Introduction To Iron Ore

Protective Coatings, Mining Concept
Protective Coatings Mining Concept

- An Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining
AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013
Overview
Introduction to Iron Ore
Top Iron Ore Producing Countries Iron Ore Mining Iron Ore Processing
Direct Shipping Ore Hematite Magnetite
Iron Ore Stockyards & Transportation Iron Ore Export/Transportation Supporting Infrastructure Supporting Slides Protective Coatings Cube systems References
INTRODUCTION TO IRON ORE
What is Iron Ore?

Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically extracted
The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple to rusty red
The iron itself is usually found in the following forms:

Magnetite (Fe3O4)
(72% Fe)
Hematite (Fe2O3)
-
(70% Fe)
(63% Fe)
Goethite (Fe2O3s H2O) Limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O))

a mixture of hydrated iron oxides (up to 60% Fe)
Siderite (FeCO3)
Hematite and Magnetite are the most common types of iron ores extracted by mining companies, the latter being a variant of another iron deposit called Taconite
(Taconite = BIFs (Banded Iron Formations))
What is Iron Ore?

Iron (Fe) is one of the most abundant rockforming elements, constituting about 5% of the Earth's crust
It is the fourth most abundant element after oxygen, silicon and aluminium And after aluminium, the most abundant and widely distributed metal
Iron is indispensable to modern civilization and people have been skilled in its use for more than 3000 years
However, its use only became widespread in the 14th century, when smelting furnaces (the forerunner of blast furnaces) began to replace forges
About 98% of world iron ore production is used to make iron in the form of steel
Banded Iron Formations

Most of the world's important iron ore resources occur in iron-rich sedimentary rocks known as Banded Iron Formations (BIFs)
BIFs are almost exclusively of Precambrian age (i.e. greater than 600 million years old) BIFs occur on all continents
In many instances they are mined as iron ores, but most importantly they are the source rocks for most of the large high-grade concentrations of iron ore currently mined throughout the world
Example of BIFs
Iron ore mining Rio Tintos Pilbara operations

What is Iron Ore?

Hematite and Magnetite deposits are most commonly found in banded iron formations (BIFs)
BIFs are a class of sedimentary rocks that can be dated as far back as the Proterozoic Econ (2500-500 mill yrs ago), and are found ww. These ore deposits consist of several layers alternating between hematite, magnetite, and many other mineral quartzes such as chert and silica The amount of iron found in BIFs typically varies from 20% to 35%, but percentages of more 55% do occur less frequently
Natural ore/Direct shipping ore is the name for ores carrying very high quantities of iron (usually Hematite)
Means they can be fed directly into iron making blast furnaces Most reserves already depleted Magnetite and taconite ores experience a longer, more effortful separation process
Iron ore is the raw material used to make pig iron, which is one of the main raw materials to make steel
98% of the mined iron ore is used to make steel
Magnetite I
Magnetite is an iron oxide mineral generally black in colour and highly magnetic, the latter property aiding which helps in the beneficiation of magnetite ores Magnetite mineral contains 72.4% iron, which is higher than hematite but the presence of impurities results in lower ore grade, making it more costly to produce the concentrates used in steel smelters Magnetite mining is an emerging industry in Australia with large deposits in the Pilbara region of WA being developed
Like hematite ores, magnetite ores require initial crushing and screening, but undergo a second stage of processing that relies on the magnetic properties of the ore and involves magnetic separators to extract the magnetite and produce a concentrate.
Magnetite is increasing its presence in world production
Magnetite II
The key economic parameters for magnetite ore being economic are the crystallinity of the magnetite;
the grade of the iron within the banded iron formation host rock and the contaminant elements which exist within the magnetite concentrate
The size and strip ratio of most magnetite resources is irrelevant

A BIF can be hundreds of meters thick, extend hundreds of kilometers along strike, and can easily come to more than three billion or more tonnes of contained ore The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron
This can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight, to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus, 37% silica and less than 3% aluminium
Magnetite
Hematite
Hematite iron ore deposits are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica, with the largest intensity in South America, Australia and Asia Hematite is an iron oxide mineral
It is non-magnetic and has colour variations ranging from steel silver to reddish brown. Pure hematite mineral contains 69.9% iron The word comes from the Greek world Haematite, meaning 'blood-stone
Been the dominant IO mined in Australia since the early 1960s and approximately 96% of Australia's iron ore exports are high grade hematite High grade hematite ore is referred to as direct shipping ore (DSO) because it is mined and the ores go through a relatively simple crushing and screening process before being exported for use in steel making. Australia's hematite DSO from the Hamersley region in WA averages from 56% to 62% iron Hematite ores dominate the world production of iron ores and are sourced mainly in Australia and Brazil
Hematite
DSO - Direct Shipping Ore

