REFRIGERATION

CYCLE

Principles of
Mechanical
Refrigeration
Level 2:
Cycle Analysis

Technical Development Program

Technical Development Programs (TDP) are modules of technical training on HVAC theory,
system design, equipment selection and application topics. They are targeted at engineers and
designers who wish to develop their knowledge in this field to effectively design, specify, sell or
apply HVAC equipment in commercial applications.
Although TDP topics have been developed as stand-alone modules, there are logical groupings
of topics. The modules within each group begin at an introductory level and progress to advanced
levels. The breadth of this offering allows for customization into a complete HVAC curriculum
from a complete HVAC design course at an introductory-level or to an advanced-level design
course. Advanced-level modules assume prerequisite knowledge and do not review basic concepts.

This is the second module devoted to the mechanical refrigeration cycle. In the first module the
basic cycle is explained in terms of the four basic principles and the four basic components that are
required for the refrigeration cycle. The first module also introduced the terminology used to describe this process. Module two assumes this information is understood. In this module the
pressure-enthalpy diagram is developed and it is used to explain and analyze the mechanical refrigeration process. The pressure-enthalpy diagram is the tool used by designers of HVAC equipment
to determine the size and performance of each system component. Most HVAC system designers
do not select each of these components; particularly since packaged type equipment has become the
norm. However, the pressure-enthalpy diagram gives the system designer a very useful tool for
understanding refrigeration system modification or options and their impact on cycle performance.
The diagram is also a valuable tool for troubleshooting the refrigeration cycle. This TDP module
will develop the required understanding of the pressure-enthalpy diagram. This TDP has five major
sections describing the pressure-enthalpy diagram and demonstrating how it is used for refrigeration
cycle analysis. First the pressure-enthalpy diagram is developed. The second section explains the
use of refrigerant data tables. The third section explains the mechanical refrigeration cycle by
plotting it on a pressure-enthalpy diagram. The final two sections use the pressure-enthalpy diagram
to analyze several common cycles and demonstrate its use with examples.
2006 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved.
The information in this manual is offered as a general guide for the use of industry and consulting engineers in designing systems.
Judgment is required for application of this information to specific installations and design applications. Carrier is not responsible
for any uses made of this information and assumes no responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system
design.
The information in this publication is subject to change without notice. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of Carrier
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Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Four Principles of Refrigeration .................................................................................................. 1
Four Components of Mechanical Refrigeration System.............................................................. 2
Temperature and Enthalpy........................................................................................................... 2
Refrigerants.................................................................................................................................. 3
Pressure-Enthalpy (p-h) Diagram .................................................................................................... 5
Temperature-Enthalpy Diagram .................................................................................................. 5
Lines on the p-h Diagram ............................................................................................................ 8
Refrigerant Data............................................................................................................................. 10
Plotting the Refrigeration Cycle .................................................................................................... 13
Refrigerant ................................................................................................................................. 13
Expansion Process ..................................................................................................................... 13
Evaporator.................................................................................................................................. 15
Refrigeration Effect ............................................................................................................... 17
Compressor ................................................................................................................................ 18
Work of Compression ............................................................................................................ 20
Displacement ......................................................................................................................... 21
Riding with the Load ............................................................................................................. 23
Compressor Ratio .................................................................................................................. 26
Condenser .................................................................................................................................. 27
Expansion Device ...................................................................................................................... 30
Fixed Orifice Expansion Devices .......................................................................................... 31
Thermal Expansion Valves .................................................................................................... 33
Effect of Subcooling .................................................................................................................. 35
Line Losses ................................................................................................................................ 36
Refrigerant Specialties ............................................................................................................... 38
Cycle Diagrams.............................................................................................................................. 39
Refrigerant Equations ................................................................................................................ 39
Complete Air-Cooled Cycle ...................................................................................................... 40
Corresponding Pressures........................................................................................................ 40
Line Losses ............................................................................................................................ 41
Percent Flash Gas................................................................................................................... 41
Subcooled Liquid................................................................................................................... 42
Evaporator Performance ........................................................................................................ 43
Flooded Cooler ...................................................................................................................... 43
Thermal Expansion Valve...................................................................................................... 44
Suction Line to the Compressor............................................................................................. 44
Compressor Inlet Conditions ................................................................................................. 45
Compression Ratio................................................................................................................. 46
Isentropic Compressor ........................................................................................................... 46
Actual Compressor ................................................................................................................ 47
Compressor Discharge Temperature...................................................................................... 48
Compressor Performance....................................................................................................... 48
Hot Gas Line.......................................................................................................................... 49
Heat of Rejection ................................................................................................................... 49
Capacity ................................................................................................................................. 50
Compressor Capacity and System Capacity .......................................................................... 50
Liquid Subcooling and Compressor Capacity ....................................................................... 52
Suction Gas Temperature, Superheat, and Compressor Capacity.......................................... 53
Impact of Reduced Load............................................................................................................ 54
Different Refrigerants ................................................................................................................ 55

Water-Cooled versus Air-Cooled Condenser.............................................................................55

