt trigger used is shown below in figure 18:
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Figure 18: A schematic diagram of CD40106B Hex Schmitt Trigger. [13] Pin 1 of the Schmitt trigger is connected to the output from the Arduino development board (pin 10). The input to the Schmitt trigger is a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) waveform with a period of 100 us. Pin 14 of the Schmitt trigger is connected to the supply voltage of 5V from the Arduino board while pin 7 is connected to the ground. The output from pin2 is an inverted PWM waveform with a period of 100 us. Pin 2 and pin 3 are connected together in order to obtain a waveform from pin 4 which is the same as the input waveform. As a result, two waveforms are generated which are out of phase or opposite to each other. The measurements of the waveforms shown above are carried out using a TDS 2004B Four Channel Oscilloscope. Channel 1 is connected to pin 4 of the Schmitt trigger whereas channel 2 is connected to pin 2. Once connected, the Autoset button on the oscilloscope is pressed in order to observe the waveforms shown below in figure 19:
Figure 19: Two out of phase PWM waveforms.
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Problem with the approach
The main error that occurred with this approach is that the logic pulses are not enough to trigger the two mosfets as it is less than the gate threshold voltage. As a result, another approach is taken to overcome this problem.
Approach 2
The circuit used to generate synchronous waveforms works in conjunction with approach 1 used to generate PWM waveform from Arduino board and it consists of two main components: transistor and optocoupler. A PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) waveform is applied to the input of the circuit. The waveform is fed into the base of a BC547 NPN transistor which output an in phase 5V peak to peak PWM waveform at the emitter side of the transistor. The 5V peak to peak waveform is then passed to two separate BC547 NPN transistors, both of which are connected to pins 2 and 3 of ISD74 High Density Phototransistor Optically Coupled Isolators which contains two separate optocoupler. A schematic diagram of High Density Phototransistor Optically Coupled Isolators is shown below in figure 20:
Figure 20: A schematic diagram of ISD 74. [8] Pins 1 and 4 of the LED part of the device are connected to a 12V supply. Pins 6 and 7 of the phototransistor part of the optocoupler are connected to the positive 12 V rail whereas pin 8 is connected to the source of a mosfet and pin 5 is connected to the ground rail. The output waveform from pin 7 is an inverted 12V peak to peak PWM waveform and the output waveform from pin 5 is a 12V peak to peak PWM waveform which is in phase with the input waveform. A schematic diagram of the circuit is shown below in figure 21:
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12V Optocoupler 12V 12V 1 K
1 K 1 K
330
470 12V
12V
Optocoupler
330 1 K
1 K
Figure 21: Circuit to generate two synchronous waveforms A picture of the original circuit described above is shown in figure 22:
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Figure 22: Shows picture of the mosfet driver circuit with transistor and optocoupler.

The main flaw in this circuit is that the phototransistor used cannot provide the gate voltage required to trigger the two Mosfets which is 11V PWM for the mosfet connected to the positive side of the power supply and 5V PWM for the mosfet connected to the ground.
Approach 3
The third approach involves a much simpler mosfet driver circuit which works with the code from approach 2 of the generation of PWM waveform. It consists of two transistors with their base voltage being supplied from pin 9 and pin 10 from the Arduino board. The gate signals to the Mosfets are provided from the collector side of the transistors which means the output waveforms are inverted compared to the input waveforms from the Arduino board. The two outputs from the mosfet driver circuit are 11V PWM waveform to drive the mosfet connected to the positive supply and 5V PWM waveform to drive the mosfet connected to the ground. A schematic diagram of the circuit is shown below in figure 23:
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12V 12V
1K
2K2
1K
2K2 100uF 1K
Figure 23: A schematic diagram of the circuit for approach 3. Mosfets The mosfets used in the development of the buck converter are STP14NF10, N-channel. The maximum voltage that are allowed across drain and source is 100V, the on time resistance across drain and source is 0.13 and the maximum pulsed drain current is 60A.[14] The mosfets are being triggered by applying two 5V and12V peak to peak TTL signals which are complementary to each other on the gates of the mosfets. The maximum gate-source voltage for this type of mosfets is +/- 20V. The duty cycle and the period of the signals can be varied using the software that interface with the software development board (Arduino Uno Board). Heat sinks are attached to the mosfets in order to prevent the mosfets from getting too hot. The switching frequency of the mosfets is determined using the calculation shown below:
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The two N-channel mosfets are driven at a gate voltage of 5V from its source voltage. Therefore, the mosfet connected to the positive side of the supply is driven by an 11V PWM signal and the mosfet connected to the ground is driven by a 5V PWM signal. The voltage levels at the gates of the mosfets are shown below in figure 24:
12V
5V 6V
11V
5V
0V
Figure 24: Voltage level of the gates in the Mosfets.
Construction of an air cored inductor

