The Individual and Society in the Work of Hermann Hesse Author(s): Walter Naumann Source: Monatshefte, Vol.

41, No. 1 (Jan., 1949), pp. 33-42 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30164782 . Accessed: 05/02/2014 00:47
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THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETYIN THE WORK OF HERMANN HESSE

WALTER NAUMANN

Universityof Wisconsin Hofmannsthal,in a letter to Carl Burckhardt,'described the German mind, as he liked to do, by comparing it with the French mind. He had seen Paul Valbry and remembered sein Gesicht und die Bewegung seines Mundes beim Sprechen. Es ist das hochmiitige und verzweifelte Geschick des franzbsischen Geistes darin ausgedriickt,alles h i e r ausfechten zu miissen, wie der Herzog von Guise gegen seine Morder focht, zwischen dem Kamin und der Wand - kein Schritt weiter war ihm gegeben; uns aberist immerder Schritt durch die Wand ins Driiben gegeben. The validity of this statementcan be observed in three quite recent great German novels. Each one-of them has a utopian or a historically remote world for its subject,which in an ideal situationgives the author's answersto the most pressingneeds of our present day world. Thomas Mann, in Joseph und seine Briider (the last volume of which was published in 1943), finds in the tales of the biblical mythology the eternal conditions of human life. With Der Tod des Vergil (i945), Hermann Broch portrays a time which, like ours, has lost all absolute values and which ardently hopes for the new revelation. The third of these great novels is Hermann Hesse's most important novel, Das Glasperlenspiel (x943). or the game of the glass beads, The action of the Glasperlenspiel, takes place in Europe a few hundredyears from now. People have realized that Western culture can be preservedonly by a heroic effort. They it becausethey have renouncedall individual have succeededin preserving creative additions to that culture and are simply handing down from generationto generationthe accumulatedheritage. The mass of human achievementin knowledge and art, however, has been worked through, cross-relationshave been establishedbetween all fields, and finally a homogeneouspatternof all activitiesof the humanmind has been reached. The game of glass beads is a symbol of the meditativeapproachto this of the mind;it is a kind of worship of the humanmind. highestrealization A special district, a "pedagogical province" of which Goethe once dreamed,has been set aside for the training of those who uphold the spiritual tradition, namely, the bead players, the individual research workers,and the elite of the teacherswho direct the education throughout the country. These men are organizedin an order, renouncing possessions and family. The book tells the life of one of them, Joseph Knecht, whose name significantlydesignatesa laborer and a servant. an Hofmanntmhal, CarlJ. Burckhardt, x of Augustz, 192z6: Erinnerungen Verlag
Benno Schwabe& Co., Klosterberg, Basel,n.d., p.78.

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Knecht's adultlife, in whichno womanplaysa part,is spentalmost from the momenthe first feels completelyin the secluded"province", called,to the time of his servicein the highestoffice as masterof the the spirit of game of the glass beads. Although Knecht represents at its best,he knows that the provinceof the mindis not the Castalia wholeof life. His character is complemented by thatof PlinioDesignori, his lifelong friend. Designori,as his name shows, is a memberof the nobilityof powerandwealth. Fromhim,andfromthe teachings of an eminenthistorian, FatherJacobus,Knecht learnsthat beyond and beneath the stable orderof the mindtherearethe darkandever-changing realitiesof the world. He learnsthat even the most perfect spiritual of the dark tradition will be swept away one day by the revolutions to the mindand to forces. Manandhis historybelongto both realms, the world,to thatwhichis andto thatwhichchanges. Knechtactsupon this perception of the truth. He gives up his positionin the spiritual and seeksan anonymous hierarchy placein the world of change. His new life is to on from one generation to the next an in his duty pass to awareness of his situation in life. man a full which prompts inspiration is awakened in the of a this soul With Knecht's death, inspiration young
boy who had been entrustedto his guidance. In order to understandthe ideas of this book, their genesis in the author'smind as well as their place in German letters, it is necessaryto recall the more important events of Hesse's life. Hermann Hesse was born in 1877 in Calw, a small city in the state of Wiirttemberg. The of the publishingbranchof the Basel Missionwere in Calw. headquarters Both the poet's maternal grandfatherand his father worked for this mission,one of the importantProtestantmissionarysocietiesof continental Europe. The grandfather, Hermann Gundert, who had been a missionaryto India, was an authority on Indian languages. Together with his father, who came from a Baltic German background,Hermann Hesse was naturalizedin Switzerland as a child. Subsequently in his