DSO deposits (typically composed of hematite) are currently exploited on all continents except Antarctica
Largest intensity in South America, Australia and Asia
The predominant minerals in DSO are usually the ferric iron oxides hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH) and/or limonite (FeO(OH).nH2O)
Most large hematite iron ore deposits are sourced from altered banded iron formations and rarely igneous accumulations
DSO deposits are typically rarer than the magnetite-bearing BIF or other rocks which form its main source or protolith rock, but are considerably cheaper to mine and process as they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content
DSO ores can however contain significantly higher concentrations of penalty elements, typically being higher in phosphorus, water content (especially pisolite sedimentary accumulations) and aluminum (clays within pisolites)
Export grade DSO ores are generally in the 6264% Fe range
Iron Properties
Iron is unusual in being magnetic (magnetite)
if you dangle a piece it will turn to face north-south
Iron is a silver-grey metal which quickly corrodes or rusts (it forms a red powder called iron oxide) when exposed to air and water. Iron is quite soft and easily worked, but when made into steel iron is very strong Iron has the symbol Fe from the Roman word ferrum Iron has a very high melting point of 1535oC
Iron Ore Facts

China consumes about 60% of the worlds iron ore Most IO mines are open cut
-Worlds largest underground IO mine is Swedens Kiruna mine
Iron is the world's most commonly used metal

Steel, of which iron ore is the key ingredient, representing almost 95% of all metal used each year Other applications of iron include:
Production of magnets Catalytic functions Medicinal purposes Pigmentation of inks, dyes, paints, make-up
Usage of Iron Ore I

From ore to produce:
1.Iron ore is extracted from surface rock, crushed and sorted 2.Transported to customers (smelters), usually by ship
3.Iron ore is smelted in by the customers in blast furnaces, by feeding the furnace ore and coke and very hot air is blasted in
4.The chemical reactions that take place form a mixture of molten iron and slag 5.The dense iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped of once cooled its called pig iron 6.Pig iron is used to produce steel or is further refined to produce commercially pure iron
Usage of Iron Ore II

Cast iron:
Partly refined iron containing up to 5% carbon Is very hard, but brittle, and is ideal for molded parts like car engine blocks
Wrought iron
Nearly pure iron mixed with a glass-like material Is softer than cast iron and does not rust Used in outdoor furniture, railings and other decorations
Steel
The most common form of iron Contains around 1% carbon
Stainless steel
Contains chromium, making it very rust restistent Is ideal for vehicle parts, hospital equipment and cooking utensils
Tool steel
Extremely hard, heat treated steel that is used in metalworking tools
Iron Fun Facts I

The earth's magnetic field is due to the iron (and nickel) in its core, so when we use a compass we are making use of the iron underneath us
Iron is amongst the oldest metals known to humans. Paleolithic Man used finely ground haematite as rouge! Around 4000 BC, the Egyptians and Sumerians first used iron from meteorites to make beads, ornaments, weapons and tools The Iron Age was from 1300 - 1100 BC, when the Hittites were the first to forge iron (they heated it, then hammered it, then cooled it quickly to produce iron that was harder than bronze, which people had been using before) By the time of the Roman Empire, iron was being used for beds, gates, chariots, nails, saws, axes, spears, fishhooks and tools for sharpening
Iron Fun Facts II

During the Middle Ages, with the introduction of the iron cannon and cannon ball, the consumption of iron increased to overtake copper and bronze as the most widely used metal In the late 19th century the Age of Steel began, with wooden ships giving way to steel, machinery coming to the factories, and the invention of the railroad Today we use 20 times more iron (in the form of steel) than all other metals put together Steel is one of the world's most recycled products, with about 60% of steel available for recycling going back into making new steel
Thabazimbi iron ore mine, South Africa
TOP IRON ORE PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Top IO Producers in the World

Vale, BHP and Rio Tinto, known as iron ore's Big Three, produce about 70% of the world's sea-borne iron ore exports of about 1 billion tons a year
Vale is the worlds number 1 closely followed by Rio Tinto, with BHP Billiton on 3rd place
Top 10 IO producing countries:

1. China 2. Australia 3. Brazil 4. India 5. Russia 6. Ukraine 7. South Africa 8. USA 9. Canada 10.Iran
Production & Reserves by Country
Note: The mine production estimate for China is based on crude ore, rather than usable ore, which is reported for the other countries
Top IO Producers by Company
Mining iron ore is a high volume low margin business, as the value of iron is significantly lower than base metals
It is highly capital intensive, and requires significant investment in infrastructure such as rail in order to transport the ore from the mine to a freight ship
For these reasons, iron ore production is concentrated in the hands of a few major players
Iron Ore in China

Worlds largest IO producer
2011 figures: 43% or 1200Mt
The worlds largest consumer of IO

Estimated China imports more than 60% of the worlds total iron ore trade Used to fuel Chinas domestic steel production
Used for domestic demand and overseas fabrication work High IO prices lessens Chinas competitiveness
Chinese demand for iron ore whether imported or domestically produced is the key determinant of the outlook for the global iron ore market in the short run
Iron Ore in Australia

Australia has some of the largest iron ore deposits of their type and has a significant share of the worlds Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of iron ore
Australias IO production is found in the state of Western Australia