The first step to make an inductor for the buck converter or step down converter is to determine the inductance required for a particular ripple current. In this project, the input and output parameters are defined in the specification as shown below: Input voltage, Nominal output voltage, Maximum output current, Switching frequency,
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Therefore, using equation 1 and 2 from the technical background the value of inductance required can be calculated. The first step is to calculate the inductor ripple current using equation 1:
Then the next step is to calculate the inductance using equation 2:
The different values of inductance required for the nominal output voltage range is shown below in figure 25: Inductance calculation Vin 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 Vout 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 D 0 0.083333 0.166667 0.25 0.333333 0.416667 0.5 0.583333 0.666667 0.75 Fsw 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 240000 I ripple 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 L 0 2.5463E-07 4.62963E07 0.00000062 5 7.40741E07 8.10185E07 8.33333E07 8.10185E07 7.40741E07 0.00000062 5 L in uH 0 0.255 0.463 0.625 0.741 0.81 0.833 0.81 0.741 0.625
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12 12 12 10 11 12 0.833333 0.916667 1 240000 240000 240000 15 15 15 4.62963E07 2.5463E-07 0 0.463 0.255 0
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 L in uH 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Vout 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 25: The inductance calculation for different output voltage or duty cycle. It can be seen that the maximum inductance value required for the buck converter is 0.833 uH. The approaches taken to design the windings and length of the inductor coil are described below:
Approach 1
The first approach used to design an air-cored inductor is by using the Wheeler formula.
Where: L is inductance in uH. N is the number of turns. D is the diameter of the coil in inches. L is the length of the coil in inches. [15]
27

Assuming length of the coil, l = 0.7 inch and diameter of the coil, d = 3 inch. The number of turns, n required to achieve an inductance of 0.833 uH :
An approximate of 3 turns is required to achieve an inductance of 0.833uH.

The main problem with approach 1 is that Wheeler formula for inductance calculation is normally used to make air-cored inductors for RF circuit whereas the inductor designed in this project is for a power circuit. Another problem is that the formula is only valid for inductors where the diameter to length ratio is less than 0.8 and the assumption made for the diameter and the length of the constructed inductor gives a ratio of about 4.3. Therefore, the formula mentioned above cannot be used to design the inductor for the buck converter.
Approach 2
The next approach used to design the coil of an air cored inductor is by using the basic inductance formula. The number of turns required to achieve the desired inductance of 0.833 uH is determined using equation 6:
Inductance required, L = 0.833uH. Permeability of free space, = 4 Relative permeability, = 1 (Due to the presence of air core)
The radius of the coil is assumed to be r = 0.0381m. The cross sectional area of the coil = The length of the coil is assumed to be l = 0.0178 m. = 0.00456 .
28

Therefore, the number of turns required for the desired inductance:
1.61
Therefore, it will take 1.6 turns to get an inductance of 0.833uH with a coil length of 0.0178m and a cross sectional area of 0.00456 The formula used above is valid for determining the size of any air cored coil i.e. both power and RF inductors.
The size of the wire used

The next step is then to determine the diameter of the wire needed to make the inductor coil. It is a known factor that the current carrying capacity of a copper wire under normal condition is 6 A/ As a result, for a current of 50A it will take a wire cross-sectional area of 8.33 . Therefore, the diameter of the wire is calculated as follows:
The wire was then winded around a 0.0762 m in diameter base and taped together so that the windings are as close as possible. A picture of the inductor is shown below in figure 26:
29
Figure 26: A picture of the designed 0.833uH inductor.
Measurement of the inductance