in the national exaltationand hatred, but was led to ask himself what responsibilityhe, as an individual,had for the general chaos. Since the end of that war he has lived in the village of Montagnolanear Lugano in SouthernSwitzerland. The youthful conflict which led to Hesse's running away from

in orderto obtaina scholarship German nationality boyhoodhe acquired schools of his Swabianhome-country. in the preparatory theological crisisof his a Swisscitizenagain. The important As a manhe became conflict between his to by the aspirations be a poet youthwas provoked life planned for himby his parents.He ranawayfrom andthe bourgeois his breadas a bookdealer's to learna manual craft,earned school,started employeeat Tiibingenand Basel. At the age of twenty-six,he was successful enoughas an authorto live on the incomefrom his writings. another crisis. Hessecouldnot participate The firstWorldWarbrought

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as the mostimportant eventof his life, whether schoolis to be regarded determines that a first experience a life, or that a strong one maintains character revealsitself in its first fundamental experience. The event Hesse'sattitudetowardsociety. Hesse'srebelliondid not determined take the usualshapeof the conflictbetweenfatherand son. It is true he depicts the inadequacy of the middleclassfamily thatin several places to guide a child in his difficulties.The majorrebellion,however,is of knowledgeand directedagainstthe hierarchyof the transmission as representatives forms. It is directed the schoolandthe teachers against of the of all authority. At the age of fifty, Hessestill spokeindignantly of made teachers." Rad use One Unterm novel, "cowardly power by written the It was as an treats this conflict alone. (1905), outcryagainst schools. In other novelshe spiritand the systemof the stateboarding of the child in school,or he eitherresentfully dwellson the suffering the runaway. glorifies
Hesse's heroes are also in conflict with their contemporariesin humansociety. They are, almost all of them, standingapart,outcastsof society. They are unableto mastertheir lives. A stigmais fixed on them: one, for instance, is crippled, others lack polite education, are shy and clumsy. But the stigma can also be exalted by sentimentalsympathy:
Knulp (1919), the tramp, ignores society absolutely - he does not allow

himself to be caught in its net, even if it were to save his life. The experienceof being at odds with society has, at the same time, anotheraspect. The stigmawhich makesthe individualan outcast is also the sign of election. Those charactersof Hesse's early novels who are failuresin ordinarylife are at the sametime artists:poets, musicians, painters.Hesse'sbasicexperience, while confrontinghim with society, madehim at the same time strongly aware of his being selected, his being called. He felt removedfrom the others. His was a higher responsibility. Using a term from Nietzsche, who at one period strongly influenced him, Hesse speaksof the othersas of "Herdenmenschen".The elected individuals, however, belong together, they form a group, they wish for a binding link. This idea becomes more and more clear in the progress of

of his breaking work. It is the reverse Hesse's away from society:it is of and even for authority. The characters the longingfor community, trustedinthe novelslook for leaders. They find them in personally oldercomrades.Thereis a continuityin dividuals, mostlyin somewhat fromperson to person. Followingthe developed his world,a continuity
masterthere is always the younger successorwho will grow in his turn. On the other hand, the elected individualsof the same generation are linked together. They are a kind of nobility of the mind. The idea of an order of the elected appearsseveral times in Hesse's works before it is carriedout with all detailsin the Glasperlenspiel. The membersof these orders embody the highest responsibilitiesof their times. They show the way to the others. They submit;they obey the necessaryde-

