API 570 P IPING I NSPECTOR P REPARATORY C OURSE

COURSE NOTES

Conducted by
P. S. JOSHI. Asian Business Consultants. Pune Pune. .

API 570 P IPING I NSPECTOR P REPARATORY C OURSE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

ESCRIPTION

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O"e#$ie$ o% API &'(

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O"e#"ie$ o% RP* API &'+

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O"e#$ie$ o% AS-E B ,!.,

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O"e#"ie$ o% AS-E B !..&

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O"e#"ie$ o% AS-E Section I/

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O"e#"ie$ o% AS-E Section 0

CHAPTER*! &'( PIPIN1 INSPECTION CO E

!. INTRO UCTION TO API*&'(

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!.!.!

SCOPE
Co"e#a2e 3 API 570 covers inspection, repair, alteration, and rerating procedures for metallic piping systems that have been in service. Re4ai# ; The or! necessary to restore a piping system to a condition suitable

for safe operation at the design condition. Alte#ations " A physical change in any component that has design implications affecting the pressure containing capability or fle#ibility of a piping system beyond the scope of its design. Re#atin2 " A change in either or both the design temperature or the ma#imum allo able or!ing pressure of a piping system. A rerating may consist of an original design increase, a decrease, or a combination of both. $erating belo conditions is a means to provide increased corrosion allo ance. !.!.) LI-ITATIONS 3 API 570 shall not be used as a substitute for the original construction re%uirements governing a piping system before it is placed in service.

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SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS !.).!

Included Fluid Se#"ices 3

API 570 applies to piping systems for process fluids, hydrocarbons, and similar flammable or to#ic fluid services, such as the follo ing. a. b. c. d. e. f. $a , intermediate, and finished petroleum products. $a intermediate, and finished chemical products. &atalyst lines. 'ydrogen, natural gas, fuel gas, and flare systems. (our ater and ha)ardous chemicals aste streams above threshold limits, as threshold limits, as defined by defined by *urisdictional regulations. 'a)ardous above *urisdictional regulations. !.).) E5cluded and O4tional Pi4in2 Syste6s " The fluid services and classes of piping systems listed belo ,o ner-user+s. option. a. /luid services that are e#cluded or optional include the follo ing. 0. 1. 'a)ardous fluid services belo *urisdictional regulations. 2ater ,including fire protection systems. , steam, steam3condensate, boiler feed 80.8 ater, and &ategory 4 fluid services, as defined in A(56 7 threshold limits, as defined by are e#cluded from the

specific re%uirements of API 570 but may be included at the o ner+s or user+s

b.

&lasses of piping systems that are e#cluded or optional are as follo s " 0. Piping systems on movable structures covered by *urisdictional regulations, including piping systems on truc!s, ships, barges, and other mobile e%uipment. 1. Piping systems that are an integral part or component or rotating or reciprocating mechanical devices, such as pumps, compressors, turbines, generators, engines, and hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders here the primary design considerations and-or stresses are derived from the functional re%uirements of the device. 8. 9. Internal piping or tubing of fired heaters and boilers, including tubes, tube headers, return bends, e#ternal crossovers, and manifolds. Pressure vessels, heaters, furnaces, heat e#changers, and other fluid handling or processing e%uipment, including internal piping and connections for e#ternal piping. 5. :. 7. Plumbing, sanitary se ers, process aste se ers, and storm se ers. Piping or tubing ith an outside diameter not e#ceeding that of ;P( <. ;onmetallic piping and polymeric or glass3lined piping.

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).! APPLICATION CO E 3

EFINITIONS

The code, code section, or other recogni)ed and generally accepted engineering standard or practice to hich the piping system as built or hich is deemed by the o ner or user or the piping engineer to be most appropriate for the situation, including but not limited to the latest edition of A(56 7 80.8

).)

AUTHORI7E

INSPECTION A1ENC8 3

4efined as any of the follo ing. " a. The inspection organi)ation of the *urisdiction in hich the piping system is used. b. The inspection organi)ation of an insurance company that is licensed or registered to rite insurance for piping systems. c. An o ner or user of piping systems systems intended for sale or resale. ho maintains an inspection

organi)ation for activities relating only to his e%uipment and not for piping

d.

An independent inspection organi)ation employed by or under contract to the o ner or user of piping systems that are used only by the o ner or user and not for sale or resale.

e.

An independent inspection organi)ation licensed or recogni)ed by the *urisdiction in hich the piping system is used and employed by or under contract to the o ner or user.

