GEOPHYSICS, VOL.

68, NO. 3 (MAYJUNE 2003); P. 870

883, 12 FIGS., 5
TABLES.

Correlations
between seismic parameters, EM parameters, and
petrophysical/petrological properties for sandstone and
carbonate at low water saturations

Adam P. Koesoemadinata and George A. McMechan

ABSTRACT

Empirical relations are found between measured

petrophysical/petrologic, seismic, and electrical properties of sandstone and carbonate samples by least-squares
fitting at room pressure and ambient saturation. The
measured parameters include porosity (), fluid permeability (k), clay content (C ), grain density (g ), bulk
den- sity (b ), P-wave

velocity

(V p ), electrical

conductivity ( ), and dielectric constant ( ). The

samples are from reservoir analog sites in the Ferron
Sandstone in central Utah and the Ellenburger
carbonate in central Texas. Crossplots and regression
analysis are done separately for the sandstone and the
carbonate samples.
For the sandstone samples, predictions with correlation coefficients ( R 2 ) greater than 0.75 include b from
, ln k from and C , from ln k and , from b and C

from V p and b , from V p and , V p from ln k and C

, from ln , and from b . In general, is difficult
to predict, with the best R 2 (0.48) obtained in a
prediction of from ln k.
Relationships for the carbonate samples are generally
less reliable, which is attributed to a complex history of
multiple phases of karsting and burial. The largest R 2
values obtained are 0.67 for prediction of from , and
0.36 for prediction of from g . All the other R 2 values
areBoth
0.19.
the sandstone and the carbonate data show -
relations with negative coefficients, rather than positive
as predicted by Archies law, because of the very low
water saturations. In the sandstone, the water connectivity is reduced with increasing grain surface area (with
increasing and k), so decreases. In the carbonate,
correlates with the degree of dolomitization, and the
water content is too low to contribute to .

, and from ln k. Predictions with 0.65 < R 2 < 0.75

include

INTRODUCTION

Seismic waves respond to elastic properties (e.g., P-wave velocity and density) and electrical waves respond to electromagnetic (EM) properties (e.g., dielectric permittivity and conductivity). Thus, combining seismic and ground-penetrating radar
(GPR) data may provide independent constraints for geological and petrophysical interpretation. For example, the replacement of air by water in the pores increases the seismic velocity
but decreases the GPR velocity. Understanding of the relationships between seismic, petrophysical/petrological, and EM
properties is potentially important for extracting petrophysical or petrological information from seismic and/or GPR data,

and vice versa (Baker et al., 1999). It is also of interest to

be able to predict seismic and/or petrophysical properties
from the electromagnetic properties, and vice versa.

The properties involved in this study are bulk porosity (),

bulk fluid permeability (k), clay content (C ), grain density (g ),

ing and environmental) site evaluations.

Empirical relationships between V p and , C , k, water sat-

P-wave velocity (V p ), bulk density (b ), dielectric constant ( ),

uration, and pressure are defined by many investigators (e.g.,

Tosaya, 1982; Kowalis et al., 1984; Han et al., 1986;
Klimentos,
1991; Castagna et al., 1985; Eberhart-Phillips et al., 1989;
Koesoemadinata and McMechan, 2001). There are also studies that relate EM properties ( and ) to petrophysical/
petrological properties and lithology (e.g., Knight and Nur,

and electrical conductivity ( ). The clastic and carbonate measurements are all done at room pressure and temperature. The
ambient saturation is <1.0% water by volume in the clastic
samples, and <0.1% in the carbonate samples. Thus, the results are directly applicable only to near-surface (i.e., engineer-

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Manuscript
received by the Editor November 5, 2001; revised manuscript received October 26, 2002.

of Texas
at Dallas, Center
for Lithospheric
P.O. Box 830688, Richardson, Texas 75083-0688. E-mail: mcmec@utdallas.edu.
University
c 2003 Society
of Exploration
Geophysicists.
All rightsStudies,
reserved.
870

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

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1987; Davis and Annan, 1989; Baker et al., 1999; Martinez et

al.,
1999). Various models relate and [Archies (1942) law],
and k [the Carman-Kozeny relation (Carman, 1961)], and
and lithology (Waxman and Smits, 1968).
This paper contains the results of fitting relationships between seismic properties (V p and b ), EM properties ( and
), and various petrophysical/petrological properties (, k,
C , and g ) of both sandstone and carbonate. The data used
are measurements on samples from the middle Cretaceous
Ferron Sandstone in Utah (McMechan et al., 2001) and
from the Lower Ordovician carbonates of the Ellenburger
Group in cen- tral Texas (Loucks et al., 1999). Both these sites
are reservoir analogs. In addition, we include new P-wave
(sonic) velocity measurements made at the same sample
locations using a sonic probe. Thus, our analyses involve more
parameters than most previous studies.
Both seismic and EM properties are related through atomic/
molecular scale phenomena that depend on the average
atomic mass (e.g., Gue guen and Palciauskas, 1994). At the
larger scale of lab samples, this is still approximately valid when
the average density is taken over a rock volume consisting of
pore space as well as the rock grains. Thus, to first order, we
expect a strong correlation of many of the physical properties
with , and for some of the seismic and EM properties to
correlate with, and to be qualitatively predictable from, each
other.
Practical reasons for predicting seismic parameters from EM
data are that the latter are much cheaper to measure (e.g., via a
GPR survey), GPR data generally have higher resolution than
seismic data, and GPR surveys may be more acceptable in environmentally sensitive areas. Also, shallow GPR reflections are
not obscured by ground roll as shallow seismic reflections are.
A rationale for predicting EM parameters from high-frequency
seismic or sonic data is that EM/GPR surveys may not be possible or may not produce good data in many urban environments.
When both seismic and EM data are available, integrated interpretation should provide more reliable estimates of petrophysical properties such as porosity and water saturation. In
all cases, estimation/prediction of fairly complete data sets is
of potential use in construction of models for input to numerical simulations and for comparisons with data from other sites
at which corresponding real data do exist. It is rare to have both
seismic and EM data at a single site, so this study is in part a
demonstration of feasibility; concurrent consideration of both
seismic and EM information can clearly add crucial constraints
to interpretations.
CORE SAMPLES