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mands of their hour. In Demian (I919), written during the first World

War, they were to lead mankindto new experiences,to feel out an unthe order is strictly conservative, known destiny. In the Glasperlenspiel, intent on saving the intellectualheritage. But in both cases the personal before wishes of the individualare minimized,the individualdisappears a higher will, the will of the destiny of the human race. In the earlier novel, this will is not known to the characters;they have to discover taken shape as the it through their lives. It has, in the Glasperlenspiel, intellectualtradition. These two attitudes toward authority, the one that rebels against any authority,the other that seeks after an authority, Hesse sees in man everywhere. They are the two typical aspects of human characterin general. The part of man that rebels,that looks for freedom, is the part of "nature",of impulse,the drive. No society has the right to restrain this naturalman;he must be antisocial,immoral. No codes are valid for him. He must live through everything. He can accept no teaching, were it even from the highest religions,since nothing can replacefor him the value of what he has experiencedhimself. The heritage of Protestantism, and even of German classicism, is apparent in this attitude. Here Hesse gets the strength of his descriptionsof nature, of life in consonance with the rhythm of nature, the life of the child or of the vagabond. He speaks of "awakening"each time a new reality strikes him with the experienceof its full immediacy. To be able to live like of his own self, that this, however, a person must give in to the "nature" of the will dictated by an act is to say, he must not restrainhimself by sexual social considerations.His impulses,his dreamsand cravings must materializethemselves. Hesse calls it the mother side of life. It is the side of the "dark",the revolutionaryforces of life, of greed, sex and death, godlike in their primitive strength. Especially in the novels written during and after the first World War, like Demian,Steppenwolf (1927) and others, he makesa gospel out of the experienceof all conscious and subconsciousphasesof life. Like a numberof Germansof that period, he sees his time confronted by chaos, and believes, being influenced by Dostoiewski, that only by accepting the downfall of the present civilization,only by a full experienceof chaos, something new can be found, a new life made possible. What the heroes of these novels seek is Hesse's everlastingproblem, how to master life. They want to be artistsin the art of living. The only one who lives this naturallife to perfection, Goldmund in Narziss und Goldmnud (193o), is at the same time an artist in the proper sense of the word, a sculptor. This charactershows clearly the origin of the emphasison life, on new experiences, in Hesse's world. Here is Hesse the poet, who wishes to his impulsescompletely in order to be a perfect realize his aspirations, artist. Opposed to the mother side of human characterthere is the father

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side, the mind. In Hesse's childhood, his grandfatherand the world of Indianwisdom which he representedgave him a conception of the place of mind in life. The old, wise, saintly teacher occurs in the Glasperlenspiel and in earliernovels. By election he is father to the young student. There is an attitude of unquestioningobedience and reverence in all rebasedon spiritualvalues. The mind is wholly apartfrom life. lationships Confrontedwith it, life and the individuallose their importance,they become an illusion. This is the influence on Hesse of the teachings of Eastern,Indian and, later, Chinese philosophy and literature. The mind finds its perfection and its contentmentin contemplation. Hesse's characters practice meditativeexercises after the Indian model. He depicts one form of a perfect life in the IndischeLegende,the third of the imagof Josef Knecht, which are attached to the Glasinary autobiographies perlenspiel. Here a young prince flees from his enemies,and in a sudden spell he sees everythingthat could happen,he becomes king, he is happy, but also he experiences downfall and unhappiness. He realizes the necessity of these changes, sees that life is but "maja" (illusion), and joins the hermitsin the woods. The ever-recurringrevolutions of life become apparent,as from a distance,once that part of us which belongs to life and to impulse, and which is nothing but the individualin us, has spent its force or is ready into its claim. Then the humanbeing tends to be assimilated to surrender the universe;he becomes a part of it, just as the ferryman in Siddharta
(1922) becomes one with the river on which he lives. The person tends