The inductance of the designed inductor is measured using the Wayne Kerr Automatic Precision Bridge B905A instrument. Before measuring the inductance, the instrument was setup to measure inductance in series and then calibrated by connecting the two positive test plugs together and then pressing CE Trim. The two positive test plugs are then connected to two ends of the inductor and the value displayed on the instrument screen is recorded. The desired inductance value for the buck converter = 0.833uH. The measured inductance value using Wayne Kerr instrument = 0.886uH.
Determining the capacitor for the buck converter

In order to determine the value of capacitor required for the buck converter, the following parameters are determined below: Ripple current, Ripple output voltage, Switching frequency, .
Therefore, using equation 3 from the theoretical background the output capacitance for the filter can be calculated:
30
The above calculation shows that a capacitive value of 156 uF is required to filter out a waveform with a ripple current of 15A and a ripple voltage of 50 mV.
Issue with the capacitive value

The main issue was that a capacitor of 156 uF with the capability to handle a ripple current of 15 A is unavailable in the market. And as a result of this, smaller capacitors with high enough ripple current were selected and connected in parallel to achieve the desired capacitance and ripple current.
Construction of a capacitor bank

The most suitable capacitors available for this purpose are Functional Polymer Aluminium Solid Electrolytic Capacitors with a capacitance of 22 uF and a ripple current of 3.4 A. Other features of the capacitors include a low ESR (Equivalent series resistance) of 0.028 , a leakage current of 110 A, tolerance of +/- 20%, maximum operating temperature of +105C, minimum operating temperature of -55C and a voltage of 25V dc. [16] Total number of capacitor required for the bank = = 7 capacitors.
Total ripple current of the capacitor bank = 7 3.4 = 23.8 A. Therefore, 7 capacitors are connected in parallel to achieve a capacitive value of 154 uF which is very close to the desired value of 156 uF and the capability to handle a ripple current of 23.8 A to that of 15A. A picture of the capacitor bank is shown below in figure 27:
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Figure 27: A picture of the capacitor bank for the buck converter.
Measurement of the capacitance

The capacitance of the designed capacitor bank is measured using the Wayne Kerr Automatic Precision Bridge B905A instrument. Before measuring the capacitance, the instrument is setup to measure capacitance in parallel and then calibrated by connecting the two positive test plugs together and then pressing CE Trim. The two positive test plugs are then connected to two ends of the capacitor bank and the value displayed on the instrument screen is recorded. The desired capacitive value for the buck converter = 156 uF. The measured capacitive value using Wayne Kerr instrument = 144.5 uF. The capacitance of the buck converter is designed within the 20% tolerance value.
Time constant of the LC circuit

The time constant of the inductor and capacitor bank used as a filter in the buck converter are calculated below: Time Constant, T =
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= = 11.4 us This is the time constant for one complete cycle. And therefore, the two mosfets should be driven at a period lower than this in order for the inductor to get fully discharged.
Device under Test

The device under test (DUT) used to test the product is a combination of two 1 power resistors connected in series which can draw a current of 6A from the battery or supply.
How the whole circuit is expected to work

The main purpose of the circuit is to be able to output different levels of the input voltage which are being specified by the user in the form of duty cycle. This will allow the user to generate a waveform of different voltage levels over a period of time. The first approach to generate a waveform is to define the duty cycles of the PWM waveform required for different voltage levels in the Arduino software window as well as the period of the waveform and the output pin. Once the parameters are being defined, the code is compiled and uploaded in the Arduino development board. This will produce a user defined 5V peak to peak PWM waveform from the specified pins. The waveform is then fed into a mosfet driver circuit which converts low power 5V peak to peak TTL output from the Arduino development board into a high output voltage which is equal to the supply voltage. The mosfet driver circuit produces a 12V peak to peak PWM waveform and a 5V peak to peak PWM both of which are out of phase to each other. The two waveforms are then applied to the gates of the two mosfets in the buck converter. This will allow the two mosfets to switch at a synchronous rate, i.e. when one mosfet is on; the other mosfet is off. When the mosfet connected to the positive side of the 12 V supply is on, the energy from the supply flows into the 0.833 uH inductor in the buck converter which will charge up the inductor. At that time, the voltage across the inductor is equals to (Vin Vo). When the mosfet connected to the ground is switched on, the other mosfet will switch off. At that point, the energy stored in the inductor is being transferred to the 156 uF capacitor bank and the load. The voltage across the
33