Measurement procedures
Measurements of complex, frequency-dependent dielectric
permittivity are made on (2.54-cm diameter) core plugs extracted from cores from both the sandstone and carbonate
sites. The measurements are made using an HP-8752A
network an- alyzer with an HP-8750A coaxial termination
probe, using the procedures described by Klein and
Santamarina (1997). The and values are derived from the
measured complex dielectric permittivity (McMechan et al.,
2001). The measurements are fitted by a multiple attenuation
mechanism model using Debye basis functions. The real part
of the complex dielectric permit- tivity models the , and the
imaginary part models the polar- ization losses and the

(Davis and Annan, 1989). The Ferron

871

Sandstone measurements are at 75 MHz; the Ellenburger

carbonate measurements are at 50 MHz.
V p values corresponding to the petrophysical/petrographical
and electrical measurements are measured using a hand-held
125-KHz sonic probe. The measurements are conducted at
room pressure and ambient water saturation along the vertical axis of the split cores. Three point contacts are made with
the rock, one source transducer, and two receiver transducers.
Uniform coupling to the rock surface is ensured as the probe
contacts are spring loaded. The contacts have sharp points to
maximize coupling with minimum applied pressure. V p values

There are 33 core plug samples from Coyote Basin on which

a complete suite of measurements was made. High-resolution
petrography combined with laboratory measurements of
and k of the cores of the Ferron Sandstone from Coyote Basin
are presented by McMechan et al. (2001) (see Table 1). For
our correlations, we use measured by a Hassler cell (Forster
et al.,
2003). C data are taken from a detailed petrographic analysis
by Roche (1999).
In addition to the Coyote Basin cores, we also measured V p

are calculated from the transit-time differences between the

two receiver transducers.

of the Corbula Gulch cores corresponding to 25 samples for

which and k measurements (but not and ) are available
(McMechan et al., 2001) (see Table 2).

Ferron Sandstone

Ellenburger Group carbonates

Measurements were made on four drill cores (5.8-cm diameter) and on core plugs (2.54-cm diameter) taken from the
Ferron Sandstone at two sites (Coyote Basin and Corbula
Gulch). Both sites are located along the southwestern flank
of the San Rafael swell in east-central Utah (McMechan et al.,
2001).
The upper Turonian Ferron Sandstone sequence at Coyote
Basin is interpreted as a fluvial-deltaic complex, whereas at
Corbula Gulch it is interpreted as a marine-influenced lower
delta plain environment (Corbeanu et al., 2001). Figure 1 shows
the variety of facies of Ferron Sandstone at Coyote Basin; these
include very fine- to medium-grained sandstone, intraclast conglomerate and interbeds of mudstone. The maximum burial
depth of Ferron Sandstone is estimated to be 2000 m (Roche,
1999).

Core-plug samples (2.54-cm diameter) of the Ellenburger

Group are taken from four drill cores (6.35-cm diameter) at
the Dean Word Quarry (located between Burnet and Marble
Falls in central Texas) (Loucks et al., 1999; McMechan et al.,
2002). The coalesced, collapsed paleocave system at this site
is an analog for an important class of carbonate reservoir; it
has lateral and vertical heterogenity (complex pore geometry,
pore network, and pore scale) produced by a complex history
of multiple phases of near-surface karsting, burial compaction,
and diagenesis (Loucks et al., 1999). Figure 2 shows a variety
of compositions (from limestone to dolomite) and fabric (from
homogeneous to breciated), ranges of porosity and permeability, and degrees of fracturing.
In comparison to the clastic rocks of the Ferron Sandstone,
the carbonates of the Ellenburger Group have more complex

872

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

lateral and vertical heterogeneity of pore geometry, mineral

composition, and textures (Loucks et al., 1999; McMechan
et al., 2002). The observations also indicate that and k are
likely to be very scale dependent; higher values of and k
are expected in large measurement volumes than in the small
core plugs used here, as they are caused by fractures and large
intraclast pores (Loucks et al., 1999).
We used data from 37 samples for which petrophysical/
petrographical and EM parameters are measured (Loucks
et al., 1999; McMechan et al., 2002) (see Table 3). We use ,
maximum permeability (kmax ), b , and g data for correlation
with the seismic parameters (V p and b ) and the EM parameters
( and ). Values for , , and b

are reported by

McMechan and Zeng (2001) for selected locations along the

cores that represent a variety of (dolomite/limestone)
composition and textures (, k, and degree of fracturing). The
measurements of , kmax and g are made at 1 foot (30.48 cm)
vertical increment along the cores, and are interpolated to
obtain values at the locations where the electrical parameters
and bulk density are measured (see Appendix A).
Table 3 contains the measured petrophysical/petrological,
EM, and seismic parameters for the 37 core samples. The
limestone/dolomite composition is a continuum; the minimum
g corresponds to limestone and the maximum to dolomite.

The and the values are derived from the measured complex
dielectric permittivity at 50 MHz. The V p data are measured
with the same hand-held probe used for the Ferron Sandstone
cores.
CROSSPLOTS AND REGRESSION ANALYSIS

The approach used to define the interrelationships between

seismic, EM, and petrophysical/petrographic parameters for
both the Ferron and the Ellenburger samples is via crossplots
and least-squares regressions. The regressions are done using
the standard SAS software (release 8.1). The forms of the contributions of each of the parameters, although they are somewhat arbitrary, are largely defined by those used by previous
authors; for example, permeability typically appears as ln k
because its values range over orders of magnitude, and clay
content typically appears as a linear term. The combinations
of variables in the final regressions are chosen by starting with
all available variables included and then gradually eliminating those corresponding to large standard deviations and low
significance (as defined by t-tests). This resulted in some interesting combinations, some of which may not have otherwise
been considered. The latter, in some cases, provide better empirical predictions than theoretical models, which are generally

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FIG. 1. Photographs of core plug ends show a variety of lithologic facies, fabric, and texture of the Ferron
Sandstone at Coyote Basin: fine-grained (D1822 and D2227) to medium-grained (D2030, D2962, D3215, and
D3290) sandstone, intraclast conglomerate (D3017 and D3092), and mudstone (D1795). The diameter of each
core plug is 2.54 cm, and the labels above each sample refer to the correspondingly labeled entries in Table 1.