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AUTHORI7E

PIPIN1 INSPECTOR 3
ho is %ualified and certified to

An employee of an authori)ed inspection agency

perform the functions specified in API 570. A nondestructive ,;46. e#aminer is not re%uired to be an authori)ed piping inspector. 2henever the term inspector is used in API 570, it refers to an authori)ed piping inspector.

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AU/ILLAR8 PIPIN1 3
Instrument and machinery piping, typically small3bore secondary process piping that can be isolated from primary piping systems. 6#amples include flush lines, seal oil lines, analy)er lines, balance lines, buffer gas lines, drains and vents.

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CUI 3
&orrosion under insulation, including stress corrosion crac!ing under insulation.

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EA LE1S "
&omponents of a piping system that normally have no significant flo . 6#amples include the follo ing valves, lines " blan!ed branches, lines ith normally closed bloc! ith one end blan!ed, pressuri)ed dummy support legs, stagnant

control valve bypass piping, spare pump piping, level bridles, relief valve inlet and outlet header piping, pump trim bypass lines, high point vents, sample points, drains, bleeders, and instrument connections.

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EFECT "
An imperfection of a type or magnitude e#ceeding the acceptable criteria.

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E/A-INER "
A person ho assists the inspector by performing specific nondestructive ith API 570, unless specifically

e#amination ,;46. on piping system components but does not evaluate the results of those e#aminations in accordance %ualified in accordance ith API 570. trained and authori)ed to do so by the o ner or user. The e#aminer need not be

).:

HOL

POINT 3
hich or! may not proceed

A point in the repair or alteration process beyond

until the re%uired inspection has been performed and documented.

).!( I-PERFECTIONS "

/la s or other discontinuities noted during inspection that may be sub*ect to acceptance criteria during an engineering and inspection analysis.

).!! IN ICATION "

A response or evidence resulting from the application of a nondestructive evaluation techni%ue.

).!) INJECTION POINT "

=ocations here relatively small %uantities of materials are in*ected into process

streams to control chemistry or other process variables. In*ection points do not include locations here t o process streams *oin.

).!, IN*SER0ICE "

$efers to piping systems that have been placed in operation, as opposed to ne construction prior to being placed in service.

).!+ INSPECTOR "

An authori)ed piping inspector.

).!& LE0EL BRI LE "

A level gauge glass piping assembly attached to a vessel. 1.0: 5A>I5?5 A==@2A7=6 2@$AI;B P$6((?$6 ,5A2P. The ma#imum internal pressure permitted in the piping system for continued operation at the most severe condition of coincident internal or e#ternal pressure and temperature ,ma#imum and minimum. e#pected during service. It is the same as the design pressure, as defined in A(56 7 80.8 and other code sections, and is sub*ect to the same rules relating to allo ances for variations of pressure or temperature or both.

).!' ON*STREA- "

Piping containing any amount of process fluid.

).!9 PIPIN1 CIRCUIT "

A section of piping that has all points e#posed to an environment of similar corrosivity and that is of similar design conditions and construction material.

).!: PRI-AR8 PROCESS PIPIN1 "

Process piping in normal, active service that cannot be valved off or, if it valved off, ould significantly affect unit operability. normally includes all process piping greater than ;P( 1. 1.10 $6PAI$ @$BA;ICATI@; " Any of the follo ing " a. b. An o ner or user of piping systems A contractor API 570. c. @ne ho is authori)ed by, acceptable to, or other ise not prohibited by the *urisdiction and ho ma!es repairs in accordance ith API 570. ho repairs or alters his or her o n ere

Primary process piping

e%uipment in accordance ith API 570. hose %ualifications are acceptable to the o ner or user of ho ma!es repairs or alterations in accordance ith piping systems and

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).)! SECON AR8 PROCESS PIPIN1 3

(mall3bore ,less than or e%ual to ;P( 1. process piping do nstream of normally closed bloc! valves.

).)) S-ALL*BORE PIPIN1 ;SBP< "

Piping that is less than or e%ual to ;P( 1.

).), SOIL*TO AIR ;S=A< INTERFACE 3

An area in hich e#ternal corrosion may occur on partially buried pipe. The )one ill vary depending on factors such as moisture, o#ygen content to : inches ,050 mm. above the soil surface.

of the corrosion

of the soil, and operating temperature. The )one generally is considered to be from 01 inches ,805 mm. belo Pipe running parallel ith the soil surface that contacts the soil is included.

).)+ SPOOL "

A section of piping encompassed by fianges or other connecting fittings such as unions.