inductor at that point is equals to Vo. The voltage across the capacitor bank and the load is equal to Vo as they are parallel to each other. For example, in order for the buck converter to output a pulse waveform where the voltage level changes between 0V and 6 V with a delay of 1ms between the change in voltage level, the user has to define the duty cycles of the output PWM waveform from pins of the Arduino board which is 50% and 100% in this case. A delay of 1ms is also defined in between the two duty cycles. This will result in the buck converter to output a 0-6 V pulse with a 1ms delay. An information flow diagram of the whole process is shown below in figure 28:
PC USER ARDUINO SOFTWARE ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT BOARD
PIN 10 SYNCHRONOUS BUCK CONVERTER
MOSFET DRIVER CIRCUIT

LOAD
DC
Figure 28: An information flow diagram of the whole process.
Initial rejected solution for the project Solution 1

The first solution considered before the Arduino controlled buck converter is using an on-load tap changers to control the voltage level from a DC battery. The idea was to use a software development board like Arduino to switch specified connection points in the tap changer. One form of the tap changer circuit is shown below in figure 29:
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Figure 29: Tap changer circuit. [17] The main issue with the tap changer solution was the high number of taps required to be able to change the input DC voltage to 320 different levels which will make the product expensive and bulky. At the same time, it is difficult to create an interface between the tap selectors of the tap changer with the software development board. As a result, this method was rejected due to the failure of generating fast transient waveforms.
Solution 2
The other alternative solutions considered for this project was the use of a resistor bank to fluctuate the voltage level in the battery. Each resistor in the resistor bank is connected on parallel to a solid state switch which is being controlled from the input/ output pins on the software development board. This method is based on the principle of potential divider circuit where the output voltage depends on the value of the resistor across the load. A circuit diagram of the solution is shown below in figure 30:
35

SOLID STATE SWITCH RESISTOR BANK
12V
PC USER SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT BOARD LOAD
SOFTWARE
SIGNAL FROM SOFTWARE BOARD TO SOLID STATE SWITCH
Figure 30: The circuit diagram of the resistor bank and the sold state switch solution. The main issue with this solution was that the resistors in the resistor bank can get hot when connected to a 12 V supply and will result in power dissipation from the resistors which will bring down the efficiency of the entire system and this will drain the power from the battery which is not suitable. To overcome this problem, the resistors must be attached to large heat sinks but it will make the product expensive to manufacture and also heavy to carry around. Considering all the above drawbacks, solution 2 was rejected.
Research on similar product in the market

A comparison is done between the market product and the product developed from this project. Feature and Cost Evaluation between products Feature Generation of test waveform Generation of Ground offset voltage Used in vehicle testing Used in System testing User defined voltage LVTGO-VBS YES YES YES YES YES LCHCWG (expected) YES NO YES YES YES
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fluctuation Tolerant High transient current Used in Capacitive loads testing Use car battery as a supply CAN feature Cost of manufacturing
YES YES YES YES 2000
YES YES YES NO 50
Cost of the Product

Components used Arduino Development board Transistor 2 1K resistor 3 2.2K resistor 2 100 uF capacitor 1 P14 NF10 mosfet 2 Wire for inductor coil 22uF capacitors 7 Total Price () 18.04 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.14 1.156 18 11.76 49.75
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Results and Discussion