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

more limited in the number of variables included. Regressions

are, of course, limited to the available measurements.
For analysis of the results, we consider two metrics, the adjusted correlation coefficient ( R 2 ), and the standard
deviation (S D). R 2 lies between 0 and 1 and is a measure of the
fraction of the variation in the dependent variable that is
accounted for by the independent variable(s) considered in
the predictive rela- tion (Younger, 1979). Small values of R 2 do
not always indicate a lack of significance of the relationship
(depending also on the number of degrees of freedom), but do
indicate that more vari- ables need to be included for a more
complete
prediction. For each independent variable,
significance is evaluated by setting the desired confidence level
(we used 99%) in a t-test. The S D is a measure of the residual
misfit attributed to variables (and measurement errors) that
are not included in the fitting; one S D is the distance from the
predictive curve that contains 68% of the residual scatter. The
overall fit of each multivariate re- gression is evaluated using
an F-test; unless explicitly stated, only relations with greater
than 99% confidence are presented below.
Ferron sandstones
Table 4 summarizes the empirical relations obtained by the
regression between the seismic, EM, and petrophysical para-

873

meters for the Ferron sandstone data. The equations in Table

4 are grouped by the predicted seismic and petrophysical
vari- ables (V p in lines ae, b in line f, and ln k in lines g and

h), the predicted EM parameters ( in lines il, and in

lines mr), and finally, relations between the electromagnetic,
seismic, and petrophysical variables (predicting in lines sv)
and predict- ing V p (in lines w and x). There is no particular
order of the equations within each group.
Prediction of V p and b .A widely used empirical relation
(line a of Table 4) (Gardner et al., 1974) relates V p and over
many rock types, independent of pressure. Figure 3a is a crossplot of V p and b for different ranges of Ferron Sandstone,
overlain by the Gardner et al. (1974) equation (the solid line)
and empirical curves for sandstone and shale (the dashed lines)
from Castagna et al. (1993). Figure 3a shows that the curves
fit reasonably over the whole data distribution but also indicates that is another important factor in addition to b in V p
prediction. As seen in Table 4, including both b and gives a
better prediction ( R 2 = 0.64) of V (line b in Table 4; Figures
p
3a
=
and 3b) than using alone ( R 2 0.56) (line a in Table 4). The
can be calculated directly from the grain density, , and
b

the fluid density using the mixing equation (line f in Table 4;

Figures 4a and 4b).

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Table 1. Petrological/petrographic, EM, and seismic parameters of Ferron Sandstone from Coyote Basin cores [petrologic/
petrophysical data from McMechan et al. (2001), the electrical property data are from McMechan and Zeng, 2001)]. NA means
the value of the parameter is not available; NU means the value of the parameter is not used.
Sample
A1870
A1907
A1940
A2022
A2047
A2072
A2090
A2140
B890
B1067
B1450
C855
C1050
D920
D1012
D1047
D1410
D1700
D1795
D1822
D2030
D2030
D2112
D2227
D2962
D3017
D3047
D3092
D3215
D3290
D3415
D3427
D3552

(%)
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1

k (mD)
17.15
0.20
1.05
0.22
11.32
46.25
32.47
29.38
90.91
103.60
48.89
58.08
81.30
121.50
53.92
17.47
31.87
4.92
0.27
14.20
19.46
19.46
2.36
1.74
31.97
0.21
7.29
0.09
10.26
12.86
18.51
21.61
28.95

C (%)
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
9
1

75 MHz
4.6
5.2
5.1
7.0
4.4
4.0
4.4
4.2
3.7
3.9
3.7
4.0
4.1
3.7
3.3
4.1
4.3
3.9
5.6
4.4
3.9
3.9
5.1
5.2
3.3
5.8
4.3
6.4
4.6
4.2
4.5
4.5
4.4

(mS/m) 75 MHz
0.2
0.9
1.1
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.7
0.6
0.9
1.8
1.0
0.1
0.1
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.6

b (g/cm3 )
N
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
N
2.
2.
2.
2.
N
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
N
2.
2.
2.
2.
N
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
2.
N

V p (m/s) 125
2442.3
3463.6
2886.4
N
2442.3
2215.1
2442.3
2295.2
2540.0
2093.4
2645.8
2506.6
2295.2
2164.8
N
2070.7
2442.3
2442.3
N
2411.4
2140.4
2215.1
2886.4
2760.9
2189.7
N
2506.6
N
2506.6
2351.9
2801.5
2442.3
2411.4

D3810

2
1.

63.74

1
1.

3.8
94

0.0
76

2.
1

N
U

874

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

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The correlation coefficient ( R 2 ) of 0.69 for V p as a

linear function of ln k and C (line e in Table 4; Figures 3c and
3d) is better than that of the linear relation of V p as a
function of and C (line c in Table 4). The latter has
previously been shown to fit well for fully saturated samples
(Tosaya, 1982; Han et al.,
1986; Klimentos, 1991; Castagna et al., 1985; Eberhart-Phillips
et al., 1989). A possible explanation is that at low effective
pres- sures, V p is sensitive to pore geometry and aspect ratio
(Han et al., 1986), which are expressed qualitatively via the
proxy variable k, in the absence of fractures. Another
alternative ex- planation is that water saturation affects V p
in shaley sand- stone as a function of the degree of
consolidation (by matrix hardening) resulting from the
interaction between the water and the clay (Han et al., 1986).
This is consistent with V p as a function of and C for dry
samples being less well fitted than for the same samples when
water saturated (Han et al., 1986; Koesoemadinata and
McMechan, 2001). The prediction of V p from ln k alone (line
d of Table 4) has R 2 of only 0.49.
Prediction of EM parameters and .Previous studies
of the correlation between EM properties and petrophysical
properties of Ferron Sandstone samples (McMechan et al.,
2001) suggest that petrophysical and lithological variations can
be predicted from EM properties. Electrical conductivity is
strongly influenced by k, , and water content (Ransom, 1984;
Hearst and Nelson, 1985; Maza c et al., 1985), and
dielectric permittivity is strongly influenced by water
content (e.g., Gue guen and Palciauskas, 1994). The effects
of and k on and on can be viewed from the physical
understanding that is a measure of the ability of the
material to store electric charge and is a measure the ability
to transmit charge. Thus,

Table 2. Petrophysical and V p data from the Ferron

Sandstone Corbula Gulch core plugs. The petrophysical data
from McMechan et al. (2001). NA means the value of the parameter is not available.