).)& TE-PER E-BRITTLE-ENT "

A loss of ductility and notch toughness in susceptible lo 3alloy steels, such as 0 D &r and 1 D &r, due to prolonged e#posure to high3temperature service E700 o /30070o/ ,870o&3575o&. F

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).). TE-PORAR8 REPAIRS "

$epairs made to piping systems in order to restore sufficient integrity to continue safe operation until permanent repairs can be scheduled and accomplished ithin a time period acceptable to the inspector or piping engineer.

).)' TEST POINT "

An area defined by a circle having a diameter not greater than 1 inches ,50 mm. for a line diameter not e#ceeding 00 inches ,150 mm. or not greater than 8 inches ,75 mm. for larger lines. Thic!ness readings may be averaged area. A test point shall be ithin a thic!ness measurement location. ithin this

).)9 THIC>NESS -EASURE-ENT LOCATIONS ;T-Ls< "

4esignated areas on piping systems measurement+s are conducted. here periodic inspections and thic!ness

).): ?F-T "

2et fluorescent magnetic 3particle testing.

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O?NER= INSPECTION OR1ANISATION

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API AUTHORI7E CERTIFICATION 3

PIPIN1 INSPECTOR @UALIFICATION AN

Authori)ed piping inspectors shall have education and e#perience in accordance ith Appendi# A of this inspection code. Authori)ed piping inspectors shall be certified by the American Petroleum Institute in accordance an authori)ed piping inspector. 8.1 $6(P@;(I7I=ITI6( " ith the provisions of Appendi# A. 2henever the term inspector is used in this document, it refers to

,.).! An o ner-user organi)ation is responsible for developing, documenting,

implementing, e#ecuting, and assessing piping inspection systems and inspection procedures that ill meet the re%uirements of this inspection code. ill be contained in a %uality assurance These systems and procedures

inspection manual or ritten procedures and shall include " a. b. c. d. e. f. g. @rgani)ation and reporting structure for inspection personnel. 4ocumenting procedures. 4ocumenting and reporting inspection and test results. &orrective action for inspection and test results. Internal auditing for compliance manual. $evie and approval of dra ings, design calculations, and specifications for repairs, alterations, and re3ratings. 6nsuring that all *urisdictional re%uirements for piping inspection, repairs, alterations, and re3rating are continuously met. ith the %uality assurance inspection and maintaining inspection and %uality assurance

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h. i. *. !. l. m. n.

$eporting to the authori)ed piping inspector any process changes that could affect piping integrity. Training re%uirements for inspection personnel regarding inspection tools, techni%ues, and technical !no ledge base. &ontrols necessary so that only %ualified used for all repairs and alterations. &ontrols necessary so that only %ualified nondestructive e#amination ,;46. personnel and procedures are utili)ed. &ontrols necessary so that only materials conforming to the applicable section of the A(56 &ode are utili)ed for repairs and alterations. &ontrols necessary so that all inspection measurement and test e%uipment are properly maintained and calibrated. &ontrols necessary so that the organi)ation. or! of contract inspection or repair organi)ations meet the same inspection re%uirements as the o ner-user elders and procedures are

o.

Internal auditing re%uirements for the %uality control system for pressure3 relieving devoices.

,.).) PIPIN1 EN1INEER "

The piping engineer is responsible to the o ner-user for activities involving design, engineering revie , analysis, or evaluation of piping systems covered by API 570.

,.)., REPAIR OR1ANI7ATION "

The repair organi)ation shall be responsible to the o ner-user and shall provide the materials, e%uipment, %uality control, and API 570. or!manship necessary to ith the re%uirements of maintain and repair the piping systems in accordance

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,.).+ AUTHORI7E

PIPIN1 INSPECTOR 3

2hen inspections, repairs, or alterations are being conducted on piping systems, an API authori)ed piping inspector shall be responsible to the o ner-user for determining that the re%uirements of API 570 on inspection, e#amination, and testing are met, and shall be directly involved in the inspection activities. The API authori)ed piping inspector may be assisted in performing visual inspections by other properly trained and %ualified individuals, ho may or may not be certified piping inspectors. Personnel performing nondestructive e#aminations shall meet the %ualifications identified in 8.01, but need not be API authori)ed piping inspectors. 'o ever, all e#amination results must be evaluated and accepted by the API3 authori)ed piping inspector.

,.).& OTHER PERSONNEL "

@perating, maintenance, or other personnel ho have special !no ledge or

e#pertise related to particular piping systems shall be responsible for promptly ma!ing the inspector or piping engineer a are of any unusual conditions that may develop and for providing other assistance, here appropriate.

