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MACHINE SHOP

A machine shop is both an engineer's laboratory and an artist's studio. Some operations require a lot of precision and planning and three dimensions, while others are more free form. Each material and each operation require different machines, but they all follow the same basic principles. By knowing the possibilities and limitations of the tools, you can better design the objects you create.

LATHE: INTRODUCTION
A lathe is probably the oldest machine tool, stemming from the early tree lathe, which was turned by a rope passed around the work a few times and attached to a sparingly branch overhead. The work was supported by two dowels struck in adjacent trees. The operators foot supplied t he motion, which was intermittent and fluctuating. The tool was held in the operators hand. Later a strip of wood called a lath was used to support the rope and hence named as Lathe. From this crude beginning and over period of more than two centuries, the modern engine lathe has evolved. Until about 1770, lathes were useless for metal cutting because they lacked power and a holding device strong enough and accurate enough to guide the tool. For its development to the form in which we know it now, we owe much to Henry Mauldsley, who developed the sliding carriage and in 1800 built a screw cutting lathe. Nowadays, it has become a general purpose machine tool, employed in production and repair work, because it permits a large variety of operations to be performed on it.

BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LATHE MACHINE


Lathe removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with the help of a tool which is traversed across the work and can be fed deep in work. The tool material should be harder than the work piece and the latter held securely and rigidly on the machine. The tool may be given linear motion in any direction. A lathe is used principally to produce cylindrical surfaces and plane surface, at right angles to the axis of rotation. It can also produce tapers and bellows etc. Operation of turning is done on parts as small as those used by watches to huge parts weighing several tons.A lathe basically consists of a bed to provide support, a headstock, a cross slide to traverse the tool, a tool post mounted on the cross slide. The spindle is driven by a motor through a gear box to obtain a range of speeds. The carriage moves over the bed guide ways parallel to the work piece and the cross slide provides the transverse motion. A feed shaft and lead screw are also provided to power the carriage and for cutting the threads respectively.

OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON LATHE MACHINE


The most common operations which can be performed on the lathe are 1. Facing, 2. Turning, 3.Taper turning, 4. Eccentric turning, 5. Boring, drilling, 6. Reaming, 7. Threading, 8.Knurling, and 9. Scroll cutting etc. In addition to it, with the help of special attachments, operations like 1. Keyway cutting, 2. Cam and gear cutting, 3. Shaping, 4. Milling, 5. Fluting, and 6. Grinding can also be performed on this machine

TERMS USED IN LATHE MACHINING


The following terms are commonly used while machining a work piece on lathe. 1.Cutting speed: It is defined as the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool from thework piece. In other words, it is the peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool. It is usually expressed in meters per minute. 2. Feed: It is defined as the distance which the tool advances for each revolution of the work. It is usually expressed in millimeters. 3. Depth of cut: It is defined as the depth of penetration of the tool into the work piece during machining. In other words, it is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the unmachined surface of the work piece. It is usually expressed in millimeters.

SHAPER
The shaper (also called shaping machine) is a reciprocating type of machine tool used for producingsmall flat surfaces with the help of a single point tool reciprocating over the stationary work piece.The flat surface may be horizontal, inclined or vertical. The reciprocating motion of the tool is obtained either by the crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism or Whitworth quick return motion mechanism.

Principal Parts of a Shaper


The principal parts of a shaper,are as follows: 1. Base: It is a heavy structure of cast iron which supports other parts of a shaper. 2. Column: It is a box-like structure made up of cast iron and mounted upon the base. It contains the driving mechanism and is provided with two machined guide ways on the top of it on which the ram reciprocates. 3. Ram: It is a reciprocating member which reciprocates on the guide ways provided above the column. It carries a tool-slide on its head and a mechanism for adjusting the stroke length. 4. Tool head: It is attached to the front portion of the ram with the help of a nut and a bolt. It is used to hold the tool rigidly, it also provides the vertical and angular movements to the tool for cutting. 5. Cross-rail: It is attached to the front vertical portion of the column. It is used for the following two purposes: (a) It helps in elevating the table over the column in the upward direction, and (b) The table can be moved in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the ram over this cross rail. 6. Table: It is used for holding the work piece. It can be adjusted horizontally and vertically with the help of spindles.

Working Principle and Operation of a Shaper


We have already discussed that in a shaper, a single point cutting tool reciprocates over the stationary work piece. The tool is held in the tool post of the reciprocating ram and performs the cutting operation during its forward stroke. It may be noted that during the backward stroke of the ram, the tool does not remove material from the work piece. Both these strokes (i.e., forward and backward strokes) form one working cycle of the shaper. For shaping in horizontal direction, in the clamped work piece is fed against the reciprocating tool after every cutting cycle. The depth of cut is adjusted by moving the tool downward towards the work piece. For shaping in vertical direction, The tool is fed vertically towards the work piece after every cutting cycle. The depth of cut is adjusted by moving the work piece sideways.