1. An analysis was done on the continuous PWM waveform obtained from pin 10 of the Arduino development board. Since the PWM waveform generated was a continuous waveform, a part of the waveform was analysed and the measurements taken using the oscilloscope are tabulated below: Time (us) 0 1 1.999 2.001 3 3.999 4.001 5 5.999 6.001 7 7.999 8.001 9 9.999 10.001 11 11.999 12.001 13 13.999 14.001 15 15.999 16.001 Expected logic voltage Actual logic voltage 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4.7 5 4.7 5 4.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4.7 5 4.7 5 4.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4.7 5 4.7 5 4.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4.7 5 4.7 5 4.7 0 0
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A graph of the expected and actual voltage PWM waveforms is shown below in figure 31:
6 5
Logic voltage 3 (V)

2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time (us)
Figure 31: A comparison of expected logic voltage (coloured red) and actual voltage (coloured green). From the graph it is seen that the actual logic voltage from pin 10 of the Arduino board is 0.3V off the expected logic voltage. This has an insignificant effect as a logic voltage of 0 4.7V peak to peak is enough to drive any mosfet driver circuit. 2. An analysis was then done of the two continuous out of phase PWM waveform obtained from the Mosfet Driver Circuit which is a Schmitt trigger. Since the two PWM waveforms generated were continuous waveforms, a part of the waveforms i.e. four pulses were analysed and the measurements taken using the oscilloscope are tabulated below:
Time (us)
0 1 1.999 2.001 3
Expected voltage from pin 4 0 0 0 5 5
Actual voltage from pin 4 0 0 0 4.7 4.7
Expected voltage from pin 2 5 5 5 0 0
Actual voltage from pin 2 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0
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3.999 4.001 5 5.999 6.001 7 7.999 8.001 9 9.999 10.001 11 11.999 12.001 13 13.999 14.001 15 15.999 16.001 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 4.7 0 0 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 0 4.7 4.7 4.7 0 0 0 4.7
A graph of the expected and actual voltage of two out of phase PWM waveforms from pin 2 and pin 4 of the Schmitt trigger is shown below in figure 32:
6 5
Voltage
4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Time (us)
Figure 32: Comparison of the expected and actual waveforms from pin 2 (coloured violet and blue) and pin 4 (coloured red and green) of Schmitt trigger.
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From the graph, it is seen that the waveform from pin 2 is inverted compared to the input waveform whereas the waveform from pin 4 is the same as the input waveform. Both waveforms are expected to be 0 5V peak to peak but the outputs from the pins in Schmitt trigger are 0 4.7 V as a result of the input waveform to the Schmitt trigger which is 0 4.7 V from the Arduino board. The output waveforms from the Schmitt trigger are not enough to trigger the two Mosfets in the buck converter as the gate threshold voltage of the Mosfets are higher than the applied voltages. Therefore, the approach of using a Schmitt trigger as a Mosfet Driver Circuit is rejected. 3. Another analysis was done on the actual inductance value and the measured value using Wayne Kerr Automatic Precision Bridge B905A instrument. The theoretical inductance value for the buck converter is 0.833 uH whereas the measured inductance value is 0.886uH.The difference between the theoretical and the measured inductance is within the tolerance level of the circuit which is 20% and therefore have insignificant effect on the operation of the buck converter circuit. 4. The next analysis was done on the capacitive value of both actual and experimental, using the Wayne Kerr Automatic Precision Bridge B905A instrument. The theoretical capacitive value for the buck converter is 156 uF whereas the measured value is 144.5uF. The difference between the theoretical and measured capacitance has an insignificant effect on the operation of the buck converter circuit as it is within the tolerance limit of 20%. 5. A final analysis was then done on the relationship between the duty cycle and the output voltage from the buck converter. This is important as the user determines the voltage level required for creating a waveform in the code in the form of duty cycle. The duty cycle of the PWM waveform at the gate of the Mosfet is varied within a range of 10-90% and the output voltages from the converter are tabulated below:
Duty Cycle Expected output voltage(V) Actual Output voltage (V) % 10 1.2 1.28
41