WA accounted for 97% of the nations total production and total exports in 2011 and about 25% of the global production Markets: Asia, especially China, Japan & South Korea
Australias Economic Demonstrated Resources (EDR) of iron ore are around 28 billion tonnes with Western Australia accounting for about 98 per cent. Dominated by 3 main players:
BHP Billiton
7 mines, 1 port and rail network
Rio Tinto
13 mines, 3 shipping terminals at 2 ports and almost 1400km of rail network
Fortescue Metal Group (FMG)

3 mines, 1 port and rail network
Iron Ore in Brazil

Main areas for iron ore mining is found in the states of
Minas Gerais; the so called Iron Quadrangle or Quadriltero Ferrfero Para: Carajs area (Serra Norte, Serra Sul, Serra Leste & Serra So Flix) Accounts for approx. 98% of Brazils io production
Brazils reserves are known for their high metal content, which frequently exceeds 60%
Other important reserves:

Corumb in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul Rio do Peixe Bravo, Guanhes & Morro do Pilar in the state of Minas Gerais
IO production dominated by Vale

Vale holds approx. 31% of the worlds sea-born iron ore market
Iron Ore Demand & Supply 2010-2018
Iron Ore in India

The total recoverable reserves of iron ore in India are about
9,602 million tones of hematite 3,408 million tones of magnetite
Principal states producing IO:

Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Odisha, Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Rajasthan & Tamil Nadu
Indias IO export marketshare has declined the last years:

2007: 21% 2011. 11% 2012: ca. 5%
Known for being an unstable exporter of IO Export bans (due to environmental issues like illegal logging) Estimated that India will end 2013 as a net importer of IO The largest steel producers, TATA Steel & Steel Authority of India Ltd (SAIL), have their own IO mines
Iron Ore in Russia

Russia is one of the few countries with a developed ferrous metallurgy that can completely cover its domestic requirements for iron ore from its own resources
This is due to the presence of significant reserves of iron ore in the country, amounting to approximately 55Gt (55,000Mt) in 2011
However, in contrast to Australia and Brazil, the average iron content in the Russian iron ores is relatively low, less than 36%, and Russias reserves of rich iron ores are insignificant
Also extremely uneven distribution of iron-ore reserves within the country
IO deposits are located in the Urals and Siberia regions with the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) being Russia 's major iron ore mining region
Production of crude iron ore in the country :
Central Federal District (CFD) accounts for 44-47% Northwest Federal District (NWFD) is responsible for 21-23% Urals Federal District (UFD) for 22-23%
Most of Russia 's iron ore mining companies form part of large steel enterprises that are vertically integrated
Worlds IO Consumers
The top consumer of all countries is China
Being the largest importer and largest producer of IO in the world China imported 687 Mt of iron ore in 2011, accounting for 61% of global imports
Australia was Chinas top source of iron ore, with 296 Mt or 43% of its iron ore imports coming from Australia
Australia is also the dominant supplier to Japan and South Korea, supplying 62% and 68% of those countries iron ore imports respectively
Brazil supplies around a quarter of total iron ore imports to China, Japan and South Korea
Worlds Iron Ore Market

Historically IO prices have been decided in closed-door negotiations between the small number of miners and steelmakers dominating both spot and contract markets
Traditionally, the first deal reached between these two groups sets a benchmark to be followed by the rest of the industry
Todays system has moved away from the traditional ways to market-based pricing
Index-based quarterly pricing by the worlds 3 largest IO miners; Vale, Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton
Iron Ore Market: 2011-2013 trends

Declining demand in China led to drops in spot prices for iron ore, and the delay, cancellation, or reorganization of major production improvement projects worldwide
Global prices declined steadily since 2011, and in September 2012, they reached the lowest benchmark prices since 2009 at US $86
Mixed expectations to IO prices:
Different scenarios: high vs low prices
Highly dependent on the Chinese economy

Poor growth figures for China = lower IO price
Source: SEB Commodities Monthly 26th of March 2013
Worlds Iron Ore Market

Volatile market
- Price fluctuations
2007: less than $40/t 2012, Sept: $86/t 2013, March: $145/t
Forecasts for 2013 averages are:

US$127/t and US$121/t
IRON ORE MINING

Surface & Underground Mining
Introduction to IO Mining & Processing

Iron ore can, compared to some of the other substances being mined like gold and nickel, be relatively simple to process Iron ore is extracted, sorted, blended and washed before being transported to customers (Direct Shipping Ore), but if the grade of ore being mined is of poorer quality it experience a longer, more effortful beneficiation process
Iron Ore Mining

Iron is mined almost exclusively in surface operations
The most predominant surface mining methods used to extract iron ore are open-pit and open-cut methods
Underground IO mining does also exist

Largest underground IO mine is Kiruna mine in Sweden w/ 26mill mtpa (pictured below)
What to Consider Before Excavation Starts?