Sample

(%)

k (mD)

V p (m/s) 125

A344
A637
A646
A1094
A1103
A1112
B959
B117
B1177
B1183
C738
C742
C750
C1253
C1259
C1266
C1551
C157
D482
D881
D893
D1009
D1062
D1082

18.1
19.0
20.0
19.1
19.1
19.6
19.1
17.4
20.5
20.8
15.3
15.8
16.5
20.4
20.2
19.4
14.71
20.1
17.5
20.2
19.8
17.7
19.1
18.5

26.41
160.65
148.24
61.39
30.88
60.51
123.58
5
72.49
98.61
7.98
10.27
11.79
25.51
30.76
42.45
0.87
53.08
N
40.17
30.78
17.58
36.25
14.77

kHz 2609.6
2164.8
2005.3
2295.2
2574.3
2267.9
2164.8
2070.7
2351.9
2164.8
2760.9
2886.4
2886.4
2189.7
2116.7
2215.1
2474.0
2048.4
N
2116.7
2093.4
2540.0
2351.9
2351.9

D1091

16.7

8.54

2093.4

 depends mainly on pore volume, whereas depends mainly

on pore connectivity.
At ambient saturation, and both decrease with increasing
or k, and increase with increasing C . Prediction of ln2 k from
and C (line h in Table 4) is significantly2 better ( R = 0.83)
than using ln k as a function of alone ( R = 0.56) (line g in
Table 4). The predictions of from ln k and of from and C
have R 2 of 0.48 and 0.45, respectively (lines l and k in Table 4;
Figure 5). Predictions of from or C alone have lower R 2
(lines i and j of Table 4).
We observe an unexpected relation between and
(Figure 5a). The effect of on in clastics is often described
by Archies (1942) law:

= aw S n ( p )m ,

(1)

where S is the fraction of the pore space that is filled with water of conductivity w , is the porosity, p is the percolation
threshold (e.g., Gue guen and Palciauskas, 1994), and a, n,
and m are lithology-dependent parameters (e.g., Keller,
1987). If the material is clay free and metal free, then the
mainly de- pends on the pore fluid (Greenhouse et al., 1997).
High near the surface of hydrated clay can dominate the
overall conduc- tance of a rock if the pore fluid is low
(Waxman and Smits,
1968). The effect of k on can be predicted by substituting for
in equation (1) using a modified Carman-Kozeny equation
(Mavko et al., 1998),

k B ( p )3 d 2 ,
(2)
to predict k from , where B is a geometric coefficient, and d is a

characteristic grain dimension. The exponent 3 assumes

spher- ical grains and low clay content (Mavko et al., 1998).
The re- sulting Archie predictions have increasing with ln k,
whereas our data clearly decrease (Figure 5a). This apparent
discrep- ancy is understood by noting that Archies law
[equation (1)] assumes that the porosity is connected, and that
the water sat- uration is above the percolation threshold (e.g.,
Gue guen and Palciaskas, 1994). If there is insufficient water
present, increas- ing the permeability results in a less
connected distribution of water and so decreases; this is
probably the situation in our ambient samples, as they contain
<1% water by volume.
Physically, is more affected by water content than by C ,
and is more affected by C than water content (see Table 1 in
Davis and Annan, 1989). This is consistent
with our regression
fitting results (Figures 6a and 6c); R 2 = 0.82 is found for fitting
as a function of k and (line p in Table 4). Predicting from
C only
(line o in Table 4) gives a low correlation coefficient
( R 2 = 0.22). The of a saturated rock increases with increasing
because the of water is very high ( 80) in comparison to
that of the rock matrix ( 3) (e.g., Greenhouse et al., 1997).
For
saturation,
withamount
increasing
or k
(linesambient
m, n, and
p in Table 4)decreases
because the
of air (with
= 1)
increases as increases. These behaviors have also been shown
in previous studies (Martinez et al., 1999).
The dielectric constant is a function of the polarizability of
each particle and the numbers of particles per unit volume. The
polarizability will increase with the amount of (highly polarizable) water, and hence with the amount of clay (which contains bound water). The number of particles per unit volume
decreases with increasing , and so also with parameters that
correlate with , such as k and b [Figure IX.5 of Gue guen
and

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

Palciauskas (1994)]. The crossplot and regression of with b

(line q in Table 4; Figures 7a and 7b) show this behavior.
Thus, including C as well as b gives a better estimation of
(line r in Table 4; Figures 7a and 7c).
Relations between seismic and EM parameters.Estimation of seismic parameters from EM parameters, or vice versa,
is of interest for model building as well as for reservoir characterization. It has been shown (Gardner et al., 1974; Gue
guen and Palciauskas, 1994) that both V p and have a positive
corre- lation with b . Crossplots and regressions for samples at
ambi- ent saturation show good correlations between V p and
(lines sx in Table 4; Figure 8); a better fit of the V p -
relation is achieved ( R 2 > 0.64) when or b or ln k is also
included in the regression fitting (lines tv and x in Table 4;
Figure 8c).
Ellenburger carbonates
Because of the complexity of the textures and a small range
of in the Ellenburger samples, we do not expect to obtain
usable quantitative correlations from these data between seis-

875

mic or EM parameters or petrophysical/petrological properties that involve . It has been shown in previous studies (e.g.,
Rafavich et al., 1984; Chacko, 1989; Nolen-Hoeksema et al.,
1995; Wang et al., 1998) that the V p of carbonate reservoir
rocks usually decreases linearly with increasing (Figure 9c).
For comparison, we consider the relationship between V p
and b obtained for dolomite and limestone by Castagna et al.

