I

,/jPublishedby.:. Helin-.J \t

Box 445 Browns+ille, ,

CA 959.19 is.out permission

USA' in 1983.

5; --m-z. *I, ~_ .: ,I .I
!Thi~publf~~ation

of print _ of Helion.

Reproduced-by

Reproduction' of form is subject OF the original

trhis microfiche document to the same restrictions document.

in any as those

SIMPLIFIED FOR

WI,ND POWER SYSTEMS / EXPERIMENTERS / JACK f%RK

. ^.

.-

SlMPllFiED WlNo:POH(ER SYSTEMS FOR B(PERIMfN~R$ - . . Y

Secgnd Written Edition k Park '. 91342. for A .'II by Jack ,/' Published by/: HELION Copies ' Box

4301, Sylma?, Caliiornia 'p may be purchased 'c&m th%publisher k

11

. 6

.
Ipostage pa

.id. ,

@ Copyright reproduced

1975 without

by Jack P-ark. the'author's

No portion of this writtenpermission;

book ..'.

may- b$ L.~.

..

. a Ifyou have tried to find information on windmill design ~ ~~-- ~-~~-~~ ---~~----~~ if you havendesigned and buill-t a wiridmill, if methods, .. yo$'re merely interested in windmills, by now you have discovered that,most of-the information available requires h enough to satisfy training or is not complete ': . .engineering ;. 'your needs. cgrr &&ct> ._ " ,. .:'"-;*-z -. \ &.yd-, -i._\-.. -. *r--is>;4 This is the second edition of a book writte%'by an engineer * 'ii -' Y+-=-: who-:'has spent a mojor portion of his career teachfng.inexper.a This experience has assisted in ienced aerospace technicians. It is hoped that the-reduction of _ the writing of this text. . into simple graphs and arithmetic problems . complex math&matics 1 will allow a greater-segment of the innovative public to use To make-this book as useful fhe ftidamentals an-engineer has'. a+page has been_ devoted to graph reading, and as possibl.e, SF -', numerous,.examples are used to8.i11ustra\te ,,each step in the ., ' 'The design approa,ch ysed is not one -,windmill*design process. _- .of an exact but rather one of approximation - taking science, Numbers may not be exact, but, as_. best guesses and estimates.' these numbers are usuall$. we.11 with most any design problem, Spme experimenters will $nderstan'within necessary accuracy. . "under their belts'.' before these, d-ably need a few windmklls Therefore, the calculations become.sufficiently'a&%rate. vocabulary used.stresses conservative estima?tion vhere necessary. The windmills designed from the methods in this .m&nual may be but their performance should somewhat larger than necessary, 1' satisfy the designer's requirements. 1 this manual has been, and/will be updated, One further item: I The author welcomes All comments and " and improved. expanded, suggestions.
; .* i.&

"Sylmar, r

California.

1975

/Jack

Park t '

2eze

TABLE
FOREWORD

OF. CONTENTS
2

\,

r .

.r

.a 7 . .
,

i Wind Energy Available, Wind Power,, Windmill Size. Windmill Efficiency, Types of Windmills, Vertical Axis Windmills, Horizontal Axis Windmills, Hybrid Windmills. rT&k~ J4 ~RODYNAMIC DESIGN' 24 SECTION B, . . . Windmill Blade Angle Determination, Airfoil Aerodynamics, . Airfoils, Hybrid Blade Angles, Airfoil Section, Blade Area Determination I.

38 SECTION C .,. . STRUCTURAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN Structural Design, Centrifugal Force, Windmill Drag, Torque, Load Conditions, Blade Strength, Construction Safety Fact'or, Structural tiesign of Vertical Tube Spar. Design, Fatigue, Methods, and Hybrid \qindmills, Support Structures. __ Mecha'n$al Design. SECT?& D- . . . POWER SYSTEMS 56 Storage Batteries, EF'eTqy Storage, W,at,er . In-ferters. B,IBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX 'Windmill A Data 61 62 70 ' \
c

Fuel

Cells,

Flywheels,

Pumped

APPENDIX B Airfoil Data

APPENDIX C75 How to Read a Graph I APPENDIX Detailed APPENDIX * Strength D 76 Windmill E of -a Performance :,, Matekials

77 Construction

-.

..

..

D
. . .

m cn

elude how muchwind is available, Wind p"ower has been used by man where the de,,vice will be install,.. Starting year-s. -- for some g2300 ,,&ch money the Builde'r -$ .G' w$t$h, c.r~&& sail-type vanes, winded, bow . fiifl Ydegign to complete the pro' can muster through proq?essed the old Dutch four-blade horiz,or?"~~~~~~-~~-~ect, is-. complex .a system how machines, to very .axis .planned, etc. tal two-, and threeefficient one-, machines which blade high-speed use the latest in high-lift, lowand light-weight,. drag.airfoils, high strength structural materials. It is now possible for ex-' perimentor-sYto use today's advanTHE--DESIGN PRCCESS ced technology in the creatim of efficient, low- cost windmills. .
---_ _e

is the intent of this manual to provide the reader with the ,i engineering tools necessary .to . 'accomplish a respectable job of . designing and planning the construction of windmills (any .-ty?s of windmill device). Highly Pechnical discussion of the theoretical aspects of these tools will be neglected in this text, since 'such material 'is well documentedelsewhere. The engineering'tools highly are merely simplified equations and charts with examples of their' uses, each reduced so that a person with minimal algebra experience can apply them $0 his needs. This manual is writtsn to en. L courage, or to be a part of, the growing stimulus to experiment and develop power systems' at a grass-roots level. It is at this level that the urgency for development is most actively sensed. Ciaterial is presented in building block fashion so that the reader can appreciate the numerpus steps involved in the planning of a wind power sys tern. One should understand that the end use of wind power I whether for pumping waker or generating electricity or grinding will corn, role in key the final play a shape and size of the device being designed. Other factors in_5

It

Basically, the $ollow to complete cise are as follows: 1. 2. 3 Determine Determine the the

one may steps a design exer. needed. power wind.: .enerqv >--

the configuration windmill required to obtain power required from the energy available. II 4: Design of the the components windmill to satisfy aerodynarequiremics and structural ments. process may

---.

An alternate design be used as follows: 1.

of windmill and Select a type capable size which YOU feel of building. estimate,. or otherwise 2. Assume, determine a wind speed for the design. of the components 3. Design the aerodynawindmill to Satisfy requirest'ructural mic and ments.

then is Where we go from here, and for designing to a cookbook energy powered planning a wind your energy needs First, system.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. p

Perhaps the simplest@way to harness wind energy is to use which grows in most yards- - the trees. nature's windmill, floats to People are harnessing ocean wave power by tying As the floats bob up and down in the anchored generators. You the generator is driven by the attachment cable. waves, might suppose tRat a hand-operated water pump can be tied to a swinging tree by a rope and a return spring as illustrated here . . . .
.

POWER

REQUIRED
EXAMPLE You intend to pump water from a; well 150 feet down to a tank on a 50 foot high hill -thus total height equals 200 feet. that a flow rate of You figure hour will tend 400 gallons Per 'Horsepower required all needs. 200. feet on is found by locating the horizontal line, then looking 4Q.0 gallon. per hour. up to the then across to, the vertical line, read horsepower equals line to 0.94.

two different Let's 'consider devices. end uses for wind power this we can see the By doing thinking differences in basic these devices. needed to design that of use is the The first You have ,a well; you water pump. tise a windmill to pump wish to The second water up to a tank. of an electricuse will be that _ power generator. _ keep in mind that, One should in most' cases, determination of ,be a diffipower required will if not impossible task. In cult, some design cases, however, it as looking at may be as simple last month's'electric bill to see how much power was used. In any a point which will be made case, again is that wind energy is basically abundant and relatively easy to. convert. One should strive to ~design a higher power requirement than is calculated in the following -section of this book.

'

commercially Data supplied for pumps may be windmill available with power comparison used for remember One should estimates. estimation. CHART A allows that Conservative-windmill design will call for increasing the power rea factor estimate by quirement for eventual growth, for safety, P or both. like halfA factor or even twice the estimate again, is not unreasonable.

TIIC 'JATER Pc'!,IP To estimate needed to ZHE ELECTRIC PO:qER GENERATOR power pump water, you need to know how high you raise intend to the choice of hasa ' designer The wSte r , and how fast you intend to system. ' using either a DC or AC raise it. See Figure 1. The /'Automotive applications of elecresult of your calculation will tricity are typically DC, while / be horsepower required. This'is If one is wiring is AC. house different from horsepower availwind planning a small-cabrn with able from the wind. The differ* consias a primary power source, ence -lies in the efficiency, or the given to deration might be inefficiency (depending on how use of DC circuitry with low cost the deyou look at it) of all inverters used where AC is reIf vices used the work. to do allows the use of This quired. everything were like the textgenenew or recycled automotive (frictionless books always s ay the with alternators rators or power perfectly balanced, etc.) On the other hand, one windmill. power required would be equal to can inverter (expensive) large this is not the available. But, DC to AC for the entire convert case. Estimate power req&red to system. pump water by using CHART A.

1.

WATER

HEIGHT

FLOW RATE

l,oo .05 .09 .18 .36

200 .lO .20 .40 .80

* 300 .16 .33 .66 1.3

400 .24 .47 .94 1.9 t

HEIGHT
b

3 HORSEPOWER 2

4-00
HEIGHT CHART 8 A

600 (FEET)

800 _.

< .(. I c.

the, If 'a designer should l$H&&$&~ --light -,bulbs choose to say, generator' on the. g n:g$rcfi ' f--ye wind you plan to . install an AC $j?&~~&en l@~ht power. the design yproblem bewindmill, ',,; bulbs -cpmes complicated since and ACT currelectrical ,' ggggg&@&~;: :&-:i .gTg&gg +: :I -' uses up ent is held to a 60 'hertz.\f,resome p wer. t~a^g@gf$ :- c- _ installations, qlhay (hertz is a unit dX.\AC whe Yre tor and load are near. ea&%tX~-r, known f a;\ fr_equenSy--commonly line,loss seco-nd). -_ .Eleq'tric will ,cycles add about 3% -to per the energy. requirement. /' refrigerators --&d---in motors in Consult , Code Book, or an freque&y to -;a -. ,a" electrical clocks require this electri.ca.1 contractor for answers wind fspeed constant. But, be to questions-.on specific,installtends to change, which mean c that ations. InverfersX.can-be counted windmills driving AC genefators,' on to add aboutr' 25% to&he load. must be designed to. hold ,a con.The generator itself may b~ec.o n-' stant rotational speed (whjch deted as part of tile load and wi'?-,,. termines the frequency of fhe AC f due to its own inefficiency, ad d "'~~~--~___ generator) over\ a range of wind as much as 50% more to the speeds,,' with generator cut-off load. Again, just add up the loads. Use when-- ~wind speed is outside the the following handy-chart, qesign range. Simplified; design (from a DWP brochure) for rapid estimatends to indicate the use of a DC tion. generator, with AC conversion by . * 4 electronic inverters where necessary. @, . , , Estimated -Electrical power required will not always (usually nevexr)' equal wind energy. available. From this , it is evident that some form of enerqy storage system is required - like batteries. An entire section of this manual discusses energy storage. It follows, how- + ever, that some form of-decision must be made as to how much power should be generated in rel tion -K to how much is needed. For this, consider first the maximum continuops electrical then, for how long it's
APPLIANCE / Average : Wattage kWH Conylmed Per Mpnth _ Air Conditioner (Window) 1,325 -Bed Covering (Automatic) 190 Broiler 1,560 Clock 7 .< Cloth&s Dryer (. 4,350 Coffee Maker (Automatic) Deep Fat Fryer 1,440 Dishtiasher Fan (Attic) 365 Fan (Circulating) Food Blender 2:: Food Freezer (Standard, 15 cu. ft.) 350 Fjood Freezer (Frostless, 15 cu. ft.) 440 Food Waste Disposer 400 Frying Pan IAutomatIc) 1,160 Grill (Sandwich) . Hair Dryer 260 Heat Lamp (Infrared) 250 Iron (Hand) I ,085 Iron (Mangle) 1,500 Radio Radio-Phonograph 1:: Range c 12,000 Refrigerator (Standard, 12 cu. ft.) 265 Refrigerator (Frostless, 12 cu. ft.) 295 Refrigerator-Freezer - _ . (Standard, 14 cu. ft.) 290 Refrigerator-F,reezer (Frostless. 14 cu. ft.) l 435 Roaster 1,325 255 Television (Black & White) 315 Television (Color) 1,130 Toaster Vacuum Cleaner l.% Portable Heater 600 Washing Machine (Automatic) 280 Washing Machine (Non-Automatic) 4.500 Wat@r Heat& A 100.Watt light bulb burning 10 hours uses 1 KWH of electricity (Based mainly on national averages)

a50 1,180

a 2 70 a a
29 27 4

\
\, \ 4

88
127 2 16 3

1.180

ELECTRIC

POSIJERREQUIRED

Electric 'power ' required is a problem in two parts; how much, 'and for how long - both parts being equally important. _ . 1. How much -simply add up the known, or expected loads. The units of load will be watts -or kilowatts (1000 watts). The load goes beyond just ,counting up all 9 .