INSPECTION AN TESTIN1
!. RIS> BASE INSPECTION ;RBI<

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$7I is identifying and evaluating potential degradation conse%uence of hich may be a ris! of creation of unsafe conditions ,for plant, process, people . and or li!ely failure of component. $7I involves follo ing essential elements " 6#pected type of degradation i.e. type of degradation process as ell as environmental factors may cause. =i!ely areas affected i.e. identifying the most prone areas and possible locations to loo! for the type of degradation. 5easurement of degradation i.e. %uantifying the amount of degradation. Assessment and evaluation i.e. analysis of degradation and li!ely conse%uences. Above all effectiveness of inspection practices, tools techni%ues employed have a great bearing of success of $7I program.

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PREPARATION 3
Prior to actual inspection proper preparation and safety precautions are essential particularly if components are to be inspected internally. This essentially involves 3 Isolating and segregating the piping system, installing blan!s ,blids. etc. $emoval of harmful li%uids, gases, vapors, flushing out and purging to bring do n residual content to safe levels. @btain suitable permissions to or! i.e. cold or! permit ,&2P., 'ot or! Permits ,'2P. etc. Protective e%uipment, clothing, mas!ing as re%uired. (afety e%uipments shall be sub*ectto operating facilities safety re%uirements. ,e. g. electrical re%uirements, flame arrester etc..

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INSPECTION FOR SPECIFIC T8PES OF CORROSION AN CRAC>IN1 3

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6ach o ner- user should provide specific attention to the need for inspection of piping system that are susceptible to the follo ing specific types G areas of deterioration "

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. *. !. l.

In*ection points. 4eadlegs. &orrosion under insulation , &?I .. (oil3to3air ,(-A . interfaces. .

(ervices specific G locali)ed corrosion. 6rosion Gc orrosion-erosion. 6nvironmental crac!ing. &orrosion beneath linings G deposits. /atigue crac!ing . &reep crac!ing. 7rittle fracture. /ree)e damage.

8.0

InAection Points " In*ection points are sometimes sub*ect to accelerated or locali)ed corrosion. 2hen designating an in*ection point circuit for the purposes of inspection, the recommended upstream limit of the in*ection point circuit is a minimum of 01 inches ,800. or three pipe diameters upstream of the in*ection point, seconed change in flo hichever is greater. The recommended do nstream limit of the in*ection point circuit is the direction past the in*ection point, or 15 feet ,7.: m. direction, hichever is less. In some cases, it may beyond the first change in flo

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be more appropriate to e#tend this circuit to the ne#t piece of pressure e%uipment. Buide =ines /or (electing T5=( " a. b. c. d. 6stablish T5=s on appropriate fittings ithin the in*ection point circuit. 6stablish T5=s on the pipe all at the location of e#pected pipe all impingement of in*ected fiuid. T5=s at intermediate locations along the longer straight piping ithin the in*ection point circuit may be re%uired. 6stablish T5=s at both the upstream G do nstream limit of the in*ection point circuit. The preferred methods of inspecting in*ection points are radiography and-or ultrasonics, as appropriate, to establish the minimum thic!ness at each T5=. /or some applications, it is beneficial to remove piping spools to facilitate a visual inspection of the inside surface. 'o ever, thic!ness measurements re%uired to determine the remaining thic!ness. ill still be

4uring periodic scheduled inspections, more e#tensive inspection should be applied to an area beginning 01 inches ,800 mm. upstream of the in*ection no))le and continuing for at least ten pipe diameters do nstream of the in*ection point. Additionally, measure and record the thic!ness at all T5=s in*ection point circuit. ithin the

8.1

eadle2s " The corrosion rate in deadlegs can vary significantly from the ad*acent active piping. The inspector should monitor all thic!ness on selected deadlegs, including both the stagnant end and at the connection to an active line. In hot piping systems, the high3point area may corrode due to convective 18

currents set up in the deadlegs. &onsideration should be given to removing deadlegs that serve no further process purpose. 8.8. Co##osion Unde# Insulation 3 6#ternal inspection of insulated piping systems should include a revie of the integrity of the insulation system for conditions that ater lea!s, condensation and deluge cold lead to corrosion under insulation ,&?I. and for signs of ongoing &?I. (ources of moisture may include rain, systems. The most common forms of &?I are locali)ed corrosion of carbon steel and chloride stress corrosion crac!ing of austenitic stainless steels. 7elo are the guidelines for indentifying potential &?I areas for inspection. The hereas cooler,