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2.4 3.6 4.8 6 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 2.54 3.5 4.4 5.34 6.3 7.32 8.3 9.2
The graph in figure 33 below shows the relationship between the duty cycle and the output voltage.
12 10
Output voltage (V)
8 6 4 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Expected output voltage(V) Actual Output voltage (V)
Duty cycle (%)
Figure 33: The relationship between the duty cycle and the output voltage. From the graph, it is seen that there is significant difference between the expected and the actual output voltage for each duty cycle. The difference between them varies from 0.08 1.6 V. The main reason for this is that the inductor and the capacitor of the buck converter are designed for the switching frequency defined in the specification of the project whereas the mosfets are switched at a much lower frequency as the waveforms at the gates of the mosfets get distorted at the specified frequency. This will result in losses across the inductor and the capacitor as the charging and discharging time of the filters (inductor and capacitor) is much lower than the switching time of the mosfets.
42
Conclusion and Recommendations for Further Work

The aim of the project is achieved successfully by following five key objectives which involve benchmarking of the product, identifying the advantage of the product over other market products, building cost-effective hardware, driving the product with software and generating a sequence of test waveforms. A market research on the product resulted in the finding of LVTGO-VBS which has similar functionalities to the product mentioned and a brief comparison between the two products is also tabulated in the report. The hardware of the product is driven by an Arduino development board which allows the user to control the output voltage from the product. A cost-effective hardware for the product was designed where limitations in the component used limited the product to reach its full potential. This is due to the incapability of the Mosfets to handle high frequency signal and as a result, the product is driven at a much lower frequency. Therefore, the output voltage from the product is not exactly same as the expected output voltage which resulted in the failure of generating a sequence of test waveforms. Future works on the product involve the following: Improving the frequency at which the product works. Introducing CAN (controller area network) feature in the product. Generating sequence of test waveforms.
43
Reference
[1] ADD2. Low Voltage Tester Ground Offset Vehicle Battery Simulator, Version 3, p.1-20. [2] V. Madhuravasal; S. Venkataraman; C.G. Hutchens. Buck-Converter Design for Power in Plus 275??C Environments. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, 2012, 48 (1), pp. 304 312. [3] M.Ponugubati. DC-DC Converters. Lecture delivered in Power Systems, Energy Converters and Drives, Unit code: EEC_6_491_1213. London Southbank University, 2012/13. [4] B. Hauke. Basic calculation of a Buck Converters Power stage. [ Aug 2012]. [Online] Available from: http://www.ti.com/lit/an/slva477a/slva477a.pdf [ Accessed 25Apr 2013]. [5] J. Segura, C. Hawkins. CMOS Electronics: How It Works, How It Fails. Wiley-IEEE Press, 2004. [Online] Available from: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5237840&cont entType=Books+%26+eBooks&refinements%3D4291944823%26searchField %3DSearch_All%26queryText%3Dhow+capacitor+works [Accessed 25 Apr 2013]. [6] Murata Manufacturing Co. Basic Facts about Inductors [Lesson 1] Overview of inductors - "How do inductors work?", 12 Dec 2010. [Online] Available from: http://www.murata.com/products/emicon_fun/2010/12/inductor_en15.html [Accessed 25 Apr 2013]. [7] R. Nave. The Schmitt Trigger, [no date]. [Online] Available from: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/schmitt.html [Accessed 08 Apr 2013]. [8] ISOCOM Components. High density Phototransistor Optically Coupled Isolator, [no date]. [Online]. Available from: http://docseurope.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/0265/0900766b802655bc.pdf [Accessed 14 Apr 2013]. [9] S. Portz. Transistor, [no date]. [Online]. Available from: http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae430.cfm [Accessed 14 Apr 2013].
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[10] Circuits Today. Working of a capacitor, [14 Dec 2009]. [Online]. Available from: http://www.circuitstoday.com/working-of-a-capacitor [Accessed 26 Apr 2013]. [11] Arduino Uno SMD Rev3, [no date]. [Online] Available from: http://docseurope.electrocomponents.com/webdocs/11af/0900766b811af13a.pdf . [Accessed 24 Apr 2013]. [12] RS Online. TDS2004B oscilloscope, 60mHz, colour, [no date].[Online]. Available from: http://uk.rs-online.com/web/p/digital-oscilloscopes/6170082/ [Accessed 25 Apr 2013]. [13] National Semiconductor. CD40106BM/CD40106BC Hex Schmitt Trigger, [Feb 1988]. [Online]. Available from: http://www.pablin.com.ar/electron/circuito/auto/baliza/cd40106.pdf [Accessed 14 Apr 2103]. [14] ST Microelectronics. ST. N-CHANNEL 100V - 0.115 W - 15A TO220/TO-220FP/D2PAK LOW GATE CHARGE STripFET II POWER MOSFET, [no date]. [Online] Available from: http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/stmicroelectronics/7779.pdf [Accessed 08 Apr 2013]. [15] LCB Systems. Inductor Calculators, [no date]. [Online]. Available from: http://lcbsystems.com/InduCalc.html [Accessed 25 Apr 2013]. [16] RS Online. Solid Al cap Radial NS series 25V 22uF, [no date]. [Online]. Available from: http://uk.rs-online.com/web/p/aluminiumcapacitors/7149635P/?searchTerm=7149635P&relevancydata=636F3D3126696E3D4931384E525353746F636B4E756D6265724D504 E266C753D656E266D6D3D6D61746368616C6C26706D3D5E5C647B362C 377D5B4161426250705D2426706F3D313426736E3D592673743D52535F53 544F434B5F4E554D424552267573743D37313439363335502677633D4E4F 4E4526 [Accessed 26 Apr 2013]. [17] D. Gao; Q. Lu; J. Lou. A new scheme for on-load tap-changer of transformers. Power System Technology, 2002. Proceedings. PowerCon, 2002, vol. 2, pp. 1016-1020.
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Appendix
Approach 1 software code
46
Approach 2 software code
47