30 38 3 3 100 7 323

EXAMPLE installation For a small cabin with AC wiring and utilities, following loads are sestimated: Lights Refrigerator .Miscellaneous Total 500 300 250 lQ50 watts watts iwatts watts

the

hours, half of the required power even though the generator is ca' pable of the required watts. The +ey lies in the duration of the wind. It follows, then, that watt-hours ,ior kilotiatt-h rs, is pL( major the factor in des,igning ,a A windmill. ( ' _, EXAMPLE 1 -' ' i .A cabin Jith a maximum contin-. uous load df 2.5 kilowatts is estimated to'require this power for 50% of a d 4 y, or 12 hours. The wind averages a certain speed for ,4 hours peti day (averaged over a period of, say, a week). The problem, then, is to calculat% how much power the windmill must be designed for. Calculate kilowatt:hours: 2.5 x 12 = 30 Calculate f windmill power = 7.5 required kil&atts -. ..

; . '

Accounting for line,loss: 1.03 x 1050 = 108,2',watt's *Accounting fpr inverger: -1.25 x l-Q82 = 1353 watts Accounting for generator: 1.50 x 1.353 = 2030 watts total load. L

= *

, The fin,al'value do'sn't account that he for the fact 300 watt 4 motor in the refriger tor requires 3 to 6 times as &-I r h power for a ,few seconds each \ time 'it is started. We assume \that this extra load will be handled by pus<,+ batteries (energy sto The ^ ge I'. 2030 watts ,'then, equals * the load for which we might desi' a windmill. Provision for futu T e growth capabilities. can be 'made by designing, twice this say; to '1, value. 2. 'How long -we have

3Q- kilowatt-hours .A ~.T..

power ac- _ by .a windmill. Since only 2.5 kilopwatts are needed at any.given ti&,+and the 7.5 kilowatts windmill generates when i't; is windy, the extra power generated willbe stored in batteries until * such time ,aets;iJ, is --+-knot qqindy and t-h power :gs stiill

F$ 'q

hours o#r kilowatt-hdurs that will be needed. If, in the above dxample the maxi>um continuous load , 3: , were applied continuously for an entire 24-hour day, the watt-hour _ repuirement would be 24 x 2030 = 48,720 which equals 48.7 kilowath hours. If the win,dmill generates 2030 watts for 12 hours the power available would be 24.4 kilowatt-.

Owner-built

wind

generator

WIND

ENERGY

AVAILABLE
a Dwyer Windmeter. See $. I c Hold this device into,the wind and read wind speed directly. The accuracy of the Dwyer unit is sufficien,~om~;~d;a;rnddesign purposes. measuring devices Gay be considered also. called Photo A more elaborate survey is conducted by going the whole route of purchasing (or building) some form of recording wind speed device. Photo 2 illustrates a/ weather station which is available from many aircraft supply companies. Al& that is needed to make a recording station is a re.cycled movie camera modified to take a few frames of photo data every hour or so.

To develop a common ground of we should thought, consider the namely, that obvious, the geowhich gr.aphic area in the wind installed should device is to be be given to neither *too little, wind. nor too much Too 1ittl"e wind, and the required amount of power is difficult, to get, while' much too wind apart may break your hand-made device and deposit each component: thereof about the countryside.,, We shall discuss these extremes shortly, but for now let's assume enough wind. .Consider, first, why you are designing a windmill most importantly, what to do YOU intend with the-device, and where. Perhaps you own a-small ranch, a cabin spot in the hills, or some place to use the machine. Go Lhere and conduct a wind survey. A wind sur'vey can be done several ways. Start by asking local folks how much wind the' area gets, how fast it usually blows and which way. Set up your own wind recording station. This can be as elaborate, or as simple as you wish. The lowest cost method, sold for less ,than ten bucks at any source of supplies for the sport of hang-gliding, is

Photo

Dwyer

Iqindmeter

Photo

IJeather

Station

you will wnere In most areas likely consider installing a wind attempting power system you are to determine some form of average the period of wind speed during For small, time the wind blows. private uses of wind energy, the not be enwind survey dataneed tirely accurate but should, since wind energy is basically free for be somewhat conserthe taking, Keep in mind that a porevative. wind tion of the 'usable energy or pulses of comes from gusts, (and direcchanging wind speed Your windmillwill be a ti0.n') . mechanical conglomeration of >avy parts which take time to accelerate to a different speed, and a wind pulse of short duramay pass before the windmill tion can speed up to take advantage of the increased available. wind power. Similarly, a short duration slowing of the wind will not 'necessarily cause a noticeable change in the windmill, but in this case, since the windmill is presumably under load, it will, in fact, slow down whenever possible. From this we can see that a wind device tends to average the short duration gust pulses less constant into a more or power setting. Thusly, we can, concern ourselves for simplicity, with the average wind speed. that a wind It should be note-d conducted at should be survey various heights above the ground. above 139. feet only :Vind speed the ground can be as much as half at the again what it is,,measured This inSee Frgure'2. surface. is deterwind speed crease in shape ofvthe local mined by the obstructions surface terrain, along the which slow the airflow and the nature of thp loground, Since faster win$Vmeans cal wind. it may be to&our admore power, vantage to consider pwsible long reach windmill tow d structures.
13

\\ \
HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND

. \, \ \ \ / 1
-

WINkPEED

Figure

Typical

Wind

Profile

EXAMPLE Using the Dwyer Windmeter (See Photo 1) a wind survey is conducwhich yields ted the *following, sample data: TIME
6 7 pm 8

j\

WIIJD SPEED
2 8 14 12 10 15 13 7 -.

(MPH)

pm

10 pm 11 pm 12 pm 1 am

pm 9 pm

several days A trend appears for of 12 which indicates an average You have a choice miles'per hour. or of this value, now of using downward in altering it slightly conservative dethe interest df the locals Talking with sign. the determine that folks, YOU slightly averages wind .speed time of year. higher this You 13 miles. alter the average to be You determine also that per hour. relied on for can be this value 20 hours per week.

POWER FACTOR

FOR WlNDSPEEDS

FROM 10 TO SO MILES PER HQUR?

V (MPH)
0 0

P
.0000069 .oooo55 .oo!I19

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10 15 20 25 30 g.?! 46 50 55 80

4 I
0097 015 024 035 051 Q69 123 65 100 107 2!97 4u4 8132 ,h 64 1 .15 11 .50

0044

.O .O .O .O 0

POWER FAC OR - P / J PO+~ER FACTOP FOR WINO~PEEDS

FROM 1~0

lo MILES PER HOUR

I I

10 9

.- 8

POWER FACTOR

- P

CHART

(for

Equation

1)

'

! /I 1 8'

! WIND POWER we shall discuss actually Here, available in a how much power is Recall velocity. wind of known determined as that velocity was we esAlso, an average value. just how much power tablished required to accomplish would be for which our windmill the task It follows, designed2 shall be that we must equate power then,' available in required to power size and the order to establish which yill shape of the wirdmill accomplish the task. wind power, find To calculate the wind speed value on the ver-Look hortical line of CHART B. intersection izontally to the then down to read with the Curve, a \Talue called P, a power factor. value is This horsepower per area of square foot of frontal Use the following the windmill. simplified formula to calculate horsepower output of the actual windmill. All termsof th-is formula will be discussed in detail.

EXAMPLE 1 A windmill with a frontal area (A) of 100 square feet - and an efficiency factor (E) of 0.25 is installed in an area with an average wind speed of 15 miles per hour. Problem: Calculate the output of this machine. Solution: for a P=O.O23 Then: Horsepower
0.58

horsepower;,

Using 15 mile '

=

CHART B note that hour wind, per

0.023

x 100

x 0.25

EXRP4PLE..2 The windmill in Example erates 0.58 horsepower. Problem: electrical generates. Solution: Calculate energy Ivat% 1 c&n-

the watts of this -windmill

x 746 =429

EQUATIO:J --.

l!
/-------

.i 0.58 +,4 CL .L* ,T+ .r

:JIND~IILL HORSEPO'\JEH = P x A x E ' where P = Power factor found on CHART B A = Frontal t11c3 arca of windmill measured in square feet r: = Efficiency io r
: 746.

SIZE

propellor For windmi'l~ls of the which rotate or multiblade'. type on a liorizonta~l. asis (See Figure the 3A) ust? CIIAR'l' C to calculate to know You need frontal area. measured in windmil 1 cliameter fc(~>t . rotate which win~dmills For about a vertical axis (See Figure 3B) simply multiply the width _ by -each measured in the height feet.
15 . "

,Jote

watts,
bv

To convert hors?powt?rto simply multiply ilorst3powCr

/
A= .785 D2 D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 . 12 13 14 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 A

.79
3.14 7.07 12.57 19.63 28.27 38.48 50.27 63.62 78.54 95.03 113.10 132.73 153.86 176.71 314.16 490.87 706:86 962-l 1 1256164 1590.43 1963.50

FORMULA:

,-

10

20 DIAMETER

30 (FEET)

40 \. 1

50

CHART C

(for

Equation

1)

. 'k :

,r:. WINDMILL
.

EFF!C/ENCY

_. ^. ^ I .
DIAMETER

The previous calculations call'ed for a value of the efficiency factor. Since' no manmade device is ever 100% efficient at.doing w,hatever it is designed for, we must either assume a low value of efficiency in the interest of design (a sort-of conservative guarantee that we'll get the power we need), or -find some means of reliably estimating a value of;I!! that corresponds to our particular windmill design. A windmill extracts power from,,,~$G!~~dt~~ slowing the wind . wind could be stopped completely by a rotating device, then 100% of the wind power could be ex,tracted. wind The cannot be stopped: it is only slowed down by about a third of its original which means that the we,ed, maximum wind actual theoretical power available to a windmill is 59% of the total. Windmill Now, how. much of the 59% of 'the actually extotal wind power is tracted?This -depends on the .deI sign of the windmill, the gear of accuracy losses, the degree ,;,with which builder of the the machine reproduces the necessary and so on. Obshape and size, 59% is still only theoviously Practicai values: of retical. the E in our overall efficiency, formula, -lie between 0.1 (or 10%) and 0.4 (40%), not much more. By our using real values-for E in for .horsepower or - calculations result will be real, , -1' ,,: xatts, the 71 values of ' windmill &ttainable HEIGHT power. I
exseveral explore We shall calculations in amples of these of use following an explanation actual The how to estimate E. value of E depends on the type of windmill design used and a factor shall which we of speed ratio, discuss now. c

Figure

3A

Horizontal,'Axis

WIDTH

(_

:6
WIND

Figure

3B

Vertical ~~-

Axis

WindmJl-1

: r.

as discussed in this Windmills, generate power while rotattext, windthat Rotation means ing. center the mill components near or rotation will be moving relatwhile portions near ively slowly, will be the outer edges (tips) proportion to moving faster, in center of the distance from the See Figure 4. toration (radius).

TYPE,S OF WINDMILLS _ of 1. 2. There are windmills: two primary shafts shafts classes mounmoun_

Those with power ted vertical,ly. Those with power ted horizontally:

This gives a chance to discover used a speed ratio which will be in future calculations: u/V ratio (called u-over-V ratio) is simply the speed of any area of a windmill such as the tip of the blade Both divided by the wind speed. units speeds must be of the same or feet per like miles per hour, the u/V ratio Obviously, second. -written u/V(tip) is a at the tip the u/V larger number than, say, ratio halfway between the tip and Typical the center of rotation. will calculations use windmill the u/V ratio for the tip, or machine. the outermost area of see Speed ratio values you might : ma-. slow are 1 to 2 for speed and- 5 to 7 or 8 fo~r_-the~~~~chines, more modern high speed-machines. Now before proceeding with calculations of E, the following is a comparative discussion of types of windmills as related to the value and- '..-' estimation of E. As will be seen, the type of wiridix mill selected to satisfy power requirements affects effithe and hence, ciency, size of the machine. A low efficiency windmill will have to be larger than a comparable high efficiency windmill to generate a certain amount of po

CENTER

OF

..-. L

Figure

II

18

VERTICAL

AXIS

WINDMILLS

applications which need high rotation rates or power. See Figure 5.

neither high

Consider the fact that wind turbine type devices develop pow-. er by moving in the same direction as the wind. Power results from wind acting on force the surface which is moving -with the wind. Obviously, the surface cannot moue faster than the wind or result. ,Recall, no power would however, from the discussion of u/V ratios that the outer extremities of the machine move faster a (not in revolutions per minute, . mile-per-hour surface but in the than areas closer to the speed) this, center of rotation. From we can see that the average speed ratio.acrass the radius of a wind than ---the-----" turbine will be lower say__abou=t -Q:4-; ---whilethe wind, 1 . 2;;': mpu/Vratio might be, say Th.~- ti p ~~ in this case isn't congeneration of tributing to the power, but the surface, on the .. average, is. can determine from this me turthat ttie vertical axis wind bine ig not as efficient as other the concept of types. Obviously, efficiency does not have the same windmills as it importance for devices. other power does for unlimited , available in Wind is problem main quantities and the is not necessarily efficient conbut rather low cost conversion, It may be conversion of power. siderably cheaper for a designer oil drum in to cut a 55-gallon Rotor make a Savonious half to th-an.;-say,---for the same individefficient -dual to build a highly 'If, design. machine of another Savonious 'the 55-gallon however, power reRotor doesn't satisfy the *_~ really not quirements it's _cheapest solution.

