17_11_2008

velocity and pressure are decomposed as:

turbulent kinetic energy (per unit volume):
The equation for the turbulent kinetic energy
is obtained from Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible flows.
turbulent kinetic energy (tke) equation
j
i
j
i
i i
j
j j i i
j j
i
j i
j
j
x
v
x
v
v v
x
p v v v v
x x
V
v v
dt
dk
x
k
V
t
k

(
(

\
|

2
1
2
' '
p P p 1,2,3 i v V v
i i i
+ = = + =
( ) ( ) ( )
average (ensemble) turbulence
v v v k
= =
+ + =
. .
' ' '
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1
1=streamwise
2= vertical
3=spanwise
In the turbulent kinetic energy equation different terms can be
recognized:
variation (material derivative) of t.k.e with time
production term
redistribution term
pseudo- dissipation term (related to dissipation due to
turbulent fluctuations)
Turbulent kinetic energy equation- physical interpretation

(
(

=
j
j j i i
j j
i
j i
x
k
p v v v v
x x
V
v v
dt
dk
2
' '
dt
dk
j
i
j i
x
V
v v

' '
(
(

j
j j i i
j
x
k
p v v v v
x

2
DT

17_11_2008
k- turbulence model
( )
n dissipatio - pseudo
x
v
x
v
volume) unit (per energy kinetic turbulent v v v v v v
2
1
k
n
i
n
i

=
+ + =

3 3 2 2 1 1
' ' ' ' ' '
k- turbulence model (Launder & Sharma, 1974) is one of the
most widely used 2-equation turbulence model
two equations are introduced to compute space and time
development of k and .
then:

2
2
1
2
1
0
2
3
2
1
0
k
C C C ; k u
k
u C
T
= = = = =

; l l
where C

is an empirically determined constant

Model equation for k

x
v
x
v
v v
x
p v v v v
x
P
x
V
v v
dt
dk
j
i
j
i
i i
j
j i i j
j j
i
j i
43 42 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 43 4 42 1

(
(

=
j
T

2
1
2
The equation for k is derived from that for turbulent kinetic energy:
The production term P is modeled on the basis of Boussinesq hypothesis:
j
i
ij
i
j
j
i
T
j
i
j i
ij
i
j
j
i
T j i
x
V
k
x
V
x
V
P
x
V
v v

k
x
V
x
V
v v

(
(

|
|

\
|

= =

|
|

\
|

=


3
2
3
2

T
T k
k
T
and where k T = = = 1
r
The term T is modeled on the basis of empirical arguments
17_11_2008
Model equations

k P
dt
dk
ly equivalent or
x
k
x x
V
k
x
V
x
V
dt
dk
k
T
j k
T
j
P
j
i
ij
i
j
j
i
T
(

+ =

(
(

(
(

|
|

\
|

4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
3
2
Model equation for k
The model equation for is similar to that for k and is entirely
based on empirical arguments:

1.3 92 c , c with
k
c
k
P
c
dt
d
k 2 1
T
1 1 44 1
2
2 1
= = = =
(

+ =

. .
.

k-e model: summary of equations to be used

x
k k
C
x x
V
k
x
V
x
V k
C
dt
dk
j k j j
i
ij
i
j
j
i

(
(

(
(

|
|

\
|

=
2 2
3
2
Model equation for k
constants empirical , , c , c , C with
x
k
C
x k
c k
x
V
x
V k
C
x
V
k
c
dt
d
k 2 1
j j
ij
i
j
j
i
j
i

(
(

+
(
(

|
|

\
|

=
2 2
2
2
1
3
2
k
x
V
x
V k
C
x x x
V
x
P
f
x
V
V
t
V
1,2,3 j m, for sum ) directions (different 1,2,3 i ;
x
V
mi
i
m
m
i
m m m
i
i
i
j
i
j
i
i
i
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|