(1993) (line a in Table 5; Figure 9a). Also including k into

the V p - relation (line b in Table 5) yields a better prediction
( R 2 = 0.19) of V (Figures 9a and 9b).
Unlike for thep Ferron Sandstone, here V increases with ln
p

k (lines b and d of Table 5). The reason for this may be that increasing k is indirectly related to increasing g (and hence, elastic stiffness) (Figure 10a); both are a consequence of dolomitization. Low k is associated with the (low g ) limestone host
rock, whereas high k occurs in the (high g ) dolomite (dolostone); the later is associated with permeable breccias (Loucks
et al., 1999). The effect of on V p is greater than that of ln k
(line d of Table 5).
We obtain significant regression results for as a function of
(line e in Table 5; Figure 11a), for as a function of g (line f
in Table 5; Figures 11b), and for as a function of g (line g in

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FIG. 2. Photographs of core plug ends show variety of composition and fabric, with ranges of porosity, permeability, and degree of fracturing. The diameter of each core plug is 2.54 cm, and the labels above each sample
refer to the samples in Table 3. F indicates fractures; P indicates large pores. Samples C05223, C05266, C05466,
and C05515 are predominantly limestone; samples C05098, E05164, E05284, and E05322 are predominantly

dolomite.

876

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

Table 5; Figure 11c). A comprehensive study of the

Ellenburger samples by Loucks et al. (1999) showed that the
correlation
between and ln k is poor ( R 2 = 0.155). Figure 10b is a
crossplot
between and ln k showing very scattered data for our samples.
Previous observations of the EM and petrophysical/petrologic
parameters of the Ellenburger cores (McMechan et al., 2002)
suggest that there are trends of decreasing with decreasing ,
with decreasing g (i.e., with decreasing dolomitization), and
with decreasing kmax .
Figures 12a and 12b are crossplots between and ,
and between and ln kmax , respectively; the predictions of
equations (1) and (2) are shown for comparison. Neither of
these data combinations passed the t-test for significance; neither did versus b , g , , or kmax .

volume) water content, the water conductivity has to be unrealistically high [60 S/m, even if we artificially increase the
water content to 2% of the rock volume (Figures 12a and
12b)] to give the observed net rock conductivities. A possible
explanation is that, at such low water saturation, the of the
carbonate is determined by the rock chemistry, rather than by
the water conductivity; increases with increasing dolomitization (Figure 11b) (e.g., Keller, 1987).
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

This paper is an extension (by inclusion of V p ) to previous studies of the correlation between GPR (EM) properties and petrographical/petrophysical properties of sandstone
(McMechan et al., 2001) and carbonate (Loucks et al., 1999)
at ambient saturation. Our results for the correlation between
EM and petrophysical parameters are consistent with those

A problem with the Archie equation predictions [Figures 12a

and 12b; equations (1) and (2)] is that, for the low (0.1% by

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Table 3.
Petrophysical/petrological, EM, and seismic data from the Ellenburger core plugs [petrophysical/petrological and
electri- cal data from McMechan et al. (2002)]. NA means the value of the parameter is not available; NU means the value of the
parameter is not used. The suffix v indicates a sample cut vertically rather than horizontally.
Sample
C05088
C05098
C05223
C05266
C05332
C05434
C05434v
C05466
C05466v
C05515
C10108
C10165
C10189
C10189v
C10217
C10217v
C10235
C10335
C10368
C10419
C10482
E05041
E05141
E05141v
E05157
E05164
E05284
E05322
E05368
E05393
E05467
E10057
E10057v
E10138
E10184
E10248
E10323
E10363
E10395
E10409
E10425
E10437
E10498
E10498v

(%)
N
3
3
4
4
4
N
4
N
5
2
2
2
N
4
N
3
3
2
9
1
3
3
N
4
6
5
6
4
3
4
5
N
4
0
3
4
2
3
3
4
5
4
N
A

kmax (mD)
10.604
469.632
1.7
0.0
10.512
0.0
N
0.0
N
N
0.5
0.0
0.0
N
20.055
N
92.340
N
0.1
490.080
274.320
0.0
246.431
N
738.991
1.4
73.264
29.220
82.038
11.565
N
0.0
N
25.880
0.4
39.522
15.788
3.9
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4
N
A

g (g/cm3
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.7
N
N
2.7
2.7
2.7
N
2.8
N
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.6
2.8
N
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.8
N
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
N
A

50
MHz
8.1168
7.7447
8.1944
7.9648
8.0861
7.7591
7.9499
8.1633
8.2891
8.6675
8.2416
8.7705
9.0543
8.5496
9.0180
9.0180
8.6505
8.2891
9.7251
9.6647
9.1827
9.0000
9.0542
9.0542
9.0361
9.2762
8.8227
9.0361
8.6167
8.7532
8.9284
8.8227
9.0180
9.0000
9.2762
9.3902
8.8577
8.8930
8.7188
8.6336
8.8930
8.4179
8.7188
8.3854

(mS/m) 50 MHz
0.95
0.79
0.34
0.62
0.31
0.77
0.38
0.30
0.46
2.29
1.63
1.76
1.77
1.31
1.94
1.42
1.27
0.86
2.72
2.21
1.84
2.04
2.46
2.53
2.07
2.55
1.92
2.34
2.00
2.02
2.46
2.42
2.49
2.07
2.58
2.51
2.41
2.20
2.25
1.63
2.40
0.44
1.13
0.88
84

b (g/cm3
N
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.5
2.7
2.2
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.6
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
43