Vertical axis windmills generate power equal&y well with wind from any direction because these machines do not need to move on direction their mounts as wind devices are changes'. These usually easily constructed, lend themselves well to roof-top simplified mounting, and perform reasonably, though not typically as well as high-speed horizontal axis machines. vertic,.l De.sign concepts for c 'e : axis machines extends from'simp flat plates at ends of swinging arms, to turbine devices. type The less -exotic turbine, or "Savonious"' types relarotate tively slowly. ,This can be advan-* tageous for water pumps. and other

__ ,__-.I

._e---c __

--

. _- --. __~

. j /

Figure

5 - Vertical

Axis .~
20

Windmill

Concepts

'h .-

HORIZONTAL AXIS

WINDMILLS

HYBRID

WINDMILLS

Horizontal axis windmills are typically more' complex than vertical axis machines. However, the small circular cross-sectional shapes of these yachines enclose large frontal arf$as (recall that the vertical axgs machines have portions of their frontal area moving into the wind -and 'not P-KE)ducing power), and, it follows that horizontal axis windmills usually produce greater amounts of than power equivalent size vertical axis machines. This type of windmill requires being aimed into the wind. This can be accomplished by inst5lling the blade in frontof the- directional pivot with a-large vertical vane surface behind-or 5y installing the blades behind the pivot and allowing the blade drag to ~ keep the machine aimed.. . Large horizontal axis machines are subject to high centrifugal loads on the blades, and in high winds, very large .bending loads which tend to break things apart. In addition, rapid changingdirection of the wind will cause high gyroscopic forces in the rotating blades. 21

Figure

6"

"Eggbeater"

Hybrid N '

Here, we shall depart from tra-' dition and dis-cuss a class of windmill that promises simplicity . of design and 'construction, and high efficiency. The hybrid machine is a vertical axis machine which uses the aerod namic blades a? machine. of a horizontal xis wind Blades moving throu h the produce power; impo.rtantly, mor P wind, blades travelling into -.the produce power. and across wind, u/vThese wiridmills operate at (tip) ratfos much greater than maone. Typical of the hybrid chine class is "eggbeater." the windmill is Th'is See Figure 6. research Canadian the result of dating. and is based on patents into the 1920's. _ Hybrid machines combine the aerodynamic advantages high-speed horizontal axis with the simplicity mill, vertical axis machine. all of of the windof the

'

d .I b .-_ / --.__ o.--Lb. R ;5

When all of the trade-offs have been studied, a designer is - left- i finA decision as to with the which t!$$k 07 windmill to use in -Figure 7 ,illusa given' p$jecY. relative values' of trate% the for diffactor, (E) --efficiency ferent types bf wind-mi&ls, .opgra_. r_ ting at varri'ous u/V ratios. +-,'F-+& - .%-~..am&..--. ..sents actual design values ~. - , for specific types df-mazhines. , . JY5- I&tim&&,'-- en0 It is now possibIe to E and complete power Cal$u%,ati%ns fi As a methodo:f started earlier. --200 RPM.1 speed ~eeds~%S-s~lect 'design+ -c- _ s tional F the type'of windmill.th$t appears. _ I ._ I~ ,/ . --*suit design"reqyi.rements, e"sbuilder's ' ability to tin&e&he hinge together: <C constructa'---Yeasonable _ s cky- :, , -*;ntheyeff same, and estimate power--required. factor (E) from- thi?! dita%uk"l=ned . r~ 2. --IS$terc%$ a?k??age wind speed with the chosen-type of%Gid?$%-.. '.I__ -a%-%-\ ( '. ->nsult Appendix,A E values r.e&ative to -_--Keep in mind. File 0.4
.L -

_ ._~.,.= . ratios may mean higher E values ,-and less complex gearing due to the" faster turning machine. A - significant effect is high .cen-

for datz,?. _, . design high u/V

yi. 5:

~;~~;~~t~ Calculate

$n~~~~~,,'ype. windmill size.

0.3
.\ I

VEdTICAL

AXISVilNDM 3

LL / :I ,-/ 4

,,/

0.1

12 -._ ,..-.-. -..... _

89

10

11

12

13

14

U/V (TIP)

Re.Lative

Efficiency

of

Three

WinaiL,:

Types

/I / __, .

h \

Section
.-

IB . m AERbDYNAMIC
n

DESIGN j

!AIRFOILS _
;u-

the aerodyBefore d?s%ussing using namic design of a windmill the review should airfoils we factors which-affect airfoil per-! & formance. ._. _ ;"
t -,
. *

LIFT

TYPES QF AIRFOILS ,h 7% WIND

, ..-_

Figure

FLAT PLATE WtND

I

airfoils All require 'some angle with the wind in order to ,produce lift. lift reThe more the greater quired, the angle. The angle is measured between a line which connects the leading edge tiith the trailing edge which is called a chord line, and 'the direction. 8 The

d *

CAMBERED .. WIND y3! ,c+q HIGHLY

AIRFOIL:

CAMBERED

AIRFOIL

Figure

t
. . 2% 7

. AIR.FOIL
-

AERODYNAJ4ICS

An airfoil is a surface over which air flows. action of The in two this airflow results forces directly related to &win,dmill performance - LIFT and DRAG, -,%ift is measured-perpeJdicular to the airy flow --not the airfoil. Drag is measured parall-el to the See Figure 8.. airflow.
./* I

.the rela-. Figure 19 indicates with tionship of angle of attack basic lift produced for the four that Notice types of airfoils. term the ..lift is represented by usually recoefficient of lift, You ferred to as Co, or C-sub-L. can think of lift coefficient as. a number which represents percen-' the but lift, maximum tage of .following formula is presented as show 'information to background calculahbw-lif!jj coefficient is This formula is not, actually ted. H needed in .simplified calculations for windmill design. . F. ,/
25 .
1 I . I

-I:

AIRFOIL

STALL

c 6

/J

__

i. A.
f.-

NOTE: FLAT PLATE A.B.-I SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL C. - CAMBERED AIRFOIL D.- HIGHLY CAMBERED AIRFOIL

/ /

.! .

/
4

I 5 ANGLE

w 10 15 20 OFsATTACK (DEGREFS) *-

Figure

10

Airfoil
i

Lift

Coefficient
s y ? :r <

LIFT *r II where

COEFFICIENT air

=
I

Lift pressure

x blade

area. '

force Lift is the actual propounds measured in the._ airfo_il ' duced by blade. pressure is Dynamic air acting on pressure the imthe blade caused by pact of wind on the blade in pounds per - measured square foot. total the Blade area is meaarea of then blades, feet square sured in confused with not to be the the frontal area of windmill.

J_rnless the windmill is desig&dto change shape du(ring operation, blade area;is supposed to remain 'constant. 'Therefore, blade lift, which results in windmill horsepower, is.'determined by the coefficient of lift of the airfoil, and the blade area wind speed, which produces lift. this is An interesting note to that windmill power is related to frontal area, rather than blade in our power calculations. area, \qe can see, then, that a windmill will have ': with small blade area to turn faster to produce requir> a windmill than, -ed power say, The area. lots of blade with windmulti-blade waterpump type slowly mills generally turn very blade have a large since they area. see one -can Figure 10, From that at a certain angle of attack This is increasing. lift stops the point of airfoil stall, where airflow breaks up, separates from producing the airfoil, and stops still airflow Separated lift.. produces drag, though,.

Technically inclined experimenters may find further explanation Appendix D. formula in of this air dynamic since Notice that, pressure impact pressure is an and is related to wind speed, if either the 'wind speed increases, lift increases, or * lift coeffia little-of cient decreases, or both.
26

WINDMILL

BLADE

ANGLE

Windmill design calls for selecwhich produces .. ..ing an airfoil minimum max.im,um lift, with posThis means that the sible drag. airfoil mus-t "fly" at an.angle of attack consistent with.high lift, but no&t so high that the blade -ST:.s t a 1 Is . We must, th,en , develop a method for determining angle of ,attack, and actual wind direction relative to a moving blade. I * Let's look at two simple cases: *- .-;-3+ Imagine a windmill blade i~~Y~~",ll;f;don this page \--a
BLADE MOTION . , i!

per hour (V = 10 miles per hour). Notice that the u/V ratio, which we previously used in estimation of windmill performance, is equal to one, 'in this case. We must now determine the relative wind, the wind the airfoil actually "sees". wind is the result , This relative of two motions combined. One can imagine that, in the simple case of both u and V being at right angles to each other, and of the same speed the eelative wind will "split the two motions evenly. I .. .---. -

---L

-u-j

mov-a with , j ,

It should be girfoil motion the blade to wind directly

the that obvious to the left causes "see" a relative to the right.
/

WIND = V

a windmill blade poin2. Imagine but not moving. ted, to the left, picture a'n external Add to the the straight up blowing wind, the angle to right page --at a In this case the airfoil blade. wind at will 'see" a relative angle of attack. ninety degrees

By splitting 9.0 degrees in two, we see that the relative 'wind makes 'a 45 degree angle with the chord line.' Thus, the angle of attack equals 45. degrees. Reviewing Figure '10, we. can see that the maximum angle of attack we can count on our airfoil is approximately 15 degrees, which means that at 45 degrees our airfoil would',be deep in at stall, not lifting. From this, it becomes apparent that the airfoil must be set at a blade angle -relative to its direction of motion in order to adjust angle of attack. We can calculate blade angle: ,. 27
, - \

WIND

Combining the two cases, we now have the basis for analysis of a windmill blade. Imagine &he airfoil blade 'pointed directly to the left, moving at a speed of, 10 miles per hour (u = 10 say, miles per hour in the u/V ratio). A wind bl,owing at right,angles 'to the airfoil at, again, 10 miles -. 1 _ a -

EQUATION

r, . BLADE,ANGLE = of attack + Win\d angle - angle airfoil zero angle +--.-___. --- -- -7---- *the... mglme- : Wind angle is Wh$ re,. makes the relative wind with the.blade's plane of rotation.
I

Angle of ted from

attack is selecAppendix B.

to tip speed. u/V ratio applies to any point on a rotating windmill. Review Figure 4 to see &at u/V at the center of rotation would equal zero. u/V increases, from zero .at the center to the design tip speed-ratio as the ra-dlus increases. As a method of design, one merely selects a value of tip speed u/V ratio, and proceeds with other calculations. With a tip u/V ratio known, one can calculate u/V ratio at any other' radius.

\. ~. ., -. 'C. +..__ -*-. _ ~-,)gQ&&

Airfoil zero angle = 0 for symmetrical airfoil 1 cambered 2 for lightly camhighly 4 to 6 for bered airfoils.

EQUATION u/V

3 radius = x radius

I ' / tip ra 'us

at any u/V(tip)

Where

= 2.0 degrees Wind angle angle .of attack ;= G.degr,ees: zero angle.=-4 degrees then: Blade Angle = 20-6+4= 18 degrees.

/ measured. from radius is the center of-rotation to the area for which u/V is to be.calculated. 3 tip radius, equals 'wind%mill diameter divided by :;, two .

Figure study By way of review relationangular 11 to see the line, and ship between the chord wind the relative (angle lion: chord the attack) , between motion of ~ and the direction of (blade angle). Air,the airfoil angle at is the *foil zero an le -which zero l- 9 ft is produced. -_ ++* ? Design of a windmill which uses airfoil blades requires the abil& angles. blade determine ity to wind angle, We need to calculate blade our' continue in order to .Use CHART D, angle calculations. wind * which is a. graph Uf an@-e versus u/V ratio, to find wind angles. ratio, calculate Now, to u/v In preconsider the following: vious discussion of windmill performance u/V ratio was referenced II
Y

EXAMPLE
. D

A 20 ;,f 0 0 t diameter windmill has a u/V(tip) of 7, and the radius from the center of rotation to the root ot the blades (roe-t end-is thece.nd of the blade clo- rgtation) sest to thee center of equals 2 feet. Calculate =1.4
4

&u/V(root)

=7x2/10

may be u/V at.any other radius calculated in a similar fashion. the For windmills where tional speed / $n -revolutions minute is known,% one can late u/V from the following mula: 28 rotaper caycufor-

--

CHORD LINE

~-

.~-

... BLADE MOVES THIS DIRECTION

PLANEQF Oi3 BLADE

ROTATION MOTION

WIND BLOWi THIS DIRECTION

..I 0

. ..-

. ..

Figure

11

ID ANGLE (Degrees)
. 1

,_ -15

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

29. 5 17.8 9. 5 6.4 4. 9 3.7 3.1 2.7

.