High-Efficiency Equipment .......................................................................................................57
Reverse Cycle Heat Pump..........................................................................................................58
Head Pressure Control ...............................................................................................................59
Suction Line Heat Exchangers...................................................................................................60
Economizer ................................................................................................................................61
Desuperheater ............................................................................................................................62
Low Temperature Refrigeration.................................................................................................62
Cascade Systems ........................................................................................................................64
Refrigeration System Analysis.......................................................................................................64
Example Cycle Analysis Air-Cooled with HCFC R-22..........................................................65
Example Cycle Analysis Air-Cooled Cycle with HFC R-410A .............................................68
Example Cycle Analysis Water-Cooled Cycle with HCFC R-22...........................................70
Example Cycle Analysis Low Temperature with HFC R-404A.............................................71
Summary ........................................................................................................................................72
Work Session .................................................................................................................................73
Work Session Answers ..................................................................................................................79
Glossary .........................................................................................................................................81
Appendix A
Comparison Data of Refrigerants ............................................................................................87
Appendix B
Partial Saturation Properties Table HCFC R-22......................................................................89
Appendix C
Partial Saturation Properties Table HFC R-410A ...................................................................91
Appendix D
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram HCFC R-22 ................................................................................93
Appendix E
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram HFC R-410A ..............................................................................94

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION LEVEL 2: CYCLE ANALYSIS

Introduction
This is the second TDP module concerning the study of the mechanical refrigeration cycle.
The first module introduced you to the mechanical refrigeration process and explained the key
refrigeration terms. This module continues the study of the mechanical refrigeration process and
develops the use of the pressure-enthalpy diagram to explain mechanical refrigeration. The
pressure-enthalpy diagram (p-h) is a very useful tool for describing, analyzing, and troubleshooting mechanical refrigeration systems.
The first section of this TDP reviews two key concepts from the first module - the principles
and basic components of refrigeration systems. These concepts will be built upon in this book. If
the concepts from the first module (TDP-400, Principles of Mechanical Refrigeration, Level 1:
Introduction) are not clear, it is recommended that you review the first module before beginning
this module. This TDP starts by developing the p-h diagram and then explains the basic cycle
using the p-h diagram. The last two sections use the p-h diagram to explain common operating
conditions and options encountered in the refrigeration cycle. The p-h diagram is used to explain
conditions such as part load, head pressure control, and the use of system options to improve
performance and control. The last section analyzes four different system types and describes how
each of the system components is selected.
It is important for a designer to understand the operation of the refrigeration system. As the
use of packaged units has become typical, designers may not need to select each individual
component of the refrigeration system. However, proper selection and application of all equipment depends on a working knowledge of the mechanical refrigeration process. This module will
help the reader develop an understanding of refrigeration systems and will demonstrate how to
analyze a refrigeration systems performance. When a designer understands the p-h diagram, it
can be used to evaluate the performance benefits of different refrigeration system options, such as
adding a desuperheater. The p-h diagram can also be used to check a systems performance and
determine if components of the system are working properly.

Four Principles of Refrigeration

As you may recall from module
one
(TDP-400,
Principles
of
Mechanical Refrigeration, Level 1:
Introduction), four basic principles
can be used to explain the mechanical
refrigeration process. See Figure 1.
Each component of the system uses
one or more of these principles in its
operation.

1. Heat only moves from a higher

temperature to a lower temperature
2. A large amount of energy is required to
change the state of matter
3. The temperature and energy required to
change state are a function of pressure
4. Fluid flow only occurs if a pressure
difference exists

The four basic principles can be

summarized as:
Figure 1
Heat energy will only flow from a
Four Principles of System Operation
warmer temperature to a cooler
temperature.

Refrigeration Cycle

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION LEVEL 2: CYCLE ANALYSIS

Two types of heat energy exist in a substance, sensible and latent. The latent heat, which is the
changes of state, is the larger amount.
The temperature at which a change of state occurs
is dependent on the pressure.
Flow of a liquid or vapor will occur only if a pressure difference exists, unless mechanical work is
added.

Mechanical Refrigeration
Mechanical refrigeration is the
process of using a volatile fluid to
absorb heat from a lower
temperature place, raising the
fluids pressure and temperature
so it can be rejected to a higher
temperature place.

Four Components of Mechanical Refrigeration System

As shown in Figure 2, the mechanical refrigeration cycle requires four
components for continuous operation.
The first component, a section where
the refrigerant absorbs the heat from
the fluid being cooled, is called the
evaporator. The second component, a
device that raises the vapors pressure
to a temperature where it can be
condensed, is called the compressor.
The third component, a section where
the absorbed heat is rejected from the
refrigerant, is called the condenser.
The fourth component, a device that
controls the flow and drops the refrig- Figure 2
erant pressure back to the temperature Four Components of a Mechanical Refrigeration System
required in the evaporator, is called
the metering device.