e#tent of a &?I inspection program may vary depending on the local climate H armer marine locations may re%uire a very active program; drier, mid3continent locations may not need as e#tensive a program. 8.9 Insulated Pi4in2 Syste6s Susce4tible to CUI " &ertain areas and types of piping systems are potentially more susceptible to &?I, including the follo ing " a. b. c. d. e. Areas e#posed to mist overspray from cooling ater to ers. Areas e#posed to steam vents. Areas e#posed to deluge systems Areas sub*ect to process spills, ingress of moisture , or acid vapors. &arbon steel piping systems, including those insulated for personnel protection, operation bet een 150 /3 1500 / ,390&30100 &.. &?I is particularly aggressive here operating temperatures cause fre%uent or continuous condensation and re3evaporation of atmospheric moisture. f. &arbon steel piping systems that normally operate in3service above 150 0 / ,0100&. but are in intermittent service. g. 4eadlegs and attachments that protrude from insulated piping and operate at a different temperature than the operating temperature of the active line.

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h.

Austenitic stainless steel piping systems operating 050 0/3 9000 / ,:50&3 1090&.. ,These systems are susceptible to chloride crac!ing. .

i. *. !. 8.5

Iibrating piping systems that have a tendency to inflict damage to insulation *ac!eting providing a path for ater ingress. (team traced piping systems that may e#perience tracing lea!s, especially at tubing fitting beneath the insulation. Piping systems ith deteriorated coatings and-or rappings.

Co66on Locations on Pi4in2 Syste6s Susce4tible to CUI " The areas of piping systems listed above may have specific locations ithin them that are more susceptible to &?I, including the follo ing " a. All penetrations or breaches in the insulation *ac!eting systems, such as " 0. 1. 8. 9. 5. b. c. d. 4eadlegs ,vents, drains, and other similar items. Pipe hangers and other supports. Ialves and fittings ,irregular insulation surfaces. 7olted3on pipe shoes. (team tracer tubing penetrations.

Termination of insulation at flangers and other piping components. 4amaged or missing insulation *ac!eting Insulation *ac!eting seams located on the top of hori)ontal piping or imporperty lapped or sealed insulation *ac!eting.

e. f. g.

Termination of insulation in a vertical pipe. &aul!ing that has hardened, has separated, or is missing. 7ulges or staining of the insulation or *ac!eting system or missing bands ,7ulges may indicate corrosion product buildup..

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h.

=o

points in piping systems that have a !no n breach in the insulation points in long unsupported piping runs.

system, including lo i.

&arbon or lo 3alloy steel flanges, bolting, and other components under insulation in high3alloy piping systems.

8.:

Soil*to3Ai# Inte#%ace " (oil3to3air ,(-A. interfaces for buried piping ithout ade%uate cathodic protection shall be included in scheduled e#ternal piping inspections.. Thic!ness measurements and e#cavation may be re%uired to assess hether the corrosion is locali)ed to the (-A interface or e#tends to the buried system. Thic!ness readings at (-A interfaces may e#pose the metal and accelerate corrosion if coatings and rappings are not properly restored. If the buried piping is uncoated at grade, consideration should be given to e#cavating : inches to 01 inches ,050 mm to 800 mm. deep to assess the potential for hidden damage.

8.7

Se#"ice S4eci%ic B LocaliCed Co##osion " An effective inspection program includes the follo ing three elements, hich help identify the potential for service specific G locali)ed corrosion G select appropriate T5=s " a. b. c. An inspector ith !no ledge of the service G here corrosion is li!ely to occur. 6#tensive use of nondestructive e#amination ,;46.. &ommunication from operating personnel hen process upsets occur that may affect corrosion rates. 4e point corrosion in condensing streams.

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5i#ed grades of carbon steel piping in hot corrosive oil service ,950 deg / E180 degF&. or higher temperature G sulfur content in the oil greater than 0.5 percent by eight.

;on silicon !iled steel pipe, such as A358 G API 5=, may corrode at higher rates than does silicon !illed steel pipe, such as A300: especially in high H temperature sulfidic environments.

8.7

E#osion B co##osion= e#osion "

6rosion can be defined as the removal of aves, G vallys in a here

surface material by the action of numerous individual impacts of solid or li%uid particles. It can be characteri)ed by grooves, rounded holes, directional pattern. 6rosion usually occurs in areas of turbulent flo , such as at change of direction in a piping system or do nstream of control valves vapori)ation may ta!e place. 8.J 6rosion damage is usually increased in streams ith large %uantities of solid or

li%uid particles flo ing at high velocities. A combination of corrosion G erosion , corrosion-erosion .results in significantly greater metal loss than can be e#pected from corrosion occurs at high velocity G high turbulence areas.