_ .~

* 10

0 c 0

2 4 6 u/G :2 12 fi 14 * 16 \\

CHART D _,'

(for

Equatibn

2,

see +Equation

3 and

4) A /
d

.";d , -x.s CI

30

EQUATION u/V where

HYBRID

BLADE ANGLE '

Q
x

= 0.195

r / per

(k xrVj speed minute. in 'f19

N = rotational revolutions

r = @dius to the section -7where u/V is being calcu- measured in feet. lated V = wind speed

k = a constant to adjust V. if V is measured'in miles per hour, k = 1.47 if V is measured in feet per second, k = 1.0

_ s&

.Figure
(, -~-~~~i

i2

tions hour feet. root

turns 300 'revolu: per minute in a-15 mile per wind. The diameter is 12 The diameter at the blade is 2 feet. e
ndmi 11

~.

Hybrid

Concept,'

Problem:

late

u/V'(tip)

and
x

Solution: 0.105 x 300 (tip)= (12/2)/(1.47x15) =: 8.G u/V(root')= .8.6 x 2/12 = 1.4

'the ' tip operates Notice that the u/V ratio than . at a higher,Using CHART D, we can cal'root. for culate wind and blade angles this windmill. We:"now have all the tools necessary to design blade angles. Figure 10 is a generalgraph of attack. angle of lift versus airSpecific data for ' several foils applicable to windmill design are presented in Appendix B of this book.
i

While a simple ca@,lation for the angles along the> 4 lade of a axis horizontal conventyonal which windmill will yield angles entire are valid throughout the flight path of,such machines, hydifferent brids pose :a slightly The vertical axis rosituation. the tation of the blades causes "wind angle or -relative wind (see Figure .ll) to change angle" Fiin a ,.fashion approximated by gure 13. -.-Figure 12 -. illustrates the hybrid concept and shows the points along the:,.rotational path which _.._. r@c ... ... .. ..._ of the blade (A 30 C) late to wind angles illustrated, ~~-_~ Notice thatatlow on Figure-13. the blades are operau/V, ratios, ting at angles greater than stall . these but at higher u/V ratios, their well within blades are 'normal angle of attack range (see Figure 10). 31

_I

A BLADE Figure

POSITION 13 Hybrid

B (See Figure lBlade.Angles

L 12)

It is apparent, then, .that some form of assist will be needed ,to spin-up a hybri.d to its'operating -4-to-6 about, (u/V) * range of can be Savonious Rotor A small (see;%nside back cover), a, used can! spip-up moto , or the blades adjustabl? an be,,&icula 62 dto implies ~ /a -which blade angle co+ machine certain amount of IF plexity. AIRFOIL SELECTION

glasslike blades of preci;e contour, they'll only be that 'smooth for a short time. The high performance airfoils work well as long as they are precise and smooth, but change their contour just a little bit and the perfor-,\ rapidly. mance drops off Sailplane pilots are known to polish their wings and measure the contour for variations of less than inch. a thousandth of an Windmill owners just mount their macninesM-inthe breeze and stop thinking about them. From this, consider one might sacrificing the high performance offered by these new airfoils and select an more docile (lower old-fashioned, performance) airfoil which will not so measureably be affected by Examples of imperfec&ions. docile airfoils include "Clark Y", Gottengen airfoils, some of the and and the thicker NACA laminar earlier profiles,. Air,foils appropriate to hybrid -such as design are symmetrical the NACA.0012, and can (in some plotted cases should be). (see Appendix B) along a line with a curvature equal to the radius of the machine being designed. Such flying' an airfoil along a like a straight path will act cambered airfoil, but when' mounted on the radius arm of a hybrid a symmetrical willperform like airfoil.

r) A"

Selecting a good airfoil for a given design is a not-so-serious,, Just about any airfoil' -.__problem. BLADE AREA DETERMINATION -selected will work, and most will starts The problem work well. dein the One-must consider, one of selects when a designer. two ditferent sign of windmills, performance the newer super high with confused -not to be areas These airfoils are.deairfoils. each other: il..- .__j .,s.i.gned..U. fox.., .hi.g.h. .+p.e.:, fg..r,man.c s._* a._s. i ,. 1,_.,,_,_ - ,_.. . e 1.II. ,,,,.. -..I.., .1. -.r...*..., ,<., ,l.,_I.% l.~,.. ,_. ,_L ._. ,_. ._, _ ._._._._. . . . .I well on work --.--planes and should total -the area Blade surface windmills, but . . , 10 airfoil of the surface area . , blades. Windmills live outside in dirty bird droppy areas. rainy, windy, -the fronWindmill frontal area This means that even if the builtal area used in calculations of constructs der of a windmill windmill power. and produces ultra-smooth molds 32 I'

area by blade If we divide interesting an area, frontal ratio called soli,dity is calcu,way: this Think of it lated. wind approaching a windmill which has so many blades that you can't will them through see clear surface, "solid" strik,e a fairly strike a not while a wind will surface on a one or two -1 "solid" ,blade machine.'

lift a lower grees, The lower results. cient will require area.

coefficient coeffilift a larger blade ----\

EXAMPLE A windmill is designed for high Fronspeed operation at u/V =6. equals 100 square' feet. tal area select a solidity CHART E, From We decide to stay on the factor. curve (upper curve). lift low Note that solidity equals.approx0.07 at u/lV =.6. Then imately = 7 area = 130 x 0.07 blade square feet. .

EQUATION , SOLIDITY

5 =Blade area/Frontal area

if solidity equals Notice that, . frontal equals blade area one, the This is approximately area. water multiblade the case for pump type' windmills. three-blade windmill A two or a-bout 0.2, of has a solidity are blades which means Rhat the lifting much not rather thin; but the relative wind speed area, working on the high speed airfoil produces the required lift. To select a solidity factor for CHART a particular windmill, use high A solidity value on the E. selected side of the envelope is design the for windmills where lift coefficient is approximately of- the ,// maximum value half the A low solidity value,#>s airfoil. when a high percepeage selected of the maximum lift capabidity.of the airfoil is expected< Recall, that we s~l'ected values however, blade at&+&k when of angle of perwere angle selects a formed. gle of attack, say, 8 de33

BLADE PLANFORM '*

with the built Blades may be length at the tip equal to chord length at the ?oot, or + the chord may-be tapered so that, theroot times much ,,,a5 1.5 chord is as length. ti,pj". chord that of the Note that in $he multiblade water are blades the Pump machines, tapered the othe,r way; sometimes' root longer tip c,J.ord is th@ To calculate c $,ord length cho,r% diameter'and ,when you know blade blade blade area, simply,.,,divide (distance blade length area by from root end of blade - not centip). the' rotatxon - to ter of untaper d the cq.se of In the calculate. richord t.& blade, tip 4-and both this way will be tapered the For .,'length. root length will be this chord blade, the average chord for the tip and root lengths"... " A) : ee_____ .' ;* ' ,&5;--z I /_-'- .fi-,/ , _-. __--. .

.I.

t ..* -.

0.8
,> :.:: >:: ... :.:.. ::. ..i ::. . ... , / _ _, / I

_-.__---___---

0.7

S& :.:.:.:. :::: ::::. >:.:.> :::: . .. . :.>>> :::: ,

DITy

ROPOF~TIONAL

TO.

. _ .

1.78 bL _\

j :

SOLIDITY

10

11

12

WV

CHART E -. ,j/ - -- ----

(see

Equation

5) -~..

:. 34 P %,

The idea here is to enclose the designed fan in a tube which is through airflow to speed up the outpower 'and increase

natural inside through ./ ted. ? i

low pressure the duct to a windmill

HSUCtion"

" suck " air illustraas

Tn-

WINDMILL
l

AtiGhiENTER I a c

Certain design factors ought to be considered before you build a First, the ducted fan windmill. fan represents a blockage of aire it removes energy from .flow si If air flowing into the air T low. with a confronted duct is the will probably go blockage, it duact . -not through the elsewhere down air which has passed Slowed "pack: through the fan tends to further the fan,. and in" behind through airflow natural hinder experimenters Some duct. the ha,ve- found that a simple windmill diameter as same which has the around a smaller the large duct COMprO: bestdesign fan is the withThe larger windmill mise. generate usually out a %tuct can smaller enas muc$ power as the cloyed' fan. used T,he duct principle can be --me-6"improve the performance of an the using ordinary windmill by 3
r

have a niy If you to plan to windy canyon where.. you you might , install y&q windmill, rent a dozer and reshape the canairflow accelerate to yon through your machine and increase *This is usable wind power. the top'ographic modification, actualaugly another form of windmill mentation. If you.'re designing a Savonious installation in a refor ~ Rotor gion where the wind blows., mostly you ,can direction same in the machine with augment this concrete plywood, of or whatever is handy, sail cloth, as illustrated in Figure 14.
35

.5 s. ix ! happ/en

SAVONIOUS

ROTOR

\ \ ,, -l.,

LARGE AREA AUGMENTER DEFLECTS AIR THROUGH THE ROTOR

Figure

14

EXAMPLE The following necessarily PRELIMINARY example practical DATA ' per = 10,000 month. watt-hours per hour is given for as,,a typical

* illustration windmill and design. \ per average provide included day for x 30 days 5 hours equals per day. k is not

1. Power requirement 300 kilowatt-hours 2. Wind available

= 12 miles

PROBLEM: To design a windmill Assume that a storage battery ,

which will system is

necessary power. in the design.

SOLUTION

STEPS (this is the power a 12 mile per hour

1 - 300 kilowatt-hours / 5 hours = 60 kilowatts the windmill must generate - 60 kilowatts in wind). 2 - Horsepower and Watts then Watts ; = 746
x

= P x A x E x 746 A x E i

(Equation

1) * I

= Horsepower P

0 . .

1
\ i . = 746 xi.012 x A x E 8, 7. It is intended to select a high effic~iency windmill for this 3Appendix 4, we fti&_t&at -----design . Checking efficiencies. (E) as -high as 0.4 (40%) are available from the hybrid design such as an\ "Eggbeater.," For,cor&%%?vative design, we select.E;= 0.25--at-u/V=g. -* 1, ... , Then: Watts ,4 - Watts watts = d.95 x A x 0.25 = 60,000; = 2.24 then: x.A-s* _/ K Since required . square c \ \i \ \ 60,000 z 2.24 x.A. This will be a large Then, A = 26,785 windmill. feet. .s--,*, \ * From CHART-B - for V = 12 miles per hour, P = 0.012 -

1 a' /

! -.

7 A

"a, '\ an Eggbeater.for this example.' 5' -L We have selected An eggbeater looks approximately like a circle. It remains to.calculate the cirqle's diameter, which is far larger than CHART C goes. We must' use the formula on CHART C. \'\ 1 --..__ _-.. .. -' Area = 0.785 x Di i. 1. \ Most wAndmills will not require this-formula. --*CHART C will. suffice a for most calculations.Therefor, I' shall merely solve this;equatipn * \ with my handy'pocket calculator to get: ,Di'ameter = 185 feet. had we assumedd E = 0135, and D would equal 156 feet, with diameter = 185 feet. . then

For further illustration, -equal 19,169 square feet,, 'smaller. Let's continue

A would . about 30 feet = 0.'03 to lthe and

6 -' Checking CHART D for u/V = 6, we see greater. For a hybrid design, we select -hybrid line, say 0.1. Then ,~,Blade Area,= 011 x 26,785 = 2679

that Solidity a value close feet

I i 5)' \ / 1, \ * \ \ \

44

square

'(-from

Equation

7Since,this is an eggbeater design with a circular shape 'and two blades,' bla.de chord length will be easy to determine. Blade area =d blade length x blade chord, and blade length approximates the cir.cumference of a.lq5 foot diameter circle. Circumference = 3.14 x .diameter = 3.14 x 185 = .581 feet. Then, c blade chord length = 2679 / 581 = 4.6 feet.

8Since this is geeded, and blades both sides of the the NACA 0012, or

a vertical axis hybrid machine, no blade twist is must operate in 'di$ferent directions and lift on airfoil. -Therefore', a symmetrical airfoil such as 0015 profile,is indicated for this .design. . . *. ,

ii

..

Section

AlhD C I ., . STRUCTtiRAL .,tiECHANlCAL DESIGN I 1

I /I

-^A.--

. ...,

STR-UCTUR-AL

DE&N i

i
EQUATIO Ii 6 Ip' CENTRIFUGAL 0.031 i Where FORCE = x kV)' of in the pounds the the
l

of the, design simplify it is well windmill structures, to understand the loads which try machines. apart these to break These ,loads are centrifugal force There are bending. blade and but of lesser importance. others,

_.To

WEIGHT x (u/V RADIUS Weight blade

u/v

= weight measured 8f '

I '

= u/v

CENTRIFUGAL

FORCE

center blade V = wind

ratio gravity i

at of

speed

The first of loads is these centrifugal force which is the result of heavy objects moving rapicly in a,.circular path., These objects wo@d rather, if given a chance, ,travel in a straight line. The-strength required of the support which holds a windmill blade in its circular path, then, is determined by cen.trifugal force. Tie a,.rock to a 'long string and rock SWfag= the around while holding onto ' the string. Centrifugal force keeps the string straight and tight.