V p (m/s) 125
5366.2
5861.5
5291.7
5291.7
5521.7
5562.0
N
5291.7
N
N
5907.0
5148.6
5953.1
N
4884.6
N
5442.9
4822.8
5772.7
4884.6
6350.0
6145.2
N
N
6047.6
5291.7
5772.7
5861.5
5953.1
6047.6
5953.1
5686.6
N
4884.6
N
6350.0
5442.9
5291.7
5602.9
5291.7
5366.2
5291.7
5861.5
N
A

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

of previous studies, and provide better correlations that include more parameters. The summary of results are presented
in Tables 4 and 5 for the Ferron and the Ellenberger data,
respectively.
The present data are only for room temperature and pressure, and ambient saturation, and so apply only to near-surface
conditions. Nevertheless, the fitted regression relations generally provide better fits than purely theoretical predictions.
The relationships for the Ferron Sandstone samples with
best correlation coefficients include V p as a function of ln k
and C ( R 2 = 0.69), V as function of and ( R 2 = 0.64), V
p
b
p
as a function of and ln k( R 2 = 0.64), as a function of
=
=
ln k( R 2 0.48), as a function of ln and C ( R 2 0.45),
as
a function of ln k and ( R 2 = 0.82), as a function of and
b
C ( R 2 = 0.79), as a function of ln k( R 2 = 0.78), and as a
function of ln ( R 2 = 0.66).

877

For the Ellenburger carbonate samples, the complexity of

the paleocave textures and the narrow range of in the samples result in relatively few significant relationships (Table 5).
Those relationships that can be defined include V p as a function of and ln k( R 2 = 0.19), V as a function of and
b
p
ln k( R 2 = 0.15), as a function of ( R 2 = 0.67), and as a
function of ( R 2 = 0.36).
g
It is interesting
that the signs of the correlations of k
with
V in the carbonate samples are the opposite to thosemaxin the
p
sandstone
samples. A speculative explanation is that the k
max

for the carbonate data does not necessarily represent the bulk
k of the rocks, but rather is associated with fractures (Loucks
et al., 1999). For the carbonate data used here, has a positive correlation with g (or degree of dolomitization) (line f in
Table 5; Figures 11b). V p also has a positive correlation with
g , which is associated with the elastic stiffness.

Table 4.
Regression results: correlation coefficient (R2 ), standard deviation (SD), and number of samples (N) of Ferron
sandstone from Coyote Basin cores. Data from Corbula Gulch cores are also included for P-wave velocity as function of ln k (line
d and for ln k as a function of (line g). Line f assumes the density of air is 0.001 g/cm3 . Line a is from Gardner et al. (1974). In all
equations, is in percent, not volume fraction.
2
b

Least-squares fit

R
0.56

SD
284.33

N
23

V p = 108.84

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b V p = 108.84 4 + 53.40 895.88

V p = 75.57 + 26.88C + 3474.00
V p = 152.93 ln k + 2866.96
V p = 188.29 ln k 34.77C + 3469.10
b = 2.625
2.624(/100)
1.07005
==0.34384
0.43545
ln0.26531C
5.13879
iln
+ 3.71383
ln kk =

+ 0.19117
=
j 0.05799C 0.22365
=

+
k
0.85512 ln 0.04453C + 2.4264
l = 0.15069 ln k + 1.00529
m = 2.90299 ln + 12.8161
n = 0.35978 ln k + 5.35307
o = 0.10061C + 2.99067
p = 0.2572 ln k 0.07298 + 6.41999
q = 7.1806 11.0397
r = 6.6611 b + 0.0818C 11.1742
+ 1.41383
b
s = 0.00119V
=
p
t 0.00058V
0.16294 ln k + 3.3758
u = 0.00072Vp 0.06851 + 3.8133
v = 0.00072V p + 2.3032 2.4137
+ 380.980
p
b
w V = 479.67343
x V pp = 229.35033 104.8169 ln k + 1756.658

0.64
0.46
0.49
0.69
0.94
0.56
0.31
0.83
0.27
0.45
0.48
0.66
0.78
0.22
0.82
0.65
0.79
0.55
0.64
0.65
0.68
0.55
0.64

196.76
221.82
206.41
168.71
0.021
1.1851
0.3620
0.8314
0.3706
0.3211
0.3141
0.4797
0.3886
0.7248
0.3486
0.5150
0.3942
0.3194
0.2877
0.2826
0.2727
203.19
182.19

23 c
28 d
52 e
28 f
28 g
58
h
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
28
28
28
28
28
23
28
28

Table 5. Regression results: correlation coefficient (R2 ), standard deviation (SD), and number of samples (N) of Ellenburger
carbonate measurements. Line a is from Castagna et al. (1993); k is the maximum of the measured vertical and horizontal k
values. In lines c and d, is in percent, not volume fraction.

0.11
0.19
0.08
0.15
0.67
0.36

R2

Least-squares fit
518.8
395.9
402.9
374.3
0.4
0.6

33
31
33
31
37
36

b
2

V p = 5975.557 23674.0b + 26432.0

SD

b V p = 5975.557 2 23674.0b + 42.0 ln k + 26202.937 c

V p = 100.339 + 5999.052
+
df V p= =15.8175
121.788
33.123 ln k + 6067.684 e
42.3837
= 1.28146
9.4604
g = 7.10284gg 11.06380

0.16

0.447

36

878

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

Limitations that restrict us in obtaining better defined (with

higher R 2 and lower standard deviation) relationships are the
small amount of data and the small sample sizes. The scale
effects of and k on the V p and EM measurements (particularly for the Ellenburger data) also affect the results. In whole
core analyses (not shown here), the larger and kmax values in the Ellenburger samples are associated with collapsedpaleocave breccias which have fractures and locally large pores
(Loucks et al., 1999). The wavelength
of the P-wave from
the hand-held sonic probe is 2.5 cm. The size of the measured samples is substantially smaller than the scale of the observed structures, such as cavities, breccia blocks, and fractures
in the carbonate, and interlayering and intraclast conglomerate in the clastics. Thus, the lab measurements are, to varying degrees, not representative of larger, heterogeneous rock
volumes.
An interesting observation is the failure of Archies
equations to predict in both the sandstone and carbonate
samples; even the sign of the coefficient is different. This
is apparently caused by the low ambient saturation. For the
sandstone, increasing or k increases the pore surface area and
reduces the connectivity of the very small amount of water that
is present. For the carbonate samples, the amount of water is
so