=
(
(

= = =

3
2
0
2 2
Continuity eq.
Reynolds eq.
(3 scalar eq.)
equation for k
equation for
Please note: 6 unknowns (V
1
,V
2
,V
3
, P, k, ) and 6 equations !!!
17_11_2008
Boundary conditions
While the boundary condition to be used for the mean velocity is derived from
the no-slip condition, it is not obvious which condition should be imposed upon
(and k)
But
Assuming that the mean flow close to the bottom is nearly parallel to the wall
the law of the wall (log velocity profile, described in the previous lecture) is
used to derive the boundary conditions (empirical assumption)
It is further assumed that near the wall the budget of turbulent kinetic
energy is such that Production=dissipation
(empirical assumption based on channel flow results)
Therefore the turbulence model will be used only to compute the flow field in a
region located far from the wall (where we assume the log law to be valid)
while in the region closer to the wall the log-law is assumed to be valid. (is
this always true for BBL ?)
Boundary conditions for k and
Law of the wall (see lecture 1):
Generally assumed to be valid for
If the first grid point is located at a distance from the wall such that
it is possible to assume that the log-law holds, boundary conditions for
k and can be derived
Further advantage: the region closer to the wall, where large gradients
are encountered and viscous effects are relevant is not computed
Other hypothesis introduced: production=dissipation in the turbulent
kinetic budget close to the wall
( )
velocity friction u
length roughness y
0.41
y
y u
y V
0
=
=
=
|
|

\
|
=

0
1
ln
width channel half
.
u
30
=
< <
D
D y 3 0

17_11_2008
Channel flow: near-wall region

=
=
=
+
u
u
u
y
y
scale length
0
2
2 2
2 2
1
2 1
=

(
(
(
(

43 42 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
43 42 1
r r
4 43 4 42 1
n dissipatio Pseudo
j
i
j
i
diff. viscous
trans. press.
conv. turb.
Production
x
v
x
v
x
k
p v v v v
2 x x
V
v v

Turbulent kinetic energy in the BBL (unsteady flow)

Turbulent kinetic energy depends on time
Production term Pseudo-dissipation term
Production is maximum slightly after the maximum of velocity
Dissipation is maximum slightly after the maximum of velocity
but later than production

2
x

2
x
( )
2
0
U
x
V
v v
j
i
j i

( )
2
0
U
x
v
x
v
j
i
j
i

=800
17_11_2008
boundary conditions
The boundary conditions to be applied close to the wall (y=y
0
) for k and are
derived assuming that:
the log law holds close to the bottom
In the near-wall region the turbulent kinetic energy production = dissipation
( )
2
3
2 2
1
2
2
2
2
1 2
2
1
0
2
1
2 1
1
x
u
P
x
u
x
V
stress shear bottom ; 0.41 k
x
x
k
u
x V but
velocity friction u
x
V
u
x
V
x
V
v v P
o 1
o

= = =

= =
|
|

\
|
=
=

ln

Boundary condition for

boundary condition for k
( )

C
u
k
C
k
therefore
assumption
k C
P
k
C but
y
V
y
V
v v P
x
V
: wall the to closer region the in since
2
T
T
y
y
T
2 2
0
2
2
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
1
2 1
0
2
1
0
= =
= = =

=
=
=
Boundary condition for k
N.B. initial conditions and conditions far from the wall depend on the
problem
17_11_2008
k- predictions of oscillatory BBL
From Puleo et. al. 2004
The comparison of k- predictions with
experimental data (test13 of Jensen
et. al (1989), rough wall) and with the
prediction of other models (a.o. e-
model, to be described) shows that k-
model (medium thick line) has
difficulty to predict correctly
turbulent kinetic energy in the region
closer to the bed
( )
(

2
1
2
1
x
V
x t
U
t
V
T

( )
(

2 2 2
1
x
e
x
e
x
V
e
t
e
T e e e

( )
(

2
2
2
3
2
1 2
2
x x x
V
t
T

=
e
T
Momentum equation
The eddy viscosity is given in terms of pseudo-energy (e), related to
turbulent kinetic energy, and pseudo-vorticity ():
Equation for pseudo energy:
Equation for pseudo vorticity:
,
e,
,
e
,
e
,

and

are universal constants

e- model: formulation for 1D flow (BBL)
17_11_2008
At the wall, velocity and pseudo-energy vanish
While pseudo-vorticity is related to the roughness height y
r
by means of a
universal function :
Note that it is not necessary (as done for the k-) model to assume the
validity of the log-law close to the wall (useful in unsteady flows or in flows
characterized by adverse pressure gradients)
0 y for = = = 0 0 e u
number Reynolds roughness
u y
u y
r
r
=
|