. -

k = a constant to adjust V % . if V is measured in miles per hour, k = 1.47 if V is measured in feet per second,,,- k = 1.0 Radius sured,in center center blade. = distance, , meaL feet, from the of rotation to the of gravity of the

EXAMPLE \ The information you need in order to calculate centrifugal force on anything moving around in a circle is the speed of- the object, radius of rotation measured from the center of rotation to the center of gravity of the rotating object, and weight the of the object. If the object hap-, pens to be a windmill blade, cen-$ ter of gravity is found by bal-ancing'the bladeeover the edge of a its thin board, or by'estimating See Figposition during design. blade, ure 15. With a windmill. you need to know .u/V ratio at the gravity, ..+ radius of the center of folloUse ,the and wind speed. wing formula to calculate centrifugal force on a windmill blade: 39 A three-blade windmill is designed for a u/V(,tip) of 6, and a diameter of 12 feet. Each blade weighs 5 pounds, with the center of gravi-ty, determked from balante tests, the at 3 feet from JJe%-g-a wind center.of rotation. speed = 10 miles per hour. \ First: u/V = 6 x 3/6 = 3 Then: CENTRIFUGAL FORCE = =, C~.031x5(3x1.47x10)~/3 = 100.5 lbs the force which tries to Thus, rip a blade away from the hub. of this spinning windmill is, about 100 pounds in a 10 miles per hour wind. (

10 8 6

1 .8 .6

I/

i ,F=.0012

(KV)2 F
.

,. F *s4
.2

I/

I.

..m
15 20 25' 30 35 40 50 60 *-

.l .08 .06

:065 -259 .583 1.04 1.62 2.33 3.18 4.15 6.48 9.34

.Oi

.t5

10

.15

20

-25 I

30 V (MILES

35

40

45

50

55

60 * .

WiNDSPEED .

PER HOUR) F ;/-

-WINDSPEED

FACTOR

CHART F (for

Equation

7)

BALANCE

BLADE

EXAMPLE

:,t diameter power in Calcu-

A windmill of 12 feet, is generating its rated a 20 mile per hour wind. late w'indmill drag,
, BLADE CENTER OF GRAVITY

12 feet find that From CHART C, diameter = 113.1 square feet. find that 20 milesFrom CHART.F, ' per hour yields F = 1.04 Then: Windmill 118 pounds. h Drag =1.04x113.1 . v known, drag' is When windmill you can divide this value by. the windmill number of blades on the each drag on the' * to estimate \ blade. =

Figure
I.

151

WINDMILL

DRAG

'

causes + support drag Windmill wires-to towers to topple, 9-Y windmill blades to and break, Take the case of the high bend. water-pmp multiblade solidity type of,\windmills. Stand in front of one of-these machines.and,what you see looks almost like a solid with no place for;.wind to disk, The higher the soflow through. the more the windlidity factor, mill will look like a solid disk, and windmill drag will be higher. This is the case for non-rotating -windmills. In the case of a rotating winddetermined by how mill, drag is extracmuch horsepower is being A simplified, ted from the wind. calculaapproximate formula for which is .a ting windmill drag, force measured in pounds, is:

EXAMPLE the ' previous The windmill in 118 example has a drag value of This windmill has, pounds. say, The drag on each three blades. b blade = 118/3 = 39.3 pounds. This bend the is the. drag trying ~to the wind blade in the direction confused is blowing, -not to be with the aerodynamicdrag on each down slow blade which tries to windmill rotation.

' -~ ~_

EQUATION Non-rotating .FQUATION WINDMILL Where 7 Where DRAG = F x A -F = windspeed CHART F, ._ factor -see area feet,

8 blade 2 x Drag Drag drag, (See Solidity blade frontal earlier tions. = drag = x SOLIDITY blade pounds

rotating measured in Equation ,7)

A = windmill frontal square measured in' refer to CHART C.

, 1

F .'41

of = the ratio windmill area to used in area, windmill calcula(See Equation 5)

e

, \ . i: .I

E XAMP LEi,, A previous calculation showed, for a certain windmill in a-20 mile,per hour wind, a blade drag This windmill was of 39.3 pounds. designed with a solidity of, say, Non-rotating blade drag r 0.1.' 2 x 39.3 x't,$0.1 = 7.8 pounds. , !\

EQUATION

9 x D x HP x kV diameter , .. .A

TORQUE = 3300 u/V , Where s

D = windmill measured in feet u/V = u/V(tip) speed

V = wind
/ k \ *

TBRQUE

.'

Torque is not really a force, ' but more precisely the result of a force which is applied a cer_tain radius from center of rota-a twisting force. tion Torque is measured in foot-pounds (or inch-pounds), and is the result blade lift; causes of torque the against rotation windmill Lower roload of the generator. higher tary speed windmills need torque values to generate a cerBasically, tain power output. rotorque multiplied by rate of tation equals power.

k = a constant to adjust V if V is measured in miles per hour, k = 1.47' if V is measured in feet per second, k = 1.0 HP = windmill horsepower (the output of the blades I -not the generator being driven by the blades) Torque "torque ,'pounds = windmill measured in shaft inch-

-+

EXAMPLE A 12 foot diameter windmill generates 3 horsepower at u/v = 6 in a 25 mile-per hour wind. From Equation 9, we can calculate shaft torque = 539 inch-pounds. '

If high torque is needed, but rotational speed is not so important, you would pick a windmill . with a low- u/V value, if slightly e*.fficiency lower can be over High look,edr torque makes a windmill easy starting in mild" Lower torque, high speed .'winds. on the-other hand don't 'machines, _' until the wind ,I start turning in some cases, speed has risen, almost to the design operating wind speed. z Torque causes blade bending (mostly at the root end),' tries to shear the blade hub off the power shaft, and twists the power shaft. You can calculate the torque value for your design from -the following formula: i -

SAFETY FACTOR Your windmill will lik.'ely be installed in an area where safety to things both liv?ing and not is a primary consideration. We have seen that it is possible to be conservative.,t esign of the' windmill %S,',& of perform&cei ructural design is * .'*s$fe;y' reasons. 9
1 Lp ,

'

42

calThe methods presented'for culation 'of centrifugal force and primary two the 'windmill drag, are approximate in nature, loads, somewhat conand in most cases, Designers usually IIIUlservative. tiply' calculated loads by a facimprove tor of safety to further A value structural reliability. of 1.5 is common in load calculations. ' I

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

t
-&

WIND

EXAMPLE A windmill blade has a centri100 pounds in a fugal force of Using the factor of certain wind. calculate the design &-Isafety, trifugal load. 100 x ,Design centrifugal load t 1.5 = 150 pounds.

T
A. BLADE

CENTER PLANE

OF ROTATION OF ROTATl,ON

WITHOUT

BENDING

I
LOAD CONDITIONS The windmill +is Condition 1. spinning in a certain wind under generator load. The loads on the windmill in this case are mainly and windmill centrifugal drag force. Look at Figure 16 to see these loads. centrifugal Notice that force stretches, or causes a tension .load in the blade, while blade blade: As the drag bends the blade bends (just a little), the tension load is moved away from ,the plane of rotation. Plane of rotation is imaginary the flbt rodisk the blades make as they tate. The tension load will try its back to blade to bend the plane of rotation, thusly offset7 From this, we ting blade -drag. can see that centrifugal force is the main load to design the blade for during Condition 1.
1 -.

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE d BENDING DUE

WIND

B.

BLADE

IFigure

CENTER-OF PLANE

ROTATION OF ROTATION

WITH BENDING

16

.; Tci;im$.i:h ACondition 2. turning in a cert centrifugal force Again, load. but it will be is the main load, This case considerably higher. calls for calculating centrifugal force at a u/V(tip) ratio as much windmill the than as 50% higher is designed-for.
43.~

EXAMPLE
.*

calculaThe previous - example tion for centrifugal force aStart_ed with a u,!,V(tip) of 6. For the start spinningwindmill, 'free 1.5x6=9 = ,:R calculation with I u/V(tip).
_

assume that this load is too large, ting device must to limit u/V(tip) value.

24,417 pound, a speed limi-1 be constructed to a 'smalLe/ __ './'--

.,//I

.Normall$( Condition 2 loa-ds are wind high very " calculated at the highest you would exspeeds, machine is pect in the area the Wind speeds of tobe installed. are not 60 to 100 miles per hour centrifugal - If' the uncommon. Condit.ion 2 is caused by force the build can greater than you withwindmill strong enough to device', a speed limiting stand, or aerodynamic drag like a brake, inflaps on the blades must be rotational hold the stalled+ to speed down to acceptable values.
e

Condition 3. is Th-e. windmill locked so iI?,-cannot rotate, and a wind is-blowing. Here, the main force is drag. We have seen that blade drag -the kind that topples support towers on extremely winhy days -causes the blade to bend. Review Figure 16..-Thus, another ' load to design for is bending. Generally, if the windmill can withstand overspeed (Condition 2) loads it is strong enough to take Condition 3 bending loads. you can check blade bending loads for, cas&+ by the non-rotating using +&: Equation 8. rr.-

4, :.

>(I

BLADE STRENGTH We have just seen how to calcudeNow, let's late blade loads. whioh is termine blade strength, the ability 'of the blade to withload without breaking. stand the First let!s look at a few methods built. can be by which a blade The structural design of a blade, which it and the materkals with is made determine blade strength. designed to The blade' must be take centrifugal tension and ben-. It must retain the,a&rfoil ding. and remain: firm-_. -e' shape and twist, Seuera-1 ly attached to the hub. ways exist to accomplishes 21'1' of Here are a these design tasks. a-? few of them. solid ,,, partially Solid, or 1. bolted with carved wooden blade steel or aluminum,hub attachment. " skinned," can be Wooden blades with fiberglass and* resin 'for improved protection.

EXAMPLE Using the previous force problem: centrifugal

*.

Normal condition: u/V(tip) = 6, radius = 3 feet, blade weight = 5 Condition 2: u/V(tip) = pounds. 1.5 x 6 = 9, wind speed =6O?-iiles and u/V = 9 x 3/6 = 4.5 per hour, ,b = 0.031 x centrjfugal force Then, x60) = 5 x (4.5~1.47~60) (4.5x1 -P 24,417 pounds.

2 I .

We shall 'soon see how to convert tension force the centrifugal reinto blade material and size now, if we quirements, but for
i

i e

LAMINATED WOOD COVERED WJTH FIBERGLASS I

SOLID

WOOD BLADE

LAMINATED WOOD / COVERED WITH

FIBERGLAkS

The usual material fGr this&design is aluminum, but YOU will have to be careful in planning this ty@e of blade to the get skin to take both the curvature of the airfoil, and'blade twist. constructing al test blade Try withpaper. Rivets and epoxy bonding ii.11 attach the! skin, ribs, and spar together. Rivets may be aircraft aluminum; or steel Ilpoprivets". 4. fi Tubular spar, rglass skin.
POP-RTVETS J -, EPOXY BOND

'

with

molded

PARTiALLY

SOLID

BLADE

spar, with foam, balsa 2. Tubular or other filwood, or honeycomb, covered with fiberglass and ler, The spar can be made of resin. stainless steel, or aluminum, steel.

TUBE : SPAR L.

FIBERGLASS

SKIN

HONEYCOMB, BALSA WOOD OR FOAM FILLER BONDED TO TUBE SPAR

TUBE SPAR

,&

FIBERGLASS

SKIN

Tubular 3. and skin.'

FRONT RIB

spar,

with

metal

ribs

AFT

RIB SHEET METAL

TUBE SPAR

RIVETS

A few foam ribs may be bondedTinbut in any side the fiberglass, the fiberglass skin will be case, thick, four to eight laminations strong enough to and must be avoid flexing in strong winds.

.. ...-...___,_. _.. _.. -----..--_- __

construction' Sailwing 5. economical blades. make fine,

,. -

will

CONSTRUCTION

METHODS

TUi3ULAR LEADING EDGE

SAILCLOTH

D-SPAR LEADING _- .

EDGE

First, the carved wood method uses construction skills which are not new to experimenters. Carving wood is fun, and easy, very rewarding. Wood, however, is not necessarily the best material with which to build a wipdmill. Iti's true that wood is the most readily-available, replaceable resource, but wood soaks up moisture and it is mighty difficult to prevent this from happening; If one blade soaks more water .than another, 'it's' easy to see that an oqt-of-balance condition will result. You can calculate the result of 'this by changing the weight of one blade in your practice calculations for centrifugal force. In the overspeed condition, out-of-balance is liable to cause the windmill to shake ,itself to death. If, on the other hand, you will take care to wooden blades sealed, keep the this is 3 great build a way to windmill.

These blades are easily made with cable a tube spar, a stretched and a plasticized trailing edge, (the fabric pores are fabric memsealed against air leakage) The membrane changes curbrane. changing to vature in response and thus generates high airflow, The memlift quite efficiently. fairly stretched brane must be Al-l tight for best performance. from ideal membrane can be- made fabric nylon light weight the made are that backpacking tents sail,cloth, wit%,-.or extra light as used on hang gliders.