<15

20

15<20

low (<0.1%) that the conductivity is determined by the matrix

chemistry (via dolomitization), rather than by the conductivity
of the water.
Recommendations for future work are to do more comprehensive studies that involve a larger number of samples, more complete suites of measurements on each sample,
and measurements under more experimental conditions (e.g.,
saturation, temperature, and pressure). Studies of samples
with water saturation near and below the percolation
threshold will be especially interesting as this region has
been largely ne- glected in the past, and our results suggest
behaviors that are quite different than those above the
threshold.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research leading to this paper was supported by the

sponsors of the UTD Geophysical Consortium. The original measurements of the Ferron samples were supported by
the DOE under contract DE-FG03-96ER14596. The original
measurements of the Ellenburger samples were supported by
the Gas Research Institute under contract 5709-210-3889. The
hand-held sonic probe is manufactured by B. J. Smith and
provided by Arco. Constructive reviews by Jose Carcione,

Christina Chan, and an anonymous reviewer significantly

3800.0

3800.0
sand

V (m/s)

2800.0

2800.0

Predicted V (m/s)

shale

0.63
2

1800.0

a
2.0

2.2

C<15

15C<20

2.4

b (g/cm )

SD = 196.76
N =
23

1800.0
1800.0

2800.0
3800.0
(m/s)
Measured Vp

C20

Predicted V (m/s)
p

3800.0

3800.0

V (m/s)

2800.0

2800.0
0.69
2

1800.0

SD = 168.71
N =
28

1800.0

c
0.0
3.0
ln k (mD)

6.0

d
1800.0

2800.0
Measured V

3800.0

(m/s)

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FIG. 3. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a) V and for different ranges of porosity [the solid V - curve
p
b
p
is
p

Gardner et al.s (1974) equation, and the dashed

curves for sandstone and shale are from Castagna et al. (1993)].
Castagnas
= sandstone.
aV 2 + bV p +(b)c, The
where
a = 0.0261,
b = 0.373 V
andusing
c = 1.458
b
a = 0.0115,equations
b = 0.261,have
and the
c = form
1.515for
measured
and predicted
line bfor
in shale,
Table and
4.
p
(c) The V p -ln k crossplot for different ranges of C (the solid line is the V p -ln k relation
of line d in Table
4). (d) The measured and predicted V p using line e in Table 4. The boundaries between the porosity groups
in (a) and the clay groups in (c) are defined by dividing the total ranges of values into three equal parts
(these divisions are used only for display; subsequent regressions use the actual values of all variables).

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

879

FIG. 4. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a) The b - relation [the solid curve is a - relation from the
mixing equation (line f in Table 4)]. (b) The measured and predicted bulk density using line f in Table 4. (c)
The ln k relation for different ranges of C (the solid curve is the -ln k relation from line g in Table 4). (d)
The measured and predicted ln k using line h in Table 4. The boundaries between the C groups in (c) are
defined by dividing the total range of values into three equal parts (these divisions are used only for display;
subsequent regressions use the actual values of all variables).
2.0

2.0

= 0.48

Predicted (mS/m)

SD = 0.31
N =

(mS/m)

34

1.0

1.0

0.0

a
.
3.0

0.0
3.0
ln k (mD)

6.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

Measured (mS/m)

FIG. 5. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a) The -ln k relation (the solid
curve is the -ln k relation of line l in Table 4). (b) Measured and predicted
using line l in Table 4. The dashed
line in (a) is obtained from
equations (1) and (2) with Bd 2 = 6462.9 mD, p = 0.03, a = 0.62, S = 0.042, w = 15 S/m, m = 1.835, and
=
n 2.

Downloaded 05/08/13 to 142.150.190.39.

Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at
http://library.seg.org/
improved the paper. This paper is Contribution No. 989 from
the Geosciences Department at the University of Texas at
Dallas.

REFERENCES
Archie, G. E., 1942, The electrical resistivity log as an aid in
determining some reservoir characteristics: Am. Inst. Min.,
Metall., Petr. Eng. Tech. Paper 1422.
Baker, G. S., Steeples, D. W., and Schmeissner, C., 1999, On
coinci- dent seismic and radar imaging: 69th Ann. Internat. Mtg.,
Soc. Exp.

Geophys, Expanded Abstracts, 484487.

Carman, P. C., 1961, Le coulement des gaz a` travers les milieux
poreux:
Presses Univ. de France.
Castagna, J. P., Batzle, M. L., and Eastwood, R. L., 1985, Relationships
between compressional-wave and shear-wave velocities in clastic silicate rocks: Geophysics, 50, 571581.

Castagna, J. P., Batzle, M. L., and Khan, T. K., 1993, Rock physics
The
link between rock properties and AVO response, in Castagna, J. P.,
and Backus, M. M., Eds., Offset-dependent reflectivityTheory and
practise of AVO analysis: Soc. Expl. Geophys., 135171.
Chacko, S., 1989 Porosity identification using amplitude variation with
offset: Examples from south Sumatra: Geophysics, 54, 942951.

880

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

15<20

>15

20

7.0

7.0

7.0

5.0

5.0

5.0
Predict
ed

3.0

3.0

Predicted

6.0

3
.

SD = 0.39
N = 34

5
.
Measured

7.0

R
=
0.78

= 0.82

3.0

SD = 0.35

N =

34

0.0
3.0
ln k (mD)

.
3.0

FIG. 6. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a) the -ln k relation for different ranges of (the solid line is the -ln k relation
of line n in Table 4). (b) The measured and predicted values using line n in Table 4. (c) The measured and predicted values
using line p in Table 4. The boundaries between the groups in (a) are defined by dividing the total range of values into three equal
parts (these divisions are used only for display; subsequent regressions use the actual values of all variables).