to be an "it", he approachesthe impersonal,as Hesse interpretsthe old Goethe. He attains wisdom by transcendingindividuality. Here the wise seer in Hesse is speaking,in antithesisto the creative artist. Throughout his works, Hesse has tried to find a union between these two fundamentalaspects of human life, the irresponsibleurge and the detached mind. Even in his early novels, like in Unterm Rad, we find two characterswho complete each other because they embody these opposite tendencies. These antagonistsare always two men, two friends. Friendshipin Hesse's world resemblesthe role of marriagein the world of Hofmannsthal,where an individualis educated in the highest sense through a personwho is destinedfor him and inescapablylinked to him. Even if the main characterstrivesto fulfill both sides, the naturaland the spiritual,as does Siddhartafor instance, he has, at his side, his friend, who representshis own weaker possibility. This friend, sometimescalled a "shadow",clings to only one interpretationof life. He is wrong and weak, while the hero, living both sides of life, is right and strong. In no book are the two charactersso clearly set off against each other as in Narzissund Goldmund. Narziss is the introspective,self-containedmind, living in a monastery. Goldmundis the artist,agreeableto women, a man treats almost exclusively of of the world. The novel, characteristically, the exploits of the worldly man. And such is the case in almost all the

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earlier novels. It was a failure in life that started Hesse writing. He strove, through his novels, to learn the art of living. Not until the

is dethis most maturework of Hesse'sthe destinyof the individual

termined by the spiritualhealth and the welfare of a larger body of which he forms a part. This is true for Knecht and the group in which

is the accentplaced whollyon spiritual questions.In Glasperlenspiel

and where he lives, wherean organized of the mindprevails, discipline

any quest for unrestrictedself-realizationis suppressed. It is also true for his antagonistDesignori, the representative of nature, who does not live for his own enjoyment either. The latter has, for the first time, however insignificantit may appear,a necessaryplace in society, a social function. Thus, in Hesse's work, the individualis either inflated,living only for himself, and wishing for complete self-assertion;or he is deflated. Even in early novels, individualismis representedas an illness of the time. Somethingmore valuableis sought, a symbol to which the individual can subject himself, annihilatinghis personality. But nowhere is the individual treated in his every-day conditions. Marriedlife, for instance, which for Goethe and Hofmannsthalis a symbol for humansociety, does not exist in these books. Women are there only as objects to serve for the satisfactionof the hero. No characterin his work is linked with a nationalsituation,or determinedby nationaltraits. Nations, for Hesse, are not essential. Between the individualand humanitythere is no break. Even in their own time, his charactersare out of place. Up to the first World War, his novels dealt with failures in life and society. In the novels written after that war, his heroestry to gain a place in their epoch. Demiandoes so by feeling out a mystic spirit of the future. Steppenmolf is the one who most resolutelyembracesthe kind of life that his own time requires. But that time is chaos. It is laid upon him. He has to live through all the statesof mind that the chaos induces,to live them out of the way, so to speak,before he can hope to find his own personalityand to live accordingto its needs. Becauseof this state of affairs,our time is so terrible:only an existenceas a wolf of the steppe is possiblein it. A better existencecan be found only in Utopia. Therefore the settings of Hesse's last two novels are imaginarysocieties. In Narziss wnd Goldmuni it is a romantic utopia, a historical utopia of the Middle Ages, when, to be sure, life was rude; but it was the real outright life, where every wish correspondedto something in reality, to something readily obtainable. Thus one could live on's life to the full and be a real artist. was not established to make enjoyment The utopia of the Glasperlenspiel easy. It is there to make service easy. It is a demandupon the future, to find forms againthat will take away from the individualthe weight of the confusing complexitiesof our time, so that he can consecratehimself unequivocally. There is nowhere any real society in Hesse's work. Neither the