As a result of the Hans Meyer plans for a windmill printed in lots of people POPULAR SCIENCE, windmills with, are building inside a _ Method 2, a tube spar paper honeycomb filler, skinned While honeycomb with fiberglass. is somewhat expensive this method build experiis an easy way to The skills requi-pmm ~ mental blades. and honeycomb with red to work fiberg,lass are easily learned an: '* are efforts the results pf your highcperformance blades. strong, The rivetted aluminum structure strong, yields a blade which is and which will last light weight, The skills of rive.&a long time. metal forming and drilling, ting, bonding are easy to master. ,/"

,. .'

46
. /:

/.A

-"'.
-

TUBFI&iR

DESIGN d r

EQUATION

10

BLADE BENDING LOAD = Blade drag x-radius must be that b lades &e know . . withstand tenstrong enough to sion loads from centrifugal force What follows is a and bending. calculating simplified method of and wall (diamete.r a tube size thickness) and material (steel, stainless steel, etc.), aluminum, which will withstand these loads. Figure 17 illustrates the propercalculaties of a tube for our tions. Where Blade drag determined force was in

x 12 previously pounds of

.'/'

radius = distance measured in feet to the center from rotaof the blade tion center EXAMPLE -

Windmill diameter = 12'feet Blade drag = 10 pouna~s Blade bending load/=,. ;r 10 x 12 x 12/4 =,,a60 inch-pounds

Using da& methods presented in Appendix/E, you can select a tube size which is strong enough to take/the bending load. /'
,
i I

//
THICKNESS ,/ <

/FATIGUE

You can break a strip of, say, The aluminum two different ways. apar-t l first is simply to pull it PROPERTIES OF TUBING J / The other with one giant load. , here you " method is more subtle; // Figure 17 /.' _/ apply a small load, let it :elax, ,, ", A' / Do again. then apply the :,load metal the this repeatedly until /s'i-You have fails. then cracks, i. 'the main Centrifugal ten,sion .> caused a fatigue failuressed.m -When ~~~~ -load,as we have dr_ centrifugal you have * cal++ated fatigue. not Woody- does Now, simp/y,use TABLE A in force, AP/ size Theoretically, you can repeate find a tube pendix E,,-to won't apply loads to wood and it centrithe which e;in withstand Wood might, however, crack crack. calculahave fugal tension you and splinter from a number of enlikely be will This tube ted,:" wooden but vironmental factors, bending the for enough strong blades in general are not subject loads but bending strength should fiberto fatigue. M@talic or be checked, too. To convert blade glass structures 'in a windmill drag into blade bending, use the are subject to fatigue. following formula: L
/ 47 --._._

--._ ._ ---....l..

prevent fatigue to One way life the failure (which claimed of one ,of the blades on the Smith keep the Putnam windmill) is to the relation to low in loads This is the structural strength. basis for conservative structural design. w,e havq'considered Basically, structural design as a '&i\,mplified If you wish approximate problem. to persue structural design to an -which I recommend exact level this bibliography in check the reference text for an excellent on this subject. STRUCTURAL AND HYBRID DESIGN OF VERTICAL WINDMILLS

SUPPORT STRUCTURES Coslete windmill design involves planning the support structure. This structure can be 3s simple as a short pipe, or as complex as a cable supported tower. Two loads must be supported by your tower: the!weight of the entire windmill assembly; and the total which includes drag, windmill drag and tower drag. As an approximation, simply double the windmill drag load to get the total. The guy wires you use must support these drag loads. The tower must be rigid. Any fl.exibility will result in less efficient wi"ndmil1 operation; particularly in-the case of vertical axis.machines.

Structural design of ve-rtical axis machines such as Savothe nious Rotor involves making 'the machine stro enough for centrifugal force. The tower and support structures must be strong enough to prevent, toppling over in high winds. which vertical Hybrids, are axis machines high-speed, using high efficiency airfoil blades will have structural centrifug+al forces and blade bending. In this case, blade bending is caused by centrifugal force. Refer to Photo 3 and Figure 18 to visualize this bending force for one example of a hybrid machine. Figure 19 shows blade bending ano-due to centrifugal force in of"hybrid machine. ther type Blades-can be made stron~g enough for bending by using cable supports to the tips, or centers of these blades. -These cables can be stretched between two blades, which is the case for the hybrid-V, or between blades and hub structure as il-1ustrated in Figure 20.. 48

CENTRIFIGAL BENDING _-

FORCE/BLADE WINDFjlrlLLS

OF HYBRID

Figure

18 >

'

Photo 7 /

Hybrid-V'Protocype

i BLADE NOT BENT BLADE ILLUSTRATED BENDING DUE TO CENTRI FIGAL FORCE _-CENTER OF CABLE SUPPQRT ..

Figure

19

Hybrid
$i

Loads

Figure
49
P

20

Problem: speed in

gale

To

control winds.

windmill

Solution: The.There are several. solution you arrive. at."depends on the windmill, -the expected strength qf tempest winds , and your ingenuity. Here are a few solutions'already used: A- Aiming the windmill out of the wind, two ways: turn it sideways,or tilt it up. See Figure 21.

B-' Coning -_, allowing the blades to form a cone in the downwind direction which reducesthefrontal area, thus--reducing the power and-rotary-speed. Blades (can .be --freely hinged wlith, perhaps, a small spring to hold them out for strating. Centrifugal force holds them out during normal rot,ation, blade but tempest..winds increase drag an8 cause coning. See Figure , 22. I 9,
1. 1

B
Windmill Aiming '

-3

C- Centrifugal safety, b'rakk, a cheap go-cart centrifugal c'lutch can be driven by the windmill. Whenever rate'of rotation gpeeds. ilti up to a cetrtain point, the clutch will try to engage. If you pre9 vent the clutch output shaft from 4 i. *turning ; (with bolts or welding) the devi,'ce will act as an over'speed bkake and prevent windmill destrudtion. You can drive the clutch (brake-with the same gear geneThis system will. of windmill. . 50

D- Aerodynamic control this is the method+,of power control which design attenreceives the most You can accomplish power tion. "blade. pitch control" control by -the blades which means rotating to change the blade angles to reFo? blades~~made with_ duce power. tube spars you only need to mount the tubes in bearings at the ',h'bb" ca'n be__ ,.,j* angles so that the blade then provpde some~meZ/ns changed, of controlling this ---. qngle. .. _small used in The methodmosst blade install%tions to control _ tingle is to mount a fly-weight on The See Figure 23. each bl2de. into swing fly-weight pries to rotation, blade plane , of the thus ', against the\return spring! controllinglblade angles.%&

WIND r-Y

Figure

22

Windmill

Coning

centrifugal control tube spar to the hub, and s ro

_/A- t

increases overcome5 The blade slides but-is caused to rotate outward, cam groove by means of a spiral orSslot.se Figure 2-4. 'i aerody'One further version of use, blade namic control is to drag to cause the whole blade hub .assembly to slide downwind on the A spring holds the power shaft. motion normal against ! its hub but when wind caused drag stop, is high enough the hub compres'ses
51

WIND 9
Y

, \

.CENTRI FIJGAL EXTENSION AGAINST SPRING

CENTER OF ROTATION

DRIVE

SHAFT CAM CAUSES BLADE ANGLE

-Figure 24 Sliding Blade Control

\
Figure 23 Flyweight Control

FLY WEIGHT

- .-____ m___----_ _...--. ?

'the spring and slides. Linkages hook the blades to a non-sliding portion of the hub or power shaftso that as the hub slides, blades are caused to rotate as the,linkages extend. See Figure 25.

Aerodynamic drag can be used to control windmill speed. By mounting flat-plate drag brakes as illustrated, ' centrif,,ugal force may be employed to actuate these plates. By. adjusting spring.tension and actuation geometry small plates at the tips of the blades can be made to absorb more power than the blades can generate,, and thus limit, or control windmill speed and output. I -

'

COMPRESSION SPRING #
\

* I. 5

BLADE
e 4

MoTloN

i c

BLADE HUB SLIDES DOWNWI ND LINK FIXED TO SHAFT AND BLADE CHANGES BLADE ANGLE AS HUB MOVES L

: _

. . -, : 3 , .,i, 5 , _; ,-o

It should be * noted that with any of tahe methods discussed he-re -de -------.-\ alt blades and blade.control vices md&t.be linked together so that all blades react together.. Any time one blade geometry is permitted to vary from the configuration of other blades during .- high-speed rotation, severe vi&ration and balance problems will set-,in immediately. The results of this are usually catastrophic. k Link all blades or controls together. Broblem To control the direction to keep aimed into the wind. windmill machine

- If your,windmill is a Solution vertical axis, or hybriq machine, for you have no problem at all, aimed &these designs are always :into the wind. machines, For horizontal axis The the problem exists. however, some of solutions are obvious; them simple.
53

A-Tail feathers. Look at Photo 4. The tail-mounted fin acts like an the keep rudder to airplane's windmill aimed into the wind.

Types of vanes&used are illustrated in Figures 2G A, B, and C. Design A is a bit,of nostalgia, Des::$gn B is a great but it works. and C is the best. improvement, You want The reason is simple. senthe tail vane which is most changes sit'ive and responsive to Design C has in wind direction. vane t!le hig!lest ratio of span, which is t!le distance from top to jbottom 02 the vane, to vane chord the distance from leading edge to Such vane5 are trailing edge. are delike glider wings which most use of signed to make the these light up-drafts to support benefit of :$ craft aloft without Practical ratios of span motor. the vane for divided by chord might be between 'two and ten. In a typical vane might other words, as it is be five times as tall wide. B - Tail mounted blades -mounting the behind blades the windmill fine. pivot works directional Blade drag acts to keep the windIf youdemill aimed correctly. this -sign a windmill of type I balance the machine to be slightly heavier in front of the direcDo this by mount.-Qional pivot. batteries, or generators, ing other heavy things up front. This out dampen help serve5 to any windthe tendency in "hunting" Tail mounted blades are re-' mill. use coning quired if you plan to With for gale wind protection. comes. one blades tail mounted the-turbulent airsmall problem: flow be.hind the tower-causes the they pass vibrate as blades to '

.)

'b

Photo

WIND

WIND V /

WIND

Figure

26

Tail

Vanes

This 'vibration behind this area. can enhance fatigue problems, and should be. reduced by streamlining the tower in the blade region. Problem Your windmill turn fast enough for the tor you want to use. doesn't genera-

Gears or pulleys and Solution increase belts to the speed. but expensive, Gears are great, and they require a box to house their them and oil or, grease. Some experimenters have recycled "rear ends" automotive complete with gear trains inside for such purposes. Bicycle chains and sprockets can be recycled from junk parts. Pulleys and belts of all types are available but automotive V-belts should be avoided .because of high belt friction and slippage problems. belts, cog while expensive at first, .last a long time and work well with low friction. The starting point'for the m sigh is to calculate tio you need. any gear deraEXAMPLE

,Chain

Drive

Your windmill has a rotation rate in a mild wind of, say, 303 revolutions per minute. The generator you plan to use begins to generate electrical current at, say, 699 revolutions per minute, and really puts out the power at 900. You choose to match the generator at 9Ob to the windmill at 300 since your calcu.lations the windmill already that -show can deliver the required power at this rotation rate. .Then GEAR RATIO =900/330 = 3 to 1

This means that the pulley or the driving (at sprocket doing the windmill) will have to be three times th-e diameter of the (at the driven smaller pulley Some windmill designs generator). 10 to may need-ratios as high as 1. Cog-belt Drive 55

DESIG

Section

. . POWER

SYSTEMS

Consider the fact that, man himmechanical a means a ,of self 'as only about power can contributie work in one horespower hour; of When energy is any given day. relieve man available to made power in/ from using only his own performing useful&asks real pro\ is made. gress Conversion of energy\, in a true sense, otiqht not to alternative Q-f contribute to the .-~hea$z -lo-ad the e'arth as a whole.,Wind energy of .power source is an obvious which does not liberate energy in not already in the form of heat prime since the the atmosphere, mover of wind is solar heat. that fact It's an interesting complewind and solar heat--are which allows nature mentary in these utilization of practical rc?ots energy sources at a grass have shown that, Tests level. averaged over a five year period, about 28 solar energy peaks at of collecwatts per square foot

tor surface in July, and drops to about 9 watts per square foot t\;in peaks January, wile wind energy at about 35 watts per square foot in February, and drops to about 7 depending on watts in August where you live. Thus, the two sources can provide a reasonably= when constant amount .o f bower used together. The point. to remember about the twp energy-hurces-, used together-r--or separately, is that there are 3 short-time variations in power available. energy storage Thus, is. required to guaran,tee power availability when needed. A windmill installed in an area of virtually constant winds (mountain passes, and some beach areas, for example) twill likely not need exwhile a tensive energy storage, windmill in areas given to extended periods of no wind need large storage systems, or other energy. sources. Figure 27 illustrates, : 'the elements of a complete power system. .