FIG. 7. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a)The -b relation for different ranges of C (the solid curve is the -b relation
of line q in Table 4).(b) The measured and predicted values using line q in Table 4. (c) The measured and predicted values
using line r in Table 4. The boundaries between the C groups in (a) are defined by dividing the total range of values into three equal
parts (these divisions are used only for display; subsequent regressions use the actual values of all variables).
2.0ln k<3.0

ln k>3.0

Predic
ted V
(m/s)

3800.0

=
0.55

=
0.64

3800.0

ln k<2.0

3800.0
SD = 203.19

SD = 182.19
N =
28

Predicted V (m/s)
N

V (m/s)

28

2800.0

2800.0

2800.0

1800.0
3.0

5.0

7.0

1800.0

b
1800.0

2800.0
Measured Vp (m/s)

3800.0

1800.0
1800.0

2800.0

3800.0

Measured Vp (m/s)

FIG. 8. Crossplots of Ferron Sandstone data. (a) V p versus for different ranges of ln k (the solid line is the V p - relation of line w
in Table 4). (b) The measured and predicted V p using line w in Table 4. (c) The measured and predicted V p using line x in Table 4.
The boundaries between the ln k groups in (a) are defined by dividing the total range of values into three equal parts (these
divisions are used only for display; subsequent regressions use the actual values of all variables).

Downloaded 05/08/13 to 142.150.190.39. Redistribution subject to SEG

license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Corbeanu, R. M., Soegaard, K., Szerbiak, R. B., Thurmond, J. B.,
McMechan, G. A., Wang, D., Snelgrove, S., Forster, C. B., and
Menitove, A., 2001, Detailed internal structure of a fluvial channel
sandstone determined from outcrop, cores, and 3-D groundpenetrating radar: Example from the mid-Cretaceous Ferron Sandstone, east-central Utah: AAPG Bull., 85, 15831608.
Davis, J. L., and Annan, A. P., 1989, Ground penetrating radar for
high resolution mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy: Geophys.
Prosp.,

37, 351551.
Eberhart-Phillips, D. M., Han, D. H., and Zoback, M. D., 1989, Empirical relationships among seismic velocity, effective pressure, porosity
and clay content in sandstone: Geophysics, 54, 8289.
Forster, C. B., Snelgrove, S. H., Lim, S. J., Corbeanu, R. M.,
McMechan,
G. A., Soegaard, K., Szerbiak, R., Crossey, L., and Roche, K. N., 2003,
3-D Fluid flow simulation in a clastic reservoir analog: Based on integrated 3-D GPR and outcrop data from the Ferron Sandstone

Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

ln k<1.0

1.0 ln k<4.0

881

ln k4.0

limestone

6600.0

6600.0

dolomite

Predicted V (m/s)

V (m/s)

5400.0

5400.0

0.19
2

R
=
SD = 395.96

4200.0

4200.0

a
2.52

2.67

2.82

4200.0

b (g/cm )

5400.0

31

6600.0

ln k< 1.0

1.0ln k<4.0

ln k4.0

+
6600.0

6600.0

V (m/s)

5400.0

5400.0

0.15
2

R
=
SD = 374.34

4200.0

4200.0

2.0

Predicted V (m/s)

4200.0
6.0
(%)

10.0

5400.0
Measured Vp

31

6600.0
(m/s)

FIG. 9. Crossplots of Ellenburger data. (a) V p versus b for different ranges of

ln k [the dashed curves are the V p -b relations for limestone and dolomite from
Castagna et al. (1993), whereas the solid line is from line a in Table 5]. (b) The
measured and predicted V p using line b in Table 5. (c) The V p versus for different ranges of ln k (the solid
line is the V p - relation of line c in Table 5). (d) The measured and predicted V p using line d in Table 5. The
boundaries between the ln k groups in (a) and the groups in (c) are defined by dividing the total ranges of
values into three equal parts (these divisions are used only for display; subsequent regressions use the actual
values of all variables).

FIG. 10. Crossplots of Ellenburger data. (a) The g -ln k relation.

(b) The -ln k relation. The dashed line in (b) is
from the Carman-Kozeny model with Bd 2 = 2019 darcys and p = 0.03.

Downloaded 05/08/13 to 142.150.190.39. Redistribution subject to SEG

license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
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882

Koesoemadinata and McMechan

2.
5

(m
S/
m)
2.5

8.7

(mS/m)
1.5

= 0.5

0.67

0.5

0.16
SD = 0.447
N =
36

1.5

9.7

R
=
0.3
6

SD = 0.428

N =

SD = 0.600
N =
36

37

7.7

a
7.7

8.7

2.72

9.7

2.78 3
(g/cm )

2.84

2.72

2.78 3
g (g/cm )

2.84

FIG. 11. Crossplots of Ellenburger data. (a) The - relation (the solid line is the - relation of line e in Table 5). (b) The
-g relation (the solid line is the -g relation of line f in Table 5). (c) The -g relation (the solid line is the -g relation of line
g in Table 5).

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(%)

6.0

2.0
0.5

1.5

2.5

9.0

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FIG. 12. Crossplots of Ellenburger data. (a) The - relation.
(b)
The -ln (1)
kmax
dashed
are predictions
= 0.62,
= 60 S/m,
by equations
andrelation.
(2), withThe
=
0.03, alines
=
=
=
=
p
w
S 0.5, n 2, m 1.95, and Bd 2 2019 darcys.

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Seismic, EM, and Petrophysical Properties

APPENDIX A

883

Downloaded 05/08/13 to 142.150.190.39. Redistribution subject to SEG

license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
The high spatial heterogeneity of the pore distribution in the
Ellenberger may result in unreliable values from interpolation, as indicated by a poor correlation between the predicted
b (from the mixing equation, using g and ) and the measured b . To overcome this ambiguity, we estimated the
from the b using a mixing equation with the average g used
as the

matrix density;

= 1.0003587 0.3587187b ,
which is obtained assuming the density of the matrix is
2.7887 g/cm3 and the density of air is 0.001 g/cm3 ; is porosity
in volume fraction.