CD40106B Hex Schmitt Trigger datasheet
48
P14NF10 N-channel mosfet datasheet
49
Low cost High Current waveform generator
Low Cost High Current Waveform Generator
Interface with PC
Voltage Control Pulse Width Modulation
Constant Current and Voltage
Connection with PC via USB Software
Store Data Microcontroller

PIC32MX320F12 PIC32MX320F12
Current = 70A
Voltage = 0-32V
Development interface
User Interface
Switching speed 1ms step
Current
Voltage
Cable
70A
Project Planning
Work breakdown structure
Installation Process
Development Code e.g., defining the parameter
Simple User Command
Lower limit = 0V Nominal = 16V Upper limit = 32V
Rated 70A
Accuracy Programming Language: using an environment based on the original Arduino IDE Graphical Interface
Easy to Use
50
Gantt chart
Milestone 1: Submission of progression report Milestone 2: Christmas break Milestone 3: Submission of interim report. Milestone 4: End of project.
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Final Project Report

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Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Technical Background and Context

Buck converter and components

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 1: A basic synchronous buck converter [2]

How Buck converter (synchronous) works

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Calculation of synchronous buck converters power stage

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

What is Mosfet and how it works

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 5: Different states of nMOS and pMOS. [5]

What is inductor and how it works

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Where: L = Inductance required. = Permeability of free space, 4 .

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 8: The behaviour of an inductor under DC current. [6]

What is Schmitt trigger and how it works

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

What is optocoupler and how it works

Figure 10: A schematic diagram of an optocoupler. [8]

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

What is capacitor and how it works

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Specification of the product

Design of the product

Generation of PWM waveform

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 16: A PWM waveform with a period of 100 us.

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 17: Code in the Arduino software window.

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Apparatus information (TDS 2004B Four Channel Oscilloscope)

Mosfet Driver Circuit (Generation of synchronous PWM waveforms)

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 19: Two out of phase PWM waveforms.

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Problem with the approach

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Figure 24: Voltage level of the gates in the Mosfets.

Construction of an air cored inductor

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Then the next step is to calculate the inductance using equation 2:

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

Low Cost High Current Waveform 2013 Generator

An approximate of 3 turns is required to achieve an inductance of 0.833uH.