-,

IllA I -./.--WINDMILL

AND GENERATdR

- ENERGY

SOURCE

INVERTER / LOAD

COMPLETE

POWER SYSTEM

Figure

27

ENERGY
Four poss;ible discussed here. will system: These;*are: '. ; i. TL7ater
-\

;
be WATTS = Amps x Volts or WATT-HOURS = Amp-hours x Volts

-1 .
2. 3. 4.

Storage Fuel

Batteries Cells

Flywheels Pumped

EXAMPLE

ideal wind power system An fwould use combinations of these storage systems. For example, on windy when an exce55 of days energy is available the batteries will their be charged to full storage capacity. When the batteries are charged a simple switching device might divert electricity to a water pump to store water as will be discussed shortly. In any case no single method of energy storage is ideal. .

For a-2 volt automotive battery which is rated at 63 amp-hours, Watt-hours = GO x 12 = 723.

STORAGE BATTi?QIES batteries common Storage are and readily available. Automotive most batteries are perhaps the common units today. These units are designed with low manufacturing cost as a prime consideration; weight--and storage capacity are of secondary importance. How'ever, because of availability and cost, some experimenters may be able to secure enough of these second-hand at give-away prices: the cost per watt-hour of storage will be low enough to make their use worthwhile. bqatt-hours of storage capacity is the key' to battery selection. Batteries are rated in usually ampere-hours. Note that the ampere is usually called an amp. which is a unit of electrical current flow, and the following formula can be used to calculate watts:

Now if the power required estimate (from earlier windmill calculations) indicates a requirement of, say, five kilowatt-hours per day (that's 5900 watt-hours) and the power available on a particular day from your windmill is three kilowatt-hours, a storage capacity of the difference: or two kilowatt-hours is needed. As much as the entire power requirement may be. required, depending on the duration of the wind. If the battery to be used is capable of storing, say, 720 watt-hours, then 5039 divided by 720 equals or seven of these batteries 6.9, However, if the will be needed. entire storage capacity is used during a no-wind day, the battenext ries will be the dead by are morning, and. auto batteries entino,t designed to be drain.ed One? ought rely very many times. double to I in the above example, the number of batteries, or more, draining to prevent "deep-cycle" I/ them. Keep in mind,also, that as bat- I in the: teries age, and especially case of free-for-the-taking vari? s t- .r a*@ ety; of automotive units, You might be capacity decrease;. the amperehalf lucky to store hours rated on the sticker on the side of these batteries.

il i -IL i !
3

i --$, .

. ~----~~~ _
:c > :., l

t -.

-.

---r;------. jj

^ F

--:.:

* Batteries that are designed for more compatible purposes with wind energy storage are used in electric golf-carts and nrecrealike tion vehicles motor-homes. These batteries are and larger, u more costly than automotive units *c but their increased capacity and life may offset the hassles YOU --migh-t experience nsi?ng~Pcheap -auto batteries. 4-c. ' . 0 . Fuel cells are not new devices, as one might think. An experimen9 ter named Davy built one in 1801, and by 1839,. cells which use * gaseous fuels were being tested. -Today it is possible to construct which cell uses gaseous Y a fuel generate hydrogen land oxygen to electrical energy, and do so at grea$er conversion efficiencies ,,than possible with hny other sysL atem.
-__
I I

FUEL CELLS

wh.Gh must be'stored. This electricity banzbe used dire,otly to convert water into gaseous oxygen and hydrbgep. These bases can $e stored (separately, mind you) and eventual'ly brought together in a fuel cell to' be reconverted to electrical :-and- 'waker. en e r gy, This- process is polluti-bnfree, but-, for now, not entirely practical'due, to* the 'price of the fuel ,cell. Ultima-tely , fuel ~cells will ge made 'practical as they are further.developedN. / . * -FL&EELS * . \ Flywheels sto+>e?ehergy-by means of high-speed rot&ion of a heavy disc, or wheel. It's a simple matter,.to design a system which uses windmill supplied electrical energy to .spin-up a fly heel. This flywheel energy will i-x converted back to electricity as needed 4 ..because same the motor 'that spins the flywheel can -act as a generator.

-:J

'

L' *

.i

a fuel cell is a B,&ically, -form of battery in that electri-'-- city-is geEFated by a c&&mica1 _~- ~~ Dry* reaction within the device. flash-, ~~~~..--~cel-+ a-s -used in ordinary are lights and transistor radios battery.'l examples of a "primary consumed ma primary 'As power is chemithe battery wears out as Automotive cals aie used up. ~- -. ~called storage :batteries are and the "secondary batteries", can these devices chemicals in be regenerated by charging. These devices are intermittent in 4 use, periodicall'? reas they must be however, Fuel cells, charged. are continuous duty batteries beconsume externally they cause .They're consupplied chemicals. as long as the tinuous, that is, Their adsupply;of fuel lasts. high effivantage lies in their WY--~ -. The energy windmill into converts electrical 1 wind energy

LI

By,using newly create.d strut-, tural materials ,like the. synthetic and organic fibers in. used aerospace applications, it is possible to build a super-flywheel -one which spins incredibly : fast, that can..store, say, 3c) kilowatt-ho&s of energy. A flywheel of this size would weigh only a couple of hundred pounds. EJOW ; that's equivalent to thirty batteries of the one kilowatthour size used in Automobiles, and you know what each of those weighs. Also, a super-flywheel can be recharged virtually indef'initely, does not require chemi. cals, and.can be designed. for a -shelf life -which is the time it __ would take.to spin-down just because of bearing friction, of several weeks. ( ..
d

59

PUMPED WATER

q!J

and pumped batteries Storage water are perhaps the most likely ener-gy methods of used to be In the storage by experimenters. case of pumped water all you need two water to do is, say, build one much higher up storage ponds, other. the a hill , than how showed Earlier discussion required to power to calculate pump water at a certain flow rate same The heig.ht . up a desired much pcswer chart shows how YOU allowing water can get back bL back from the upper pond to flow to the lower pond. To store really;'. large -.arnounts--. will ponds look of enerqy your and there will more like lakes"; difference o-f altitude' be an feet: hundred Rather several the return line large pipes in a will be needed to get as large as possible, flow rate but the windmill can fill the. upper pond slowly, if necessary.

Radios installed in older automobiles used a vibrator (mechanical inverter) which made a hum-' ming sound while a vibrating reed "relay inside a little silver can back-and-forth to oscillated interrupt DC current and cause Modern inverters use highAC. powered transistors as electronic oscillators ,to make this change. Inverters are usually quite man-made efficient, as devices -ox* the order of 33 to 90 (30 the peircent of electric energy they take in will come 'back out. is obTheir highest.' efficiency tained when. inverters are operating near the maximum power capaSee Figure 28. bility.

..

100%

EFFICIENCY

POWER
. \_

MAX

TYPICAL

INVERTER

EFFICIENCY

,,----

INVERTERS
as proIf DC (direct current) duced by a DC generator or alterconvenused by nator is to be tional household devices rated at cur1lO'volts AC (alternating DC must be converted to AC rent) (usually 12 or and, the .voltage .._. ~~~... -~~_~~24) must be stepped up to the reThis is done by an quired value. an incalled electronic device verter.

Figure

28

BIBLIOG
bibliographies Excellent various alternative energy jects 4are alremvailable. following items are listed rather than dupl,imte to, work of.,mn others,.. "

x-

. .-0

on//-----subThe to add the

SCARING MAGAZINE; January 1964, and November 1973. Data on high performance Wortmann airfoils. Available from Soaring Societv of America, Box 66071,~ Los Angeies, Calif. 90066. Abbott and Von Doenhoff, THEORY" OF 1ilING SECTIONS, Dover Publications, 180 Varick -*Street, New York, 14, N.Y. Data-on all of the major NA,CA Airfoils. GENERAL

PLANS Savonious Rotor

Hackleman, Michael+?A., WINDSPINNERS, available from Earthmind, 26510 Saugus, Calif. 91350. Horizontal Axis

' WIND & for $7.50 Jose1 Drive .

/

WIND ENERGY'BIBLIOGRAPHY, available from. Windworks, Box 329, Route 3,- Mukwonago, Wise. 53149; for $3'. CATALOG OF AIRC SUPPLIES, CON-STRUCTION for 25c from 16673 Roscoe

Helion - 12/16 Plans optional size, construction methods, and alternators. Aluminum blades. Complete plans and instructions for $10 ' from Helion Box 4301, Sylmar, Calif. 91342. Hybrid Write to Helion - address above. 1/

Photo STRUCTURES Bruhn, E. F., -VEHICLE OF FLIGHT available nati, Ohio, 45202.

Credits

t. *

George Helmholz Pg, 24 3,'Blade Horizontal Axis-Windmill " * C: Hogan-Esch pg. 4 & pg. 67 Dutch Windmills Sandia Laboratories Eggbeater Hybrid source of
w. c. Strumpell Pg. Water Pump Windmill

pg. 23

63

have used some. 'rather data. AIRFOILS Rice, M. S., Wisconsin, 53201. c /
61
/

c.

L. Swett Augmented

pg, 62 Wind Turbine

Appendix \\
\

WINDMILL

DATA
1 t

_I

-,e

VANES

AUGMENTED

TIJkBINF, n

WINDMILL _/ .

41
3

62
i
.1

.4 .3 E .2
.l

. 0 2 4 u/v 6

HYBRIDS

63 1

:.

f-

, I :

SAVONJ& *_, I \ \ 1 -1

ROTOR \ b,

NUMB/!ER OF VANES\\, A \

,e
4

PSPECT

RA;IO

\ \i \

SINGLE TIER SAVONIOUS

I-

VANE

FORM

E .1
I

d
2 CONFIGURATIUJS 64

d _-

..

..-

.2
9

,m

. .

DUTCH WINDMILL G '0,

E

.2

.l

0 0 . 1
u/v .) 67 2 3

, I -

.~ ----..-

HIGH-S>HORIZONTAL

'T"-.,_-< AXIS

.-_ --G-y WINDMILLS--._.

I...- _--

TWO BLADE

.2-

-4

*8
u/v

~--l-f

16 ,

SINGLE

BLADE

:68 -

HIGH-SPEED HORIZONTAL AXIS WINDMILLS

C.

.4

.3 E

.2
. I

.?

3 THREE BLADE
.

4 u/v

5 :; ..i

l .

69

Aprjendix

AIRFOIL

DATA
( \

.A
.c

Following is a discus&ion of the method ~by which you can some numbers lay out an exact airfoil shape according-to A graph which are presented Tn this section of the book. is presented which shows the lift coefficient performance This 'graph will help for each of the airfoils listed. you in Blade Angle computations.* Other airfoils are some better than those listed here, many less available, Check the.bibliography in this.book for sources suitable. ,,. of further airfoil information. _ HOW TO LAY OUT AN AIRFOIL' A-

-.. -F r,

The numbers p'resented..for each type of airfoil are percentWhen you have determined ages of the airfoil\'s chord length. youCcan calculate dimensions from which to chord lengths, 'develop the exact airfoil shape much as you would plot a 'grhph.

A few
Station 0 l/25 2.5 ;; 5 ..o

of

these

numbers

for

the Clark

Y airfoil

are:

. Upper
* 3.50. 5.45 6.50 . 7.90

and-'so

or? .

.
,

Then For simplicity let's assume a chord length of 10 inches. Reyou 'multiply each number in the box by the chord length. member that these are percentages before multiplying by chord /"--that is, 3.50'percent is really 0.035, and 1.25 perlength, Move the deciimal point 'two places to . cent is really 0.0125. You may run into some-source of airfoil numbers lisi the left. j ted as the real multiplier number rather than a-s a percentage.--Then, .multiply: '-1 In this -case, use the numbers as they are.
Station 0 x10= .0125 0 x lo-= .125 i

1. '

._

..-.. 70 :

h I

i -. /

Now you simply plot the airfoil on a large sheet of graph paper.:, Always measure from Station = Start on a straight horizontal.-line. then measure up or down 0 to the right to each next station point, Measure up from this -line by the to the upper or lower p~oints. at the same station, Then, Make adot at this point. upper value. If the lower measure from the.hoiizontal line to the lower value. If 'not, the value has a minus (-1 sign, measure'.below the line. Some sources of airfoil lower value-is &eastt-redabove the line. information will have different station values for the upper point 'For these airfoils, you will have to 'than for the lower value. Keep them .compute the different additional station values. . d separate. :"&z' for the By making all $hes:dots generate a series of dot targets will form the airfoil curved line, upper and lower values, you wpich, when connepted with's shape;. will

c. _

is the leading edge radius. The "LR" value Again, it's a, percentage of the chord. For the Clark Y, LR = J-5%,- or 0.015. For a JO inch chord, zileading edge radius = 10 x- .015 = -15 inches. Use this value to shape the curve at the leading edge with a compass or draftsman's circle guide. Some..airfoils wilb not ' show the leading edge radius value'. This is really a reference number. You can'draw the curve without it. I

: 2.1 1 I I I I

-0

:4

! I

10

12

~- 14 (DE&EES)

16~

18 3-k * DATA

20

-22

24

ANG;fE 1 AmFoIL &FT

OEATTACK i. AND ANGLE

OF ATTACK

,j .