Temperature and Enthalpy

We will use water as our refrigerant to explain the concept of the p-h
diagram. The relationship between
temperature and enthalpy (total heat)
was introduced in the Level 1 module
also by using water. Lets use the
chart introduced in the Level 1 module. This chart is a convenient way to
visualize the total heat content in a
substance as it is heated and cooled.
See Figure 3.
Our chart will explain several im- Figure 3
portant refrigeration terms. As ice
Temperature-Enthalpy Chart
melts, the latent heat involved is
called the heat of fusion. The latent
Refrigeration Cycle

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION LEVEL 2: CYCLE ANALYSIS

heat involved in changing a liquid to a vapor is called the latent heat of vaporization. This is
sometimes also referred to as the latent heat of condensation when the process condenses the
vapor to a liquid. Enthalpy is a measure of the total heat content. This includes both the latent and
sensible heat energy.
When the vapor is heated above the boiling point, it is referred to as superheated. When the
liquid is at a temperature below the boiling point, it is referred to as subcooled. Superheat is
the number of degrees above the boiling point. Subcooling is the number of degrees below
the boiling point. For example, water at 180 F could be said to have 32 degrees of subcooling.
(212 F 180 F = 32 F)
Two other important points are on our chart in Figure 3. The point at which the liquid just begins to turn to a vapor is called saturated liquid. When heat is added to a fluid so it has entirely
evaporated, the fluid reaches a point identified as saturated vapor. The fluid is saturated with all
the heat it can contain at that pressure and still remain at the saturation temperature.
After the change of state has been completed, any additional heat results in a rise in temperature of the vapor. This additional heat is called superheat. Between saturated liquid and saturated
vapor exists a mixture of liquid and vapor.
Notice the heat energy involved in each step of the process, 970 Btu are required to change
liquid to a vapor, 144 Btu are required to change solid ice to liquid, 1 Btu is required to change
the liquid temperature 1 degree and 0.45 Btu are required to change the vapor temperature
1 degree. The greatest heat energy is in changing from a liquid to a vapor or vapor to a liquid.

Refrigerants
We used 32 F as our datum point where the enthalpy is zero. In fact, all matter contains heat
or energy down to a temperature of absolute zero (460 F), but, for convenience purposes, other
datum lines are selected arbitrarily.
Because water freezes at 32 F, the datum line for water could be taken at 32 F. Any values
of heat content below 32 F are thus negative. With many common refrigerants the datum line
would be much lower.
To avoid the use of heat contents with negative values down to lower temperatures, the heat
content of most refrigerants is taken at a datum line of 40 F.
Total energy in a fluid involves not only the internal energy represented by heat, but also the
external energy or work required to reach that state. The sum of these energies is called enthalpy.
Since it is the more accurate term, enthalpy is used in refrigerant tables. Enthalpy is used in this
text to indicate total heat content.
We should recall that the function of the refrigerant is to carry heat. So the most important
property a refrigerant can have is to absorb lots of heat as it changes from a liquid to a vapor.
Water is very good for this change of state. But water has other properties that make it less suitable as a refrigerant. One of the four principles is that boiling points change with pressure. To get
water to boil at temperatures low enough to absorb heat for comfort cooling requires pressures
well below atmospheric pressure. These low pressures result in some other design and operational
problems.

Refrigeration Cycle

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION LEVEL 2: CYCLE ANALYSIS

The characteristics of refrigerants

are shown in Figure 4. There is no one
perfect refrigerant that has all the
properties listed in Figure 4. As a
result, the refrigerants used are a
compromise between different required properties. The best refrigerant
to use is dependent on the application,
the cycle, the refrigerant type, and the
influence that the refrigerant has on
the design and performance of the
system components.

Safe Efficient Stable Cost Effective Compatible

1.

Non-toxic and non-flammable

2.

Reasonable operating pressures

3.

Leakage resistance

4.

Large heat of vaporization

5.

Relatively low specific volume

6.

Low liquid specific heat (reduced flash gas)

7.

Easy to detect leaks

8.

Compatible with oils (vapor side)

9.

High coefficient of heat transfer

10. Easy to handle and cost effective

11. Non-corrosive and chemically stable
12. Environmentally sound

Figure 4
Properties of a Good Refrigerant

In module one we looked at the choices available for refrigerants. These choices are summarized in Figure 5. The refrigerants that contain chlorine are being phased out because of their
adverse effect on the atmospheric
ozone layer. This has lead to even
greater reliance on refrigerants that
are blends. By blending different
refrigerants, the characteristics of the
mixed refrigerant can be changed to
have characteristics that better meet
the needs of a given application.
In this TDP we will use HCFC
R-22 for many of our descriptions and
examples. That is because it is still in
wide use. However, in many cases,
other refrigerants, primarily HFC
R-410A, are also shown to illustrate
the same principle with a non-ozone
depleting refrigerant. Blend refriger- Figure 5
ants have some characteristics (in Refrigerant Choices Based on Environmental Impact
terms of saturation temperatures and
pressures) that influence some of the
calculations in this TDP. When the
use of a blended refrigerant will
change the calculation procedure, we
will illustrate its use.

Refrigeration Cycle