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family, nor the nation,nor his time are realitiesthat mean anything to the individual. The individualis alone, on the one hand, but always in search of an ideal condition, of something universalthat belongs to him. He seeksto locate himself in a living-spacewhich is larger than himself, but with which he can identify himself and thereby recognize his duties and his place in life. This living-spaceof the individualhas for Hesse from the very beginning a social as well as a philisophicalaspect. In Peter Camenzind(1904), the first of his novels, the hero feels at home in a vague pantheism,but he also likes to think that he is situatedwithin the continuous sequence of generations in his home village. In Hesse's middle period, Demian, for instance, tries to find a mystic union with the whole of the universe,with the dark as well as with the light forces, but at the same time this new religious feeling is identical with the spirit of the coming age, of future society. The problem is completely solved in the most perfect work of art that Hesse has ever produced, Der Regenmacher. This story constitutes one of the three imaginaryautobiographiesof the hero of the Glasperlenspiel. The weathermanin the society of a stone-age village knows everything that is known to his time; the universe as it appearsto his generation is his living-space;it exactly to his needs.He has only a narrowcircle of conscious corresponds but beyond that he has a magical power of inspired union knowledge, with the whole of nature. The weather is the symbol of this magic correspondence:he can make the weather, but on the other hand the revolutionsof natureare menacesfor him and lead him to death. At the sametime, through his place in the whole of nature,he also has his place in the center of society. He interprets nature to his community, he serves their religious needs. His extraordinaryposition as seer, as one who stands in a mystical relationshipto the universe, is accepted as a function by his society. It is a function, because it is not an individual merit. The weathermanis only "an unknown link in the chain";he receives the whole of what he knows, trying to enlarge it a little perhaps, and handsit on through the ages, from personto person. In this utopian story, Hesse introduces society, because he has found his justification for it. Society must correspond to an essentialneed in the individual. What is essentialfor Hesse is not of a moral character. Other people really do not exist for him. The essentialproblem is for him an intellectual problem,the questionof situatinghimself. Society is for him not a moral but an intellectualnecessity. In the philosophy at which Hesse finally arrived,he sees man in the universe, surroundedby what he now calls reality. It is a demonic, lawless, changing reality; it is the divinity. Man's first reaction is fear, and his duty is to change this fear into reverence,piety, and finally into knowledge, into mind. Mind is born out of fear, its function is to react againstreality. Mind is the other divine element in Hesse's world, the divine in man. This polarity, between mind and reality, pervades the

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whole universe. It is the polarity between being and becoming. At the momentsof inspiration, man experiencesa magic union with reality. He "awakens", as Hesse says, to a new reality. He is lifted to a new "step", either as an individualin the experienceof his life, or as one who, like the embodiesin himself the whole experienceof society and thus rainmaker, takes a step ahead in knowledge, in human civilization. But otherwise the nature and the duty of the mind is to remain,to be preserved. In the ideal case, in the stone-age village, the tradition is unendangered, since one man, enjoying an establishedfunction in society, transmitsthe heritage to another. In a complex civilization, like ours, mind, overdeveloped, is isolated in a province; lawless, changing nature enters society itself and will one day engulf and completely destroy the province. There is no reason for despair,even in that case. That is the intended teaching of the final scene of the Glasperlenspiel. There will always be a new beginning, like that of the young boy whom Knecht tutors. There will always be man's adorationof nature, like the boy's dance before the rising sun, and there will always be anotherhuman,like Knecht, to transmita sense of responsibilityto the younger generation. Hesse envisagesthe possibilityof the destructionof our civilization, but he is far from welcoming downfall and chaos. In the realm of the mind, it is our duty now to preservewhat we have. We have to do this, even at the expense of the individual. The individual does not count. He servesthe traditionimpersonally. And in comparisonwith the collective riches of the mind in a higher civilization,his personis of no importance. Of course, he wants to step into the center of all the possible spiritual experiences of his time. Only then the mind will fulfill its religious function for him. The game of the glass beads was developed for that reason. It embracesall the spiritualpossessionsof its time in a unity, and thus calls forth religious awe before the experience of mind as Hesse says in one place). Only a few, howas such (the "Urwissen", ever, will serve in this center, the bead-playersand their master. The others will take part in the ceremoniesof the bead game only as they would in religious services. The mind of a developed civilization has many departments;in each one of them perfection can be reached. shows a number of saintly wise men Hesse's novel, Das Glasperlenspiel, who have given up their individualityin the anonymity of service to one particularprovince of our heritage. In this service the person must be assisted. Organizedbodies within society must take away from him the burden of having to determineas an individualthe conditions of his life. An individualismwhich is unlimited master of its intellectual and material living conditions can never keep up a true tradition. From this insight stems Hesse's preference for religious orders, like the Benedictines, for primitive communities, and finally his idea of a secular order in the Glasperlenspiel. These organizedforms within society, however, are linked with and are