\
|
=

Eddy viscosity models: e- model boundary conditions

smooth regime
Turbulence is generated
explosively near the wall at the
beginning of the decelerating
phase and it propagates far from
the wall
Eddy viscosity models: two-equation models (Blondeaux, J. Hydr. Res, 1988)
pseudo-energy (smooth regime)
The model correctly provides the friction factor
in the laminar regime
The model works well at high values of the
Reynolds numbers
The transition to turbulence is not predicted
accurately
|
|

\
|
= < < velocity friction averaged

u
u
y
r
5
17_11_2008
Rough regime
The time development of the wall shear stress is not sinusoidal
experimental data by Jonsson & Carlsen (1976)
Good predictions of the friction factor
|
|

\
|
>

u
y
r
5
Eddy viscosity models: two-equation models
2
0
0
xy
U

=
r
y
U

0
Why is e- model popular for modeling BBL ?
Main reasons:
It works also in the phases when the flow
becomes laminar
It does not assume the log law to be valid close
to the wall
17_11_2008
Concluding remarks on RANS models
RANS MODELS PROVIDE:
Averaged velocity/pressure
Turbulent kinetic energy
Reynolds stresses .
BUT THEY DO NOT PROVIDE
information on quantities which depend on the particular realization
considered (e.g. turbulent eddies/vortex structures important for
suspension events)
MOREOVER
They are based on empirical assumptions and may be inaccurate
(particularly close to the walls)
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
The most accurate (and computationally expensive) model
is Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
DNS uses the most general governing equations (Navier-
Stokes equations + continuity equation + boundary
conditions) and solves them numerically without empirical
assumptions. It is in many ways similar to an experiment !!
ADVANTAGES:
no empirical assumption is introduced
detailed knowledge of all the flow quantities
access to all derived quantities (e.g. vorticity, turbulent kinetic
energy..) and to coherent turbulent vortex structures
17_11_2008
length scales of turbulent eddies
Large eddies are characterized by
scales comparable to the mean flow
small eddies (dissipative) have scales
unrelated to those of the mean flow
PROBLEM: determine the scale of the
smaller eddies
RELEVANCE FOR DNS: determination
of the computational grid
DNS solves for the actual values of velocity and pressure
therefore computes exactly the turbulent eddies at all scales
small eddies: Kolmogorov scale
Hypothesis: the characteristics of small eddies are not influenced by the geometry of
the particular flow considered but they are determined by:
the kinematic viscosity of the fluid ()
the energy dissipation rate (per unit mass) ()
the order of is:
where K = eddy wavenumber
L=spatial scale of the average flow field spatial scale of macrovortices
U= velocity scale of the average flow field velocity scale of macrovortices
Therefore any quantity F (influenced by the small eddies)
can be expressed as:
which in dimensionless form becomes: with
where = length scale of the small eddies (Kolmogorov scale)
L U
3
( ) , , K F F =
1
( )

K f
F
=
4 5 4 1
1 4
1
3
|
|

\
|
=

(Andrej Nikolaevi Kolmogorov 1903-1987)

17_11_2008
scales of small turbulent eddies
( )
L
U
since
UL L L
3
4 3
4 3
4
1
3
=
|

\
|
= =

Re
therefore it is easy to guess which of the following flows has the
highest Reynolds number:
Re=2300
Re=11000
Flows with higher Re require a finer computational grid (i.e. more
gridpoints and larger computational times)
Different numerical algorithms can be used to integrate the equations
To solve the problem numerically it is necessary to fix the size of the computational box.
Example:
and the number of grid-points N
x1
, N
x2
, N
x3
(example N
x1
=64, N
x2
=64, N
x3
=32)
The equations (Navier-Stokes and continuity) are solved, to compute actual velocity and
pressure, numerically on a regular grid introduced in the computational domain
DNS of the bottom boundary layer (Vittori & Verzicco, J.Fluid Mech. 371,
1998)
13 25
1
. L
x
= 13 25
2
. L
x
= 57 12
3
. L
x
=
17_11_2008
DNS- Fractional-step scheme (Kim & Moin (1985), Orlandi(1989) and Rai & Moin(1991)).
{ { {
terms viscous terms pressure terms linear non
L G H
t
v
0 v
r r r
r
r
+ = +