What is the quality of the ore?
Overburden and stripping ratios are important in determining whether a deposit will be mined
The stripping ratio describes the unit of overburden that must be removed for each unit of crude ore mined Stripping ratios increase with the quality of the ore being mined and cost factors related to beneficiation and transportation
Extraction Methods
The decision to employ underground or surface mining techniques is dependent on the proximity of the ore body to the surface Historically, underground mining methods, including caving and stopping, were commonly used to extract iron ores Underground methods are very expensive compared to open-pit and open-cut methods
Cant compete with high volume surface mines (like those in WA), and even if they can compete on cost, its very difficult to extract the high volumes required to make the development economically viable Open-pit and open-cut mining are considered to be the least expensive extraction techniques
IO Surface Mining
Surface mining methods are designed to extract ore from surface deposits
Overburden, the soil and rock material that overlies the mine area, is removed to expose the ore deposit
The ore bench is drilled, blasted, and hauled to a plant for beneficiation Overburden may be continually removed during the life of the mine as the highwall is cut back to permit deepening of the pit
Overview of Iron Ore Mining
Stage 1: Exploration, Evaluation & Planning

Ore bodies are identified and quantified by using a range of geological, geophysical and metallurgical techniques
Example being drilling for samples
The data from the exploration activities are logged, mapped, analyzed and interpreted through models
A detailed plan of which ore bodies to mine in what sequence, to deliver the required product quality at an appropriate cost, is developed
The process of mine planning commence many years before a mine is developed and continues on a day-to-day basis once the mine is operational
Stage 2: Clearing of Overburden, Drilling & Blasting

1. 2. Areas for open-pit mining are selected using the mine plan Overburden removed to expose the ore deposit
Overburden is then loaded by large hydraulic shovels into production trucks, which haul it to contour dumps
3. 4.
Identified areas are tagged Holes are drilled in an appropriate pattern by rigs
5.
Drill holes are fitted with an explosive and charged

Most used explosive is ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil)
6.
The resulting blast breaks the material to a size required for digging
Tagged and drilled holes

Video: http://www.minesurveyor.net/ssblast.php
Stage 3: Loading & Hauling

The broken material is loaded for transport by face shovels, excavators or front-end loaders into haul trucks Haul truck will then bring the ore material to the processing plant Though haul trucks are commonly used, overland conveyors are sometimes used to transport partially crushed feed at sites where there are long distances between the pits and process plants
Equipment Used for Surface Mining of IO

Drilling Rigs

Loaders: Front-end Loaders

Face Shovels / Excavators

Dump/Haul Trucks
IRON ORE PROCESSING
Iron Ore Processing: Intro

Although iron is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, comprising about 5%, the vast majority is bound in silicate or more rarely carbonate minerals
The amount of forces it takes to separate pure iron from these minerals are formidable and energy intensive, therefore all sources of iron used by human industry exploit comparatively rarer iron oxide minerals, primarily hematite and magnetite
Historically, much of the iron ore utilized by industrialized societies has been mined from predominantly hematite deposits with grades in excess of 70% Fe
These deposits are commonly referred to as "direct shipping ores" or "natural ores
Increasing iron ore demand, coupled with the depletion of high-grade hematite ores WW and led to development of lower-grade iron ore sources, principally the utilization of magnetite and taconite(BIFs)
Iron Ore Processing II

Historically, most iron ore was simply crushed and shipped directly to a blast furnace
Currently, some ores are high enough in iron content (greater than 50 percent) to be sent directly to furnaces without beneficiation activities other than crushing and washing Most ores extracted today, however, must undergo a number of beneficiation procedures to upgrade the iron content and prepare the concentrate for the blast furnace
Iron Ore Processing II

Very low grade Iron ore cannot be used in metallurgical plants and needs to be upgraded to increase the iron content and reduce the gangue content
Gangue is the unwanted minerals which are an intrinsic part of the ore rock itself
A process adopted to upgrade ore is called Beneficiation;

Iron ore is upgraded to a higher iron content through a variety of processes whereby extracted ore from mining is separated into mineral and gangue, the former suitable for further processing or direct use
Iron ore is being beneficiated all round the world to meet the quality requirement of Iron and Steel industries. However, each source of Iron ore has its own peculiar mineralogical characteristics and requires the specific beneficiation and metallurgical treatment to get the best product out of it
Choice of the beneficiation treatment depends on the nature of the gangue present and its association with the ore structure Several techniques such as washing, jigging, magnetic separation, advanced gravity separation and flotation are being used to enhance the quality of the Iron ore
Iron Ore Processing III

Processing of IO ranges from simple crushing and screening to a standard size, through to processes that beneficiate or upgrade the quality of the iron ore products
The process the ore goes through depends on the grade of ore being mined!
Beneficiation or upgrade is done by physical processes, which remove impurities by differences in particle density or size gravity or size separation
The processing may be wet or dry
Iron Ore Processing IV