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sustainedby the old religiouswisdom of mankind. In Hesse's order, this wisdom is carriedon in a secularizedform: there is discipline,obedience for its own sake; there are exercisesof mediation,as there was prayer in a god-centeredsociety; there is even sacrifice,the sacrificeof the highest, the one who embodiesthe unity of the mind, for the sake of the continuationof the whole. Hesse, with these ordered units within society, wants to win back forms of human life which guarantee permanence. The necessity of such organismsof a lasting character was one of the great insights of Nietzsche. Hesse thus places himself in a line with what Hofmannsthal called the "conservativerevolution" of the modern mind. It is, says Hofmannsthal,a movement which, during the past centuries, simultaneous with but contrary to the main current of ideas which sought the freedom of the individual,tries to find and to win back binding links for and again in contemporaryliterthe individual. In Germanromanticsm, can be this observed. Hesse himself states it with ature, tendency clearly similarwords in the introductionto the Glasperlenspiel. Only he defines it more precisely in his own terms. The new authority which he seeks is an authoritycoming out of the mind alone,adequateto it, and legitimizing the mind's freedom. It is the authority of a humanism,since the mind, for Hesse, is nothing but human, always bound to man. This humanismis not based on any particularpast experience of mankind which might have value as a model. The model, and with it the authority, is impliedin every stage of the history of the humanmind. That is the intended meaningof the three autobiographies attachedto the Glaseach of which takes in a different era of humanhistory. perlenspiel, place Hesse's humanismplaces man in the middle between nature and mind. The mind is never above nature.Every function of the mind, in the Glasof the perlenspielfor instance,is embodiedby man: the true transmission heritagedoes not take place in the anonymity of books, but from man to man;a man'scalling comes to him in youth by meansof anotherhuman. This humanismanswers a need of our epoch. It tries to find a new measurefor man. Man has been freed from an outside authority, that of the Christianchurch. However, the idea seems no longer acceptable that he is entirelyfree to choose his own path and to model his own image. This idea is a heritageof the liberalmovementin history, of Protestantism and Romanticism. It has led many modern writers to set themselvesup as a measurefor men. To be sure this meant proffering themselves in their best qualities,in their highest experiences,i. e. as artists. The artist, is the measureof man. In the modern in a largepart of modernliterature, the artist is the one who is responsibleonly to himself. His conception, to and to create ability experience sufficientlyjustifieshis life. His pursuit is to perfect his individuality. In Hesse's utopia the artist is disavowed and suppressed. In quite a similar way, Hofmannsthal,in his principlework, the tale Die Frau ohne Schatten, rejects the artist as the

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valid image of man. Both writers arrive at a similar conclusion from it is the moral claim which quite differentpositions. For Hofmannsthal, the others have against the individual that leads him to disavow the artist'sself-sufficient life. For Hesse, the intellectualnecessitiesof society, of the individualthe preservation of the heritage,make the dissapearance istic artistimperative. They have this in common;they both try to find a measurefor man in the community, through other men. Since no exemplarymeasureof man,the measureof the great, the divine personality, is acknowledgedany more, society - society taken in its moral aspect in case and in its intellectualin Hesse's - shapes the new Hofmannsthal's measureof man.

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