6#amples of places to inspect include the follo ing "

a.

4o nstream of control valves, especially hen flashing is occurring.

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b. c. d.

4o nstream of orifices. 4o nstream of pump discharges. At any point of flo direction change, such as the inside G outside radii of elbo s.

8.K

En"i#on6ental C#acDin2 " Piping system construction materials are normally selected to resist the various forms of stress corrosion crac!ing ,(&&.. 'o ever, some piping system may be susceptible to environmental crac!ing due to upset process conditions, &?I unanticipated condensation, or e#posure to hydrogen sulfide or carbonates. 6#amples of environmental crac!ing include " a. &hloride (&& of austenitic stainless steels due to moisture G chlorides under insulation, under deposits , under gas!ets, or in crevices. b. c. &austic (&& , sometimes !no n as caustic embrittlement .. (cc in environments containing sour ater. d. 'ydrogen blistering G hydrogen induced crac!ing , 'I& . damage . here et hydrogen sulfide e#ists, such as systems et

+. CORROSION BENEATH LININ1S AN

+.! 1ene#al3

EPOSITS "

If e#ternal or internal coatings, refractory linings, and corrosion3resistant linings are in good condition and there is no reason to suspect a deteriorated condition

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behind them, it is usually not necessary to remove them for inspection of the piping system. The linings should be inspected for separation, brea!s, holes, and blisters. If any of these conditions are noted, it may be necessary to remove portions of the internal lining to investigate the effectiveness of the lining and the condition of the metal piping beneath the lining. &orrosion beneath refractory linings can result in separation and bulging of the refractory. If bulging or separation of the refractory lining is detected, portions of the refractory may be removed to permit inspection of the piping beneath the refractory. +.). FATI1UE CRAC>IN1 3 /atigue crac!ing of piping systems may result from e#cessive cyclic stresses that are often ell belo the static yield strength of the material. The onset of lo 3 cycle fatigue crac!ing is often directly related to the number of heat3up and cool3 do n cycles e#perienced. 6#cessive piping system vibration ,such as machine or flo 3induced vibrations. also can cause high3cycle fatigue damage. /atigue crac!ing can typically be first detected at points of high3stress intensification such as branch connections. susceptible to thermal fatigue. =ocations here metals having elding may be different coefficients of thermal e#pansion are *oined by

Preferred ;46 methods of detecting fatigue

crac!ing include li%uid3penetrant testing ,PT. or magnetic3particle testing ,5T.. Acoustic emission also may be used to detect the presence of crac!s that are activated by test pressures of stresses generated during the test. It is important that the o ner-user and the inspector understand that fatigue crac!ing is li!ely to cause piping failure before it is detected ith any ;46 methods. @f the total number of fatigue cycles re%uired to produce a failure, the 24

vast ma*ority are re%uired to initiate a crac! and relatively fe er cycles are re%uired to propagate the crac! to failure. Therefore, proper design and installation in order to prevent the initiation of fatigue crac!ing are important.

+.).!) CREEP CRAC>IN1 "

&reep is dependent on time, temperature, and stress. &rac!ing is accelerated by creep and fatigue interaction cycle. hen operating conditions in the creep range are If e#cessive temperatures are encountered, mechanical property and

microstructural changes in metals also may ta!e place. ;46 methods of detecting creep crac!ing include li%uid3penetrant testing, magnetic3particle testing, ultrasonic testing, radiographic testing, and in3situ metallography. during the test. Acoustic emission testing also may be used to detect the presence of crac!s that are activated by test pressures or stresses generated

+.).!, BRITTLE FRACTURE 3 &arbon lo 3alloy, and other ferritic steels may be susceptible to brittle failure at or belo ambient temperatures. 7rittle fracture usually is not a concern ith relatively thin all piping. 5ost brittle fractures have occurred on the first

application of a particular stress level ,that is, the first hydrotest or overload. unless critical defects are introduced during service. The potential for a brittle failure shall be considered hen rehydrotesting.

+.).!+ FREE7E

A-A1E "
ater and a%ueous solutions in piping systems may After

At subfree)ing temperatures,

free)e and cause failure because of the e#pansion of these materials.

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une#pectedly severe free)ing

eather, it is important to chec! for free