The required Size for Pellet Plant feed differs from the different types of iron ore:
DSO: <32mm >6mm Hematite: <6mm Magnetite: 25-35m
Implications of this is that the lower quality of ore the more rigorous the processing will be more expensive To reach the specified grind size the ore material goes through several processes
The smaller the size, the longer the process!
Beneficiation
Beneficiation is defined as a variety of processes whereby extracted ore from mining is reduced to particles that can be separated into mineral and waste, the former suitable for further processing or direct use Beneficiation means the following as applied to iron ore: milling (crushing and grinding); washing; filtration; sorting; sizing; gravity concentration; magnetic separation; flotation; and agglomeration (pelletizing, sintering, briquetting, or nodulizing)
Milling and magnetic separation are the most common methods used Flotation is primarily used to upgrade concentrates from magnetic separation by reducing the silica content of the concentrate
Most beneficiation operations will result in the production of three materials:

a concentrate a middling or very low-grade concentrate, which is either reprocessed (in modern plants) or stockpiled a tailing (waste), which is discarded in tailings dams
General Processing of Iron Ore

First step in iron ore processing is always liberation with the goal of to free iron-bearing particles
This process consists mostly of crushing and grinding
The ore must be ground to a particle size sufficiently close to the grain size of the iron-bearing mineral to allow for a high degree of mineral liberation
ref. required size for pellent plant feed for the different types of ore
Prior to grinding, the ore is crushed in up to six stages, depending on the hardness of the ore
One or two stages of crushing might be done at the mine before being shipped to the processing facility(primary & secondary crushing)
General Processing 1: Crushing

Initial/Primary crushing
Primary crushed iron ore is typically nominal 350mm in size The crusher systems used are usually gyratory or jaw crushers Cone crushers and High Pressure Grinding Roll are usually used for secondary and tertiary fine crushing After going through the primary crushing the ore is stored in a crushed ore stockpile (COS) In certain processed we also find Secondary and even Tertiary crushing happening after the initial crushing
Often making use of cone crushers or jaw crushers The crushers are usually feed using vibrating feeders
Crushers
Gyratory Crusher
Crushers II
Primary crushing plant with gyratory crusher for iron ore and overburden
The crusher is directly fed from two sides by means of dump/haul trucks
From Sino Iron project, WA, Australia
Crushers III
Jaw Crushers
Primary crushing machine used for coarse crushing plant in mine ore mining process
Cone Crusher
Mainly used in secondary or tertiary stone crushing process
High Pressure Grinding Roll

Consists out of two rollers with the same dimensions, which are rotating against each other with the same circumferential speed The special feeding of bulk material through a hopper leads to a material bed between the two rollers The bearing units of one roller can move linearly and are pressed against the material bed by springs or hydraulic cylinders The pressures in the material bed are greater than 50 Mpa
In general they achieve 100 to 300 MPa. By this the material bed is compacted to a solid volume portion of more than 80%
Feeders
Feeders are in charge of feeding material to the different units in the processing of iron ore:
Crushers Screens
Vibrating feeder
Different forms of feeders dependent on the need of the process/material

Apron feeder
General Processing 2: Screening

Main purpose of using screens is to remove undersize material from the feed to the next crusher and allow for a closed-circuit operation of the fine crushers
As a result screening is carried out at various stages in the crushing process
Screens are basically box frames into which sheets of screen meshes of the required apertures are inserted, clamped and tensioned
Screens are usually "multi-deck", i.e. two or more screen meshes are stacked vertically within the screen frame The whole screen is coupled to its support frame by springs or resilient rubber mountings and are made to vibrate by a rotating transverse shaft. The shaft is machined to be unbalanced, and when driven by an electric motor by v-belts, the required vibratory motion to agitate the aggregate is imparted.
Vibrating screens
Linear vibrating screen
Screening in operation
General Processing 3:
Further Crushing/Grinding/Milling
After crushing and screening the material is further reduced by wet grinding in rod mills or ball/pebble mills
The rod and ball mills are in closed-circuit with classification systems such as cyclones
An alternative to crushing (after primary crushing) is to feed some coarse ore directly to a wet or dry semi-autogenous or autogenous grinding mills
Followed by pebble/ball mills, rod mills or tower mills
The liberated particles should be removed from the grinding circuits as soon as they are formed/freed, with larger particles returned for further grinding/milling It should be noted that the grinding/milling solutions available are numerous, dependent on what is most economical and beneficial for the ore being processed
Autogenous Grinding/Semi-Autogenous Grinding Mills

Autogenous Grinding (AG) are socalled due to the self-grinding of the ore:
a rotating drum throws larger rocks of ore in a cascading motion which causes impact breakage of larger rocks and compressive grinding of finer particles
Semi-autogenous grinding mills (SAG) are essentially autogenous mills, but utilize grinding balls to aid in grinding like in a ball mill A SAG or AG mill is generally used as a primary or first stage grinding solution
Principle of SAG mill operations
Rod & Ball/Pebble Mills

Both rod mills and ball mills are fine grinders
Ball mills being the most used
Ball mills:
A slightly inclined or horizontal rotating cylinder is partially filled with balls, usually stone or metal, which grinds material to the necessary fineness by friction and impact with the tumbling balls
Rod mills:
A rotating drum causes friction and gradual reduction of particle size between steel rods and ore particles
Tower Mills
As with ball and rod mills, tower mills can be used for dry or wet grinding applications
often called vertical mills, stirred mills or regrind mills
Are a more efficient means of grinding material at smaller particle sizes, and can be used after ball mills in a grinding process Like ball mills, grinding (steel) balls or pebbles are often added to stirred mills to help grind ore, however these mills contain a large screw mounted vertically to lift and grind material
In tower mills, there is no cascading action as in standard grinding mills
General Processing 4: Blending

