CHAPTER 2: SETS 2.

1 Sets and Subsets A set is any collection into a whole of definite, distinguishable objects, called elements.

Definition:

Remarks: We shall use capital letters to denote sets, and small letters for elements. For

a is an element of the set A , we write a A (read as a is an element of A , or a is belongs to A ), whereas b A means that b is NOT an element of A ).
instance, if A set without elements is called an empty set and is denoted by . Two sets and B are said to be equal or identical, in symbols: , if they contain the same elements. That is, A = B means Definition:

A=B (x )[(x A ) (x B )] .
Definition: Let

A and B be any two sets. If every element of A is also an element of B , then A is called a subset of B , in symbols: A B or B A . If A is a subset of B , then B is called a superset of A . Logically, A B ( x )[( x A ) ( x B )] .

Remarks: Every set is a subset (and a superset of itself).

A B , we write A B , or B A , which reads as: A is a proper subset of B , or B is a proper superset of A . If A is NOT a subset of B , we write A B .
When and The empty set is a subset of every set.

A B

Theorem 1: Proof:

Theorem 2: Proof:

If

A B

and

BC

then

AC.

Example 1: Solution:

List all the subsets of {-1, 0, 1}

Example 2: Solution:

Prove that

( A B ) (B A ) ( A = B )

2.2

Specification of Sets

One way of making a new set out of a given set is to specify those elements of the given set that satisfy a particular property. The symbol Remark:

{x A p (x )} reads as the set of all x in A such that p (x ) is true. {

( )}

The notation of the form x A p x which describes a set is called the set builder notation. Example: Let R be the set of all real numbers. Then

{x R x (b) {x R x
(a)

2 2

1 = 0 = { 1,1}

} + 1 = 0} = /

It is possible that elements of a set may themselves be sets.

Definition:

The set of all subset of a given set called the power set of

has sets as its elements. This set is

and is denoted by

P ( A) .

Example:

If

A = {x, y , z} , then the subsets of A are: {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y , z}, {x, y , z}, / . P ( A ) = {{x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y , z}, {x, y , z }, / }.

Thus,

Theorem 3:

If

consists of

elements, then its power set

P ( A)

contains exactly

2n
Example: Example: Let If

elements. elements.

A={ 1,3,5,7,9} , then P ( A ) contains exactly 2 5 = 32

A
(a)

be a subset of

(b) Solution:

B and let P (B : A ) = {X P (B ) X A}. 1,2} and B = { 1,2,3, 4,5}. List all the members Let A = { P (B : A ) . How many are there? / ) = P (B ) . Show that P (B :

of the set

2.3

Unions and Intersection The union of any two sets A and B , denoted by A B , is the set of all elements x such that x belongs to at least one of the two sets A or

Definition:

B . That is, x A B
Definition:

if and only if

x A xB .

If

A B = {x ( x A ) ( x B )} , or A B = {x A x B} . A B = / , then A and B are said to be disjoint.

If

The intersection of any two sets A and B , denoted by A B , is the set of all elements x which belong to both A and B . In symbols,

Example:

A={ 1,3,5,7,9} and B = { 1, 2,3} , then A B = { 1,2,3,5,7,9} A B ={ 1,3}; if C = {2,4,6,8} then A C = / .

Let (a) (b) (c) (d)

and

Theorem:

be set and let

A, B

and

be subsets of

. Then we have

(e)

A / = A; A X = A (Unity Law) A A = A ; A A = A (Idempotency Law) A B = B A ; A B = B A (Commutative Law) A (B C ) = ( A B ) C ; A (B C ) = ( A B ) C (Associative Law) A (B C ) = ( A B ) ( A C ) ; A (B C ) = ( A B ) ( A C ) (Distributive Law)

Proof:

Example: Solution:

Prove that

X Y = Y X Y

2.4

Complements If A and B are any two sets, the relative complement of the set A B defined by

Definition:

in

is

A B = {x A x B} or A B = {x A x B}. In this definition it is not assumed that B A .

Example: Let

A={ 1,2,3,4} and B = {3,4,5,6} . Then A B ={ 1, 2} and A ( A B ) = { 1,2} .

Remark: We assume, unless otherwise stated, that all complements are formed relative to this set

. We shall then write Show that

A = U A .

Example: Solution:

A B = A B

Theorem:

Let (a) (b) (c) (d)

B be any set. Then ( A) = A

and .

/ = U and U = / . A A = / and A A = U A B if and only if B A .

Proof:

Theorem (De Morgans Theorem):

For any two sets (a) (b)

A and B , ( A B ) = A B

( A B ) = A B .

Proof:

Example:

Let

A, B

and

same as the set Solution:

C any three sets. Deduce that A (B C ) (A B ) (A C ).

is the

Example:

Prove that if then

X Z , Y Z , X Y = Z X = Z Y .

and

X Y = /

Solution:

2.5

Venn Diagrams

A B A B

A A

A B

Example: Draw the Venn diagram to illustrate

X (Y Z ) = ( X Y ) ( X Z )