Specifications of a Shaper
The shaper is specified as follows : 1. Maximum length of stroke is millimeters, 2. Size of the table, i.e., length, width and depth of the table, 3. Maximum vertical and horizontal travel of the table, 4. Maximum number of strokes per minute, 5. Power of the drive motor, 6. Type of quick return mechanism. 7. Floor space required, and 8. Weight.

DRILLING MACHINE
The basic purpose of a drilling machine is to drill cylindrical holes in work pieces (metallic and non-metallic materials). The holes are cut out of the material with a cutting tool, which is known as drill. The drill is fixed in a rotating spindle and can be fed towards the work piece which may be fixed to the table or to the base of the machine. The speed of the spindle and the feed can be adjusted according to the work piece. Some examples of drilling work are

Working Principle of a Drilling Machine


We have already discussed that a metal cutting operation that produces cylindrical holes or enlarges existing holes with an end cutting tool is called as drilling. The end cutting tool used for drilling holes in the work piece is called as twist drill and is provided with two cutting edges. In order to cut off chips, two motions are given to the drill simultaneously .
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1. Rotary motion: The rotary motion is called as main motion or cutting motion. In some cases, this motion is given to work pieces also (e.g., while drilling on the lathe). The cutting motion is generally measured in m/min. The highest cutting speed is on the periphery of the drill and it decreases towards the centre of the drill. 2. Liner motion towards the fixed work piece: The motion is called as feed and it controls the thickness of the chip. In small bench type drilling machines, instead of giving feed to the drill, the work piece is moved towards the rotating drill by raising the table. The feed is generally measured in mm/rev. As the drill is provided with two cutting edges, the thickness of the chip is half the feed. By the simultaneous double action of cutting (or main motion) and the feed, each cutting edge of the drill describes a spiral and thereby produces a constant flow of chips.

Size of a Drilling Machine


Portable drilling machines are designated by the maximum diameter of drill they can hold. Sensitive and upright drilling machines are specified by the diameter of the largest work piece that can be accommodated which is twice the clearance between the centre line of the drill and the machine pillar or frame. The size of radial drilling machine is designated by the length of the radial arm and the column diameter.

Specification of a Drilling Machine


A heavy duty drilling machine is specified by following parameters. 1. Drilling capacity 2. Taper in spindle (Morse no.) 3. Distance between spindle and column (maximum and minimum), in case of radial drilling machine 4. Transverse of spindle 5. Minimum distance between spindle and table 6. Minimum distance between spindle and base plate 7. Working surface of table (i.e., diameter) 8. Range of spindle speeds 9. Range of power feed per revolution 10. Motor speed, and 11. Motor power
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Drilling Operations
The most common operations which can be carried on a drilling machine are drilling, boring, reaming, tapping, counter boring, spot facing, and countersinking.

MILLING
Milling is the machine operation in which the removal of metal from the work piece takes place due to a rotating cutting tool(cutter) when the work is fed past it. The cutter has multiple cutting edges and rotates at a very fast rate. The rotating cutting tool known as the Milling Cutter is a multiple point tool having the shape of a solid revolution with cutting teeth arranged either on the periphery or on end or on both. The revolving cutter is held on a spindle or arbor and the work piece is clamped or bolted on the machine table or may be in a vise or a three jaw chuck or an index head held or a rotary table etc. The milling process is employed for producing flat contoured or helical surfaces, for making helical grooves, to cut teeth and toothed gears.

Working Principle of Milling


The job or work piece is rigidly clamped on the table of the machine or in a chuck or an index head and a revolving multiteeth cutter is mounted either on a spindle or an arbor. The job is fed slowly past the cutter. The work can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal or cross direction. With the movement of the work piece, the cutter teeth remove metal from the job in the form of chips to produce the desired shape. Generally, the size of a milling machine is denoted by the dimension i.e. length and breadth of the table. Other main specifications of the machine or placing an order are the H.P. of the driving motor, number of spindle speeds and feeds, the taper of spindle nose (Whether Morse Taper or Some other Taper) required floor area, gross weight of the m/c etc. Some manufacturers, however, denote these machine sizes by different numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.

(a) Horizontal Milling Machines: These machines can be further classified as plain or universal milling machines. In a plain milling machine, the table cannot be swiveled in a horizontal plane. The table may be fed in a longitudinal, cross or vertical directions on a plain milling, machine. In case of universal milling machine, the table can be swiveled up to 45 in a horizontal plane to the right or left. This arrangement makes the angular and helical milling operations by using the universal milling machine. In addition to the three principal movements as incorporated in a plain milling machine, the table can be fed at an angle to the milling cutter. (b) Vertical Milling Machines: In vertical knee type milling machines, the position of the cutter spindle is vertical. Though it has the same table movements as in plain milling cutter, the spindle head swivel or it may be a combination of the sliding and swivel head type. These machines are suitable for end milling and face milling operations.

Milling Machine Operations


The operations that can be performed on a milling machine are broadly classified as follows: (1) Plain Milling (2) Face Milling (3) Angular Milling (4) Staggered Milling (5) Form Milling (6) End Milling

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