=
Governing equations:
Assume the pressure and velocity fields known at time n ( ) and
compute the fields at time n+1
The method consists of three steps
1st step: compute an intermediate velocity field (non divergence free)
2nd step: force continuity equation (Poisson equation)
3rd step: compute velocity and pressure at the new time level.
n n
v p
r
,
2nd step: define the scalar function :
which should satisfy the equation :
Fractional-step scheme
{ { {
terms viscous terms pressure terms linear non
L G H
t
v
0 v
r r r
r
r
+ = +

=
( )
n
i i
n
i
1 n
i
n
i
n
i i
L L
2
1
G H 5 0 H 5 1
t
v v
+ + =

. .

1 n
i
i
1 n
i
G
t
v v
+
+
=

t
v
1 n 2

=
+

+ + =
+ +
+ + +
t G v v
2
t
p p
1 n
i i
1 n
i
1 n 2 1 n n 1 n

Governing equations
1st step: compute an intermediate velocity field (non solenoidal)
3rd step: compute velocity and
pressure at the new time level:
17_11_2008
DNS: numerical algorithm
( ) ( )

=
)
`

+ =
P
x x N
n
L L
x x P
dx dx n t x x x f
L L N
t x f
1
0 0
3 1 3 2 1
3 1
2
1 3
2
1 1
, , , ,
MOREOVER
spatial derivatives are approximated by 2nd order finite differences
symmetry condition is forced at the upper wall (free-slip boundary)
no-slip condition is forced on the lower wall
periodicity conditions are forced in the two horizontal directions
In order to filter out random turbulent fluctuations from computed
quantities a phase-average procedure is used:
DNS results
Disturbed laminar regime
Intermittently turbulent regime
Re=1.25 10
5
R

=500 Re=5 10
5
R

=1000
Vittori & Verzicco, JFM, 371, 1998
17_11_2008
DNS: vertical profiles of the shear stress
_____ viscous stress
-- - - turbulent component
experimental results by
Akhavan et al. (1991)
Viscous component is relevant
only in the region closer to the
wall (O~)
Turbulent component is relevant
in region of O~15
Turbulent stresses start to grow
at the end of the accelerating
phase and reach the maximum
during the decelerating part
Modeling of the bottom boundary layer: DNS
Shear stress at the wall
(measurements by Jensen et al., 1989)
turbulent stresses are larger during the decelerating part of the cycle and their intensity
changes from one cycle to the next particularly for smaller Re
R

=740 R

=1120
17_11_2008
Coherent structures in the near-wall region
Turbulence can be seen as tangles of vortex filaments
Turbulent shear flows have been found to be dominated by spatially coherent,
temporally evolving, vortical motions called coherent structures
A coherent motion (structure) can be defined as: a three-dimensional region
of the flow over which at least one fundamental flow variable exhibits
significant correlation with itself or with another variable over a range of
space and/or time that is significantly larger than the smallest local scales
of the flow.
For steady flows coherent structures are observed in the wall region (y
+
<
100) which includes the viscous sublayer (y
+
< 5 ), the buffer region
(5<y
+
<30) and part of the logarithmic region (y
+
> 30)
the study of coherent structures is important:
a. to aid predictive modeling of turbulence statistics
b. to understand the mechanism of sediment pick-up and improve sediment
transport predictors
elocity friction v = =
+

u
yu
y
Experimental visualizations of coherent structures in oscillatory
boundary layers
(Sarpkaya JFM 253, 1993)
R

420-460
Re 8.8 10
4
- 1.1 10
5
BBL: coherent structures
17_11_2008
Moderate R

(Re) 600 < R

< 1000 - 1.8 10

5
< Re < 5 10
5
t = 42.17
t = 42.47
t = 42.52
Similar dynamics has been observed in steady boundary layers and by
Sarpkaya (1993) for oscillatory BL
( R