.!

__

.i ,;-

72 I

-,

CLARK Y-

St.

CYR 234

NACA 0012

NACA 0,015

NACA 4412

5cr.A. JPPER LOWER UPPER LOWER UPPER LOWER UPPER LOWER UPPER LOWEi .* 3.5 3.5 6.42 6.42 0 '0 0 0 0 0 0 1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10 20 30 4cr 50 60 70 80 5.45 5.5 7.9 8.85 3.6 11.36 11.7 11.4 10.52 9.15 7.35 5.22 * 1.93 1.47 .93 .63 .42 .03 0 '0 I 0. 0 0 0 ~a~0 9.55 11.0 12.7 13.8 14.6 16.2 16.55 16.1 15.2 .13.3 10.8 7.75 A&.-0 3.75 2.7 1.4 .85 .5 .2 . 65 1.1 1.35 1.9 1.35 1.05 1.89 2.62 3.56 4.2 4.68, 5.74 6 .;O 5.8 5.29 4.56 3.66 2.62 -1.89 -2.62 -3.56 ,-4.2 -4.68 -5.74 -6.0 -5.8 -5.29 -4.56 -3.66 -2.62 c.5 0 2.37 3.27 .4.44 5.25 5.85 7.17 7.5 7.25 6.62 5.7 4.58 3.28 --k;%l0 I;R
q

-2.37 -3.27 -4.44 -5.25 -.5.85 -7.17 -7.5 -7.25 -6.62 -5.7 -4.58 -3.28 ~q;By 0 2.48

2.44 3.39 4.73 5.76 6.59 8.8 9.76 9.8 9.19 8.14 6.69 4.89 '

-1.43 -1.95 -2.49 -2.74 -2.86 -2.74 -2.26 -1.-E -1.4 -1.0 -.650 -.39

9 II-- 2-8 100 0

-*5 -'L- -l;-45 0 0

2 .-7lF~-- L'; 2.20 0

LR = 1.5/

LR = 1.58

LR =-1.58

c ..

7~3

'X 60-126 STA

_.

'X 72-MS-150B

JPPER LOWER JPPER LOWER 1 t.77 3.44 1.81 5.46 5.59 3.33 0 -1.37 -1,E -2.48 -2.76 -3.26 -3.75 i.-05 1.01. j.l? 0, m-l.-23 -1.24 -1.14 :

0 1.7
m r

2.65. 5.16 6.69 10.33 19.56 30.86 40.24 50.0 59.75 69.13 80.43 91.57 ~100 *

7..$<.6 -1.03 3.43 13.3'2 -.7?

3.13 ' -3i39 3.0 J -2.55 -1.42

.13 --\ 16.05 1.16" ' . . 16.86 l 2.Q9 16.16 14.21 11.55 7.5 . 5.27
l

. \\ \
.
i

4.25 4.64 4.07 2.21 0

.85

3.23 0

74
. I

Graphs are used.to simplify I have precalculations. sented many graphs in this manual so that computations which are normally,difficult will be made easily. So that all users of this text have graph reading ability, this page is presented.

10 , 9

8 7 m6

CONDITION 1 - You know VALUE A and you wan&to find VALUE B on Sample Graph 1. EXAMPLE b 4 .

2
1

.E A

lb2

34

8
1 .

910

VALUE A SAMPLE GRAPH

If VALUE'A equals 8, start on the horizontal line at 8 and look (or draw a line) vertically up to the curve: Next, look (or draw a line) horizontally to the scale at the left. Notice that the answer VALUE B equals 4. &OTE - You may have more than one curve which applies to your problem; %u select the curve which or add a curve which does. applies, EXAMPLE g
. .

1 K ,
VALUE C = 20 \*

Look at Sample Graph 2. Suppose that VALUE-C in your problem equals 15, which is-half-way between the line for C=lO, and C=ZO. Simply add a"line roughly half-way between the two and proceed as abode. CONDITION 2 - Refer to Sample Graph 1. You know VALUE B, and need VALUE A. EXAMPLE C Start-at YALUE B- (R=Z-,5 example). Look to the the curve, then down. 4 the answer is VALUE A!=
>

6>

.-.

w4 2
2

in -this ight to otice' that 4.

, i

l-2345678

\
I

a i!.-- ~. i-'

VALUE %AMPLE

X 2

GkApH

*.

7 5. *

Appendix .
1 2 3 4 'where Power Force Pressure

WINDMILL PERFORMANCE
u. b I: I , of air =a0.0024 in. , area in measured feet per in-square second of-speed units = V, here feet , feet .slugs at,sea p'er / foot3 level

. -, DiTAlLED
= Force = Pressure= J

x Velocity x Area
PxV3/2

p = Mass V = wind

denj,jty speed

measured

second

4 where

Power

= . 0012

x V3 x A. frontalspeed measured

A = windmill V = wind

This is the't.heoretical power availa'ble in a wind acting across a windmill of frontal area = A..Power are foot-pounds per second. 5 - One 6 = Horse Again, this Horsepower Pow-er is = ='550 .6012 foot-pounds x V3 x A '/ horsepower. per 550 second

'= 0.0000022 b

x V3 x A

theoretical

7 - The mathematical fr m the above val;ue and mi 9 1 is perfect, from a windmill will calculations, E will 8 - $ctual.Horsepower. xAxE where Ld $': '. _P 5-g ^.. _ ... ? ..;,w
pt

horsepower which a windmill can extract ' However, no windis 59.3% of the total. the actual ma,ximum horsepower availabke be more like lO%'to 40% of the total. .F';rr P, be efficiency factor. available from a wind = 0.0000022 x I 1 i. .' per per windmill hour, second, K = 1.47 K =* 1.0 I (k V)3 I

V =

wind

,* . speed to adjust in in of miles beet the. factor. power: a wind 76

% . I

k = a constant if V is _-~~ if V is A - .frontal measured measured area efficiency of

u -.. -

measured Y One

---- ~..._

in

square

feet

E = the
* , 9 --FOrcalculation 10 - Actual
-.
+

: watt; L

electrical . from ?.

horsepower x (k

= 746 V)3

watts

a'vailable

= 0.0016 I

x A x E = ?

Appendix
TUBE 'TENSILE

E
STRENGTH ;.' ., (i

r
OF CONSTRUCTION

.--;-.
MATERIALS

* .._ ,.._
. -ii

STRENGTH

measured in pounds of force, t'ube tensile strength, To compute multiply tension area from Graph A below times the tensile strength See next page for tensile factor for &&he metal alloy of the tube. strength factors.
-EXAMPLE 0 /-

A 2-inch diameter by . 065 inch wall thickness tube of Aluminum From Calculate the tensile strength. alloy 2024 T-4 is selected. Tensile strength factor tension area equals .39. Graph A, note that Then Tensile Strength = .39 x 60,000 = for this alloy is 60,000. 23,400 pounds.

.9 I? .8

.7

0
r GRAPH A

1 TUBE

DIAMETER

..
c AND , b I

(INCH)

-i.

I ..I

T;NSION AREA FOR TUBE DIAMETERS THREE WALL THIGKNESS VALUES 77

t .

\
;b c

I , .

TUBE
1. . ..

BENDING

STRENGTH

'

Ic

,'

._ .

To compute approximate tube bending strength, measured in in&T+ zF ". 'L multiply K-value from Gr'aph B below times the tensile pounds, strength factor. " ". 1 ' .'. _._ EXAMPLE --.._._ -.. thickness tube of Aluminum A 2-inch diameter-by . 065 inch wall Calculate the bending strength. alloy 2024 T'4 is selected-,,_ From K = 0 .19 ..~~~~~' strength factor for this alloy Tensile Graph B, note that Then Bending Strengtk,r; 0.19 x 60,000 = 11,400 inchequals 60,000. '..

\,

.7

TENSILE STRENGTH FACTORS Alloy Tensile Factor Strength

.6

Alurniyn 2024 T-4 6061 T-6 7075 T-6 Stee.l'4130 4130 60,000 42,000 75,000 J I I'

90,000

1 I 1
1 il ,~i li

1 TUBE DIAMETER

2 (INCH)

GRAPH ,B

K VALUE FOR TUBE DlAMET,ERS AND THREE-WALL THICKNESS VALUES

* -.

TENSILE

STRENGTH OF WOOD BLADES . Wood blades - as discussed earlier in this manual - are laminated and carved from quality materials like aircraft grade'spruce. The Tensile Strength Factor for wood varies between 7000 to about 12,000 pounds per square inch. This value depends on the type of wood used, and the moisture content. Wood strength increases rapidly as'the material dries out. For avera'ge.wood used in the 10% to 15% moisture content range, a safe check of blade strength can be made with a tensile strength factor of 8,000. You need to know the tensile area of the blade. Then multiply this area times the strength factor to compute blade tensile strength. EXAMPLE The blade sketched has a tensile area for the structural wood forward portion (you can disregard any strength value in thebalsa or foam trailing edge in this example) of approximately 12 This Blade strength = 12 x 8,000 = 96,000 pounds. square inches. is the maximum'centrifugal tension load this blade can withstand.
, .= i P

9, ,

( \

-~

i I.

CABLE STRENGTH

-Cables are used for tower guy wires, windmill br*acing, and so on. Data presented is for 7 x 19 flexible aircraft stranded-cable----,m~P .available in surplus outlets, or the source listed in the Biblio-: graphy o;f this book. ,
CABLE DIAMETER l/16 3132
l/8

(inches)

BREAKING TENSILLE STRENGTH (pounds) 400 750 2,000 1 .+, --~-----B -

_----

--

5/16 l/4

4,200 7,000

d f

-Y

BOLT STRENGTH
J .. P

Data

presented

are

for

airc,raft

qua .ity

(AN)

bolts.
c

8 9

BOLT DIAMETER. (inches) 3/16 .':y

SINGLE SHEAR*STRENGTH (pounds) 2;10,0

3,600 ~.

TENSILE S.TRENGTH' (pounds) c ,2,200 4,000 6,500 - i

3. # \

, ._,

511'6 - 3/a< 7j16 .

10

8,200 11,200, 14 ,.700

c
n

13,600 la':500

. 0 Two Strips f steel are to be bolted together. The maximum t:nsile strips is 8,000 pounds. . load fin th The bolt will take this load -in single shear. The minimum size bolt for this -load is one 3/8 inch aircraft quality bolt; or two 5/1G inch bolts. Hardware ,store bolts will' have to be larger in d.iameter,.
LOAD e

EXAMPLE 1.

. : . I

EXAMPLE 2' A wooden-blade force is equal as illustrated is to be bolted to to 20,500 pounds. -below. a s'teel hub: The bolts are The centrifugal loaded in shear
WOODEN B-LADE .

.*.

BOLTS

Notice in-the sketch-that the blade load ends up in two hub parts,,; which-means that half of the load goes into each';'side of the blade. Thus 10,000 pounds is loaded at tGo different. places along the attachment bolt - called double shear. Two 5/16 inch bolts could handle this load. In the casg of wood -blade attachment, lots of .. smaller bolts are recommended. . I ' .,',

BOX4301 Sylnor, @hnir

PUBLICATI.dNS , / LIST.

91342 .

(213) 367-8291
February,

1975 R The following lists the currently available p These"'Uocuments deal with the field of wind e in other alternative fields are curr pro. IED WIND POWER SYSTEMS FOR EXPERIMENTE SIM engineering trained'people, this very popular the design process t.o# anybody who can do simpl talc with lots o'f graphs and ex?mple SO pages, showing various windmills, and construction new second edition.

ions from Helion. Publications, and n the works. . . Y Written for non: ook makes available arithmetic p'roblems.

*$ p Y' "ii

These plans offer highly 6 Windmill:Plans. luminum blade 2-to-5 tten instructions -f-or construction of this all and 16 foot You"get drawings for both the fi2 foot, '*kilowatt windmill. with several options for construct?' n methods, and diameter blades, P A photo essay detailing construction met generators, K ods is included, as well as the engineering informatidn c,oncerning ._ No. plans are offered for the tower, but'discussion *i Only a few .the,windmill is raisedJ.up the tower. '.; and we have with a few machined parts, necessary, .supply kits for'lthese, and Completed windmills, other parts. will.also be made lavailable. t i Plans price,,$lO.'i This pri,ce is $9, if p&chased our I\\_ \ with ?\ wind power b ook. \ ', . ,, Wind Power Technical M b OS _ twoF,are available: \ '1 \ .\ 'WTM ,l - Aerodynamic Layoijt of A technical Windwheel Blades. method' for "optimum II' layo;t. 1 price. - $1. Windmi-11 .Notes. * L WTK. 2 - Hybrid S,@rtmarizes &&rythifig we bel'ieve .nre know about these windmills - $2.: , Price at this,ptime. D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i d All prices postage paid at Book Cplifornia residents add, rate. Please include payment tax. with order. 4 7
I

shown

with

12 foot

blade

______.....

.--,

___,,.

._.rr-X---.--

__

.._\

____.c_I

--

---.--