Blending is the process of blending different grades of ores in order to achieve the required final quality and consistency required by the consumers
The raw material that you get from any mine is never consistent in terms of quality
At an iron ore mine, the ore going into the blast furnaces must be blended so that the process can be controlled and the required minimum quality of iron produced
It is impossible to get an even quality of any mined ore if you simply use it as it comes out of the mine As a result, the blending process is a key function of most stacker/reclaimer stockyard systems
To achieve the required level of blending from a particular mine for a particular process, one must first determine the most appropriate combination of stacking system and reclaiming system
General Processing 4: Blending II

Type of stockyard equipment:
Stackers:
Slewing/luffing stackers Wing stackers Overhead stackers Circular Radial stackers Drum reclaimers Portal reclaimers Side scraper reclaimers Plough reclaimers Circular reclaimers Bridge scraper reclaimers
Combination:
Bucket wheel reclaimers Bridge bucket wheel reclaimers Halfbridge bucket wheel reclaimers Combination stacker/bucket wheel reclaimers
Reclaimers:
Multi-directional:
Circular stackers Uni- and bidirectional reclaimers
Further Processing
To maximize the recovery of iron-bearing minerals sometimes additional gravity separation processes are used: Jigging Dense Media Separation (DMS)
Dense Media Separation

High operating cost
Efficient separation
Depends on bottom size Near density material Optimize yield and recovery Lower tailings grades
Density Separation
Small effect on size
Jigging
Low operating cost
Less efficient separation
Narrow size classes Recovery losses Higher tailings grades

Size and density separation

To maximize the recovery of ironbearing minerals a Dense Media Separation (DMS) process is sometimes used
Heavy media or dense media separation include, baths, drums, larcodems, dyana whirlpool separators and dense medium cyclones
DMS is a process where a suspension of dense powder in water is used to form a type of heavier liquid to separate mineral particles in a sink-float process
Many modern dense media plants use this technology because it is both flexible and allows upgrading of resources thereby increasing overall profitability of the resource
The correct application of the DMS technology can increase the recovery of iron ore and increase the separation efficiency of the scrap metal recycling process
Dense Media Separation cont.
Jigging
Main purpose of jigging is to separate particles within the ore body, based on their specific gravity (relative density)
The particles would usually be of a similar size, often crushed and screened prior to being fed over the jig bed
There are many variations in design; however the basic principles are constant:
The particles are introduced to the jig bed (usually a screen) where they are thrust upward by a pulsing water column or body, resulting in the particles being suspended within the water As the pulse dissipates, the water level returns to its lower starting position and the particles once again settle on the jig bed As the particles are exposed to gravitational energy whilst in suspension within the water, those with a higher specific gravity (density) settle faster than those with a lower count, resulting in a concentration of material with higher density at the bottom, on the jig bed The particles are now concentrated according to density and can be extracted from the jig bed separately
Dewatering
The main processes that are used in dewatering include dewatering screens, sedimentation, filtering, and thermal drying
These processes increase in difficulty and cost as the particle size decreases
Dewatering screens operate by passing particles over a screen. The particles pass over the screen while the water passes through the apertures in the screen
Only viable for coarse ores that have a close size distribution as the apertures can allow small particles to pass though and are not able to be produced for small particles
Sedimentation operates by passing water into a large thickener or clarifier

In these devices, the particles settle out of the slurry under the effects of gravity or centripetal forces These are limited by the surface chemistry of the particles and the size of the particles. To aid in the sedimentation process, floculants and coagulants are added to reduce the repulsive forces between the particles. This repulsive force is due to the double layer formed on the surface of the particles. The floculants work by binding multiple particles together while the coagulants work by reducing the thickness of the charged layer on the outside of the particle
Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Direct Shipping Ore
Processing of Iron Ore; DSO

Processing of Direct Shipping Ore (DSO) is the simplest form of iron ore processing:
DSO passes through a simple crushing, screening and blending process (beneficiation) before it is shipped for steel production
Direct shipping ores, when mined, typically have iron (Fe) content of between 56% Fe and 64% Fe
The predominant minerals in DSO are usually the ferric iron oxides hematite (Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH) and/or limonite (FeO(OH).nH2O)
As they require less beneficiation due to the higher iron content, DSOs are considerably cheaper to mine and process compare to Hematite and Magnetite
Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Hematite
Processing of Hematite
Due to the high density of hematite relative to silicates, ore separating line usually involves a combination of crushing and milling as well as heavy liquid separation
Heavy liquid separation is achieved by passing the finely crushed ore over a bath of solution containing bentonite or other agent which increases the density of the solution
When the density of the solution is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed
Hematite goes through the following processes:

Crushing & Screening (several processes) Milling & Grinding Heavy Liquid Separation / Dense Media Separation / Jigging
Processing of Hematite: Milling & Grinding

Milling is the process of reducing the size of the ore material further before it can enter the grinding stage The ore comes from the crushers (primary/secondary crushers) and enters the milling and grinding equipment
Grinding mills: autogenous grinding mill (AGM), cyclones, pebble mill, ball mill, high pressure grinder roll,
AGM are often found in closed circuit with cyclones and pebble crushers/mills
Grinding equipment: processing mill, energy-saving ball mill fine sieve grading equipment, vibrating screen, spiral classifier
Processing of Hematite:
Cleaning the material further Can be reversed or direct floatation
Heavy Liquid Separation/Floatation
Main purpose of floatation is to add additional recovery
One method of processing hematite relies on passing the finely crushed ore over a bath of solution containing bentonite or other agent which increases the density of the solution
When the density of the solution is properly calibrated, the hematite will sink and the silicate mineral fragments will float and can be removed
The basics principles of floatation:

The finely powdered ore is mixed with water to form a slurry The desired mineral is rendered hydrophobic by the addition of a collector chemical. The particular chemical depends on which mineral is being refined. This slurry (more properly called the pulp) of hydrophobic particles and hydrophilic particles is then introduced to a water bath which is aerated, creating bubbles The hydrophobic particles attach to the air bubbles, which rise to the surface, forming a froth The froth is removed and the concentrate is further refined
Floatation
Types of floatation:
Flash floatation Conventional floatation Tank cells Column cells Reagent Plants
Iron Ore Processing
Processing of Magnetite
Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite
Compared to Hematite, Magnetite goes through a more rigorous processing
This to ensure the iron ore reaches the quality required by the end users
The beneficiation of magnetite typically involves grinding to a particle size where magnetite is liberated form its silicate matrix The typical grade of iron at which a magnetite-bearing banded iron formation becomes economic is roughly 25% iron, which can generally yield a 33% to 40% recovery of magnetite by weight to produce a concentrate grading in excess of 64% iron by weight The typical magnetite iron ore concentrate has less than 0.1% phosphorus, 37% silica and less than 3% aluminium
Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite - Overview
Animation from Sino Iron Project in WA

Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite
Magnetite is magnetic, and as a result:
Easily separated from the gangue minerals Capable of producing a high-grade concentrate with very low levels of impurities
The grain size of the magnetite and its degree of commingling with the silica groundmass determine the grind size to which the rock must be comminuted to enable efficient magnetic separation to provide a high purity magnetite concentrate
This again determines the energy inputs required to run a milling operation
Mining of magnetite bearing BIFs involves coarse crushing and screening, followed by rough crushing and fine grinding to pulverize the ore to the point where the crystallized magnetite and quartz are fine enough that the quartz is left behind when the resultant powder is passed under a magnetic separator
Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite II
After the coarse and fine crushing, milling and screening the next step is to concentrate
Only around 30-35% of the crude magnetite becomes a shippable produce for iron making and a large amount of gangue is created
Magnetite is concentrated through the use of several techniques:

Magnetic separation Floatation
Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite III; Magnetic

Separation
Magnetic separation is a process in which magnetically susceptible material is extracted from a mixture using a magnetic force
Very useful in mining of magnetite due to its magnetic properties
The magnetite ore usually goes through several stages of magnetic separation (mostly 1 & 2)
1. Rougher Magnetic Separation 2. Cleaner Magnetic Separation 3. Second Cleaner Magnetic Separation
Magnetic separators available:

Wet and dry, low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS) Wet, high-intensity magnetic separation (WHIMS) Roll magnetic separators
Magnetic Separation; Wet Process
Magnetic Separation; Dry Process
Processing/Beneficiation of Magnetite IV;
Floatation
Flotation in iron ore beneficiation sometimes happen in addition to the magnetic separation, in order to clean the magnetite it from the silica
This to meet the silica and alumina specifications of the end product In some cases, siderite, an iron carbonate may occur in the magnetite-bearing BIFs and could warrant recovery by flotation if present in high enough amounts
Flotation systems for removing silica from magnetite ores have to be designed differently compared to the systems for treatment of hematite ore. There are several reasons for this but in all magnetite flotation, the collector must have the capability to float mixed magnetite-silica grains
In hematite flotation, the most normal case is to float fully liberated quartz from hematite
Example: The flotation phases for magnetite can employ conventional large-size mechanical cells, in addition to flotation columns
This process uses starch (depressant) and amine (quartz collector) as reagents to promote the separation of the contaminant mineral (quartz) from the iron-bearing mineral
Example of process flow for Samarcos Alegria and Fazendao mines ore produce, Brazil
Processing of Magnetite: Sino Iron Example

Once operating the project will:
Mine ca. 140 mill tonnes each year Process ca. 80 mill tonnes through the processing plant
Ore processing stages:

1. Ore into in-pit crushers 2. Crushed ore enters giant grinding mills where fine ore stream will be produced
Using 44 MW of power, over 17m tall
3. The ore stream enters the magnetic separators to become concentrate 4. The concentrate will be then be thickened and stored before being pumped 25km to the port 5. Arriving the port the concentrate is filtered to reduce moisture and stacked before loaded for export
Jotuns supply to the Sino Iron project is ca. 1,8 mill USD. Supplied by Jotun China and Jotun Australia
Thickener Tank/Tailings Thickener

One step in the refining process of the iron ore occurs in thickener tanks Iron particles, heavier than the waste material or gangue, settle into the bottom of these tanks and are recovered in the underflow The concentrated iron ore slurry (approximately 70% solids, by volume) is pumped from the underflow, mixed with calcium oxide (CaO)
Typical tailings thickeners
Iron Ore Tailings

Tailings are non-toxic and non-acid generating Tailings are the waste silica and quartz particles, as well as fine-grained ore that are unable to be recovered within the existing concentration processes Tailing discharges are typically 15-20% solids, with a fine colloidal fraction of iron stained quartz Iron stained quartz is responsible for the reddish hue that is produced when tailings come into contact with water
Iron Ore Tailings
Iron ore mine layout example

Mine: Sangan IO mine, North-eastern Iran
Further processing of Iron Ore

Further processing involves the agglomeration and thermal treatment of the concentrate to produce pellets which can be used directly in blast furnaces, or in direct reduction steel making plants
The pellets contain 65% to 70% iron
Additionally, when compared to hematite DSO, the magnetite pellets contain lower levels of impurities, particularly phosphorous, sulphur and aluminium
These pellets are premium products which attract higher prices from steel makers, offsetting the higher costs of producing magnetite pellets
NOTE: Further processing of io will not be covered as this is not part of the concept
IRON ORE STOCKYARDS & TRANSPORTATION

Iron Ore Stockyards

Stockyards are found at different stages of the mining and processing of iron ore
Crushing & Processing plant Export port
Stockyards are used to store, separate/blend the different sizes and qualities of material before export Machinery found:
Stackers Reclaimers Stacker reclaimers Conveyor belts
Stockyards are fed iron ore by either conveyors or trains dependent on where the stockyard is located (crushing, processing plant or port)
Iron Ore Stockyards: Rail Load-out

In the stockyard the processed ore is stockpiled and blended to meet the quality requirements set, before being reclaimed and conveyed to rail load-out The ore is then loaded into ore carriers for transportation to the port facilities
IRON ORE EXPORT / TRANSPORTATION

Iron Ore Transportation

Transportation of iron ore from mine to port is most often done by train
Can also be done by conveyors, trucks or via pipelines
A typical rail train for iron ore export in Australia can consist of:
9 locomotives 230 ore cars Over 2,4 km long!
Once the train arrives the port the ore cars go through the car-dumper:
The ore cars are rotated and the ore flows into bins and then is discharged onto conveyors
Iron Ore Export/Transportation:

If the iron ore is transported as a slurry from the processing facility to the port, some extra equipment is needed:
Slurry tank (mixing of the water and iron ore material) Pipeline for slurry transportation Dewatering plant at port site
Slurry Transportation
Overview of slurry tank
Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Export Terminal

Export terminals usual have facilities for:
train unloading product stockpiling and blending ship loading
The port is often purpose built for the exportation of iron ore
Iron Ore Export Ports: Examples
Dampier export terminal, AUS
Port Headland, AUS
Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Stockyard

When the ore has been unloaded from the chosen mode of transport, it is stockpiled in accordance to product type and the quality plan The ore will later be reclaimed and conveyed to the ship loader
Main machinery found will be the same as for the stockyard;

Stackers Stakers/reclaimers Conveyors Auxiliary equipment
Rotary bucket-wheel reclaimer
Iron Ore Export/Transportation: Ship-loading

The ore thats been reclaimed travels out the jetty/wharf on conveyors to the ship-loader
Vessels located along the berth will then be loaded by travelling, slewing and/or luffing ship loaders
SUPPORTING INFRASTRUCTURE
Supporting Infrastructure
Supporting infrastructure found in iron ore mines depends greatly on the set-up and demand form the mine itself and the processing process Examples of supporting infra:

Accommodation facilities Storage facilities Airport Desalination plant Dewatering plant Power plant Pelletizing plant
Note: pelletizing plant is not in focus for the concept unless part of the total mining project
Supporting Infrastructure Examples
Desalination plant
Concentrator & pellet plant
SUPPORTING SLIDES
Key Future Risks For IO Miners

Main challenge is the challenge inherent in building mines on time and budget
Other challenges are:
Increasing government intervention through fiscal regimes and resource nationalization Declining grades and rising costs Unstable market, very much dependent on the Chinese economy
Unstable prices and demands
Pelletizing of Iron Ore Example from Samarco

Introduction To Iron Ore

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Introduction To Iron Ore

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Protective Coatings, Mining Concept

Protective Coatings Mining Concept

AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013

Protective Coatings, Mining Concept

AW / Introduction to Iron Ore & Iron Ore Mining / 2013

Protective Coatings, Mining Concept