=800 Re=3.2 10
5
x
1
=25.13 x
2
=0.1 )
Coherent structures in BBL (Costamagna, Vittori & Blondeaux JFM 474, 2003)
DNS: advantages/disadvantages
ADVANTAGES (already mentioned):
no empirical assumption is introduced
detailed knowledge of all the flow quantities
access to all derived quantities (e.g. vorticity, turbulent kinetic energy..) and to
coherent turbulent vortex structures
DISADVANTAGE:
Computationally expensive:
Large number of grid points necessary (also the small vortices should be
computed !!)
The number of gridpoints necessary increases with the Reynolds number
(only moderate Reynolds numbers can be simulated)
Limited to smooth wall
It is prohibitively expensive for large domains (already very expensive for
computing flow over vortex ripples)
17_11_2008
RANS
Large eddy simulation
LES is a turbulence model which stands between eddy viscosity
models and DNS
Inertial subrange
Viscous cut_off
Large eddy simulation
( ) ( ) ( )
.... pressure component, velocity U
r d t r x U r G t x U
=
=

r r r r r
, ,
width filter =
The main steps of a LES model are:
Introduce an appropriate filter function G(r) so that it is possible
to filter velocity, pressure . and equations
( ) x U
r
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0
+ =
t x u
that note
t x u t x U t x U
,
, , ,
r
r r r
17_11_2008
Filtered equations:
Note that therefore we introduce the residual stress tensor:
DEFINE:
The filtered momentum equation becomes:
Large eddy simulation
momentum
x
p
x x
v
x
v v
t
v
continuity
x
v
j i i
j
i
j i j
j
i

1
0
2
( )
i
R
ij
j i
i i
j i
j i j i
R
ij
x
v v
x x
v v
v v v v

=
=
tensor stress - residual c anisotropi
energy kinetic residual
ij r
R
ij
r
ij
R
ii r
k
k

3
2
2
1
( )
{

x x
v
x
k
x
p
x x
v v
t
v
i i
j
k p
x
j
r
j
modeled be to
i
r
ij
Dt
v D
i
j i j
r
j
j

2
3
2 1
3
2 1

4 4 3 4 4 2 1
4 43 4 42 1
v v v v
j i j i

2) Introduce an appropriate model for the anisotropic residual stress tensor
The momentum equation becomes
(the term related to the residual kinetic energy has been included in the dynamic
pressure term)
3) Substitute the modeled anisotropic residual stress tensor into the equations and
obtain a set equation for the filtered velocity and pressure fields which can be
solved numerically
Large eddy simulation: Smagorinsky model (1963)
( )
( )
width filter
strain of rate filtered stic characteri S S
width filter the to al proportion t coefficien y Smagorinsk C th wi C
strain of rate filtered
x
v
x
v
S
S
1
ij ij
s s r
i
j
j
i
ij
ij r
r
ij
=

= =
|
|

\
|

=
2
2
2
2
1
2
S
S

i
j
i
j j
i
r
ij
j i i
j j
x
v
v
t
v
t D
v D
with
x x
p
x x
v
t D
v D

1
2
17_11_2008
Velocity (averaged) profiles
LES profiles during decelerating phases perform better than k- profiles
During the accelerating parts k- model performs better than LES
Large eddy simulation: plane bed velocity profiles
(From Lohmann et al., J. Geophys. Res., 111 2006)
Re=6 x 10
6
R

3500
Dots: experimental results by Jensen et al.,
1989
Solid line : LES
Dashed line: k- model
Small scale bedforms formed under oscillatory flow
2D BEDFORMS
h/l<0.1 h/l<0.1
Rolling-grain ripples
Vortex ripples
h/l>0.1 h/l>0.1
Vortex ripples start to appear
Sleath (1984)
17_11_2008
2D vortex ripples
The flow field can be modeled using:
- model (only for laminar flow)
Discrete vortex model (irrotational flow + empirical model for the
shear layers) (see M.S. Longuet-Higgins , J Fluid Mech 107 (1981)).
DNS (for laminar/transitional flow)
LES/RANS models for fully turbulent flow
THINGS TO REMEMBER ON VORTICITY AND 2D FLOWS

Note that pressure term is not present !!!

if the flow is 2D (x-y plane)
if the flow is 2D and incompressible:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

r r r r r
r
r r
2
+ = +

= =
v v
t
vorticity v curl v
( )
z
, ,0 0 =
r
( )
( )

2
0 0
0 0
= =
=
, ,
, ,
r
r
nction streamfu
v
17_11_2008
As the flow is 2D it is convenient to solve the problem in terms of the
span-wise component of vorticity and of the streamfunction
2D vortex ripples: - model (Blondeaux & Vittori, J. Fluid Mech, 1991)
( )

y for t
y

x
profile ripple the at
y x
: conditions boundary
y x
y x R y x x y t R
sin ,

0
0
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
v
Y
u

= =

, function stream
( )
( )
quantity l dimensiona *
...... ,
y , x
y x, , t t
*
* *
*
=
= =

T
2
Note: laminar flow !!!
The coordinate transformation:
maps the ripple profile
into the line =0, and the fluid domain into a rectangular domain
2D vortex ripples: laminar flow-field
( ) ( )
* *
*
* * * *
*
* *
cos ; sin
* * * *
= + =

k e
2
h
y k e
2
h
x
k k
( ) ( )
ber wavenum
2
2 2
*
*
* *
*
* * * *
*
*
l
k with
k sin
h
x ; k cos
h
y

=
= =
physical plane
transformed plane
Vorticity equation
A finite difference approximation of vorticity equation is used to
compute at time t+t once at time t is known
(

=
(

2
2
2
2
2
1
2

J J
R
t
17_11_2008
Given the periodicity in the x (and ) direction, the solution can be
expressed in the form
The relationship between and gives a second equation (Poisson
equation) which is used to compute .
2D vortex ripples: laminar flow-field

+
N
s
s n s
n
n n
J k
1
2
2
2

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

n
n
ik
N
n
n
N
j
n i
N
n
n
N
n
ik
n
N
n
N
j
n i
n
e t e t t
e t e t t


=
|

\
|
=
= =
|

\
|
= =
= =
1
2
1
1 1
2
, , , ,
, , , ,
The boundary condition for vorticity is first-order accurate (Thom(1933)).
Considering the boundary conditions at the wall:
and the relationship:
at the wall (grid-point k):
For a plain wall, it turns out that
therefore:
assuming
k
=0 it is obtained: boundary condition for
If the wall is not plane, the boundary conditions can be derived similarly as
above
2D vortex ripples: laminar flow-field
.... +
(

+
(

+ =
+
k
2
2 2
k
k 1 k
y 2
y
y
y
0 0 =

= =

=
k
k
x y
u

- v
2
2
2
2
y x

k
k
y
2
2

k k k
y

2
2
1

=
+
1 2
2
+

=
k k
y

17_11_2008
2D vortex ripples: laminar flow-field
t=/4 t=/2 t=3 /4
t=
t=5 /4 t=2
t=7 /4 t= 3 /2
Vorticity contours
=0.15
___ clockwise vorticity;
______ counterclockwise vorticity
R

=50, h/l=0.15, a/l=0.75

Flow over 2D vortex ripples: e- model (Fresdsoe et al., 1999)
right K- model by Andersen (1999)
(span-wise vorticity)
left experimental visualizations
17_11_2008
Flow over 2D vortex ripples: LES results
LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY
COMPONENT:
Good agreement at maximum
forward or reverse flow
Largest discrepancy at the
trough
Worse agreement during the
decelerating phase
Flow reversal occurs earlier
in the RANS than in LES
____ LES
- - - - RANS
Considering a pulsating flow Chang & Scotti observed that:
Flow over 2D vortex ripples: LES results
____ LES
- - - - RANS
VERTICAL VELOCITY COMPONENT
17_11_2008
A flow filed oscillating in one direction can form 2D or 3D ripple patterns !
Generally 3D patterns appear after 2D vortex ripples are formed
Solving the fully non-linear 3D equations allows to observe further effects
i.e. 3D flow patterns which may be related to 3D ripples (Scandura, Blondeaux & Vittori,
J.Fluid. Mech. 2000)
2D vortex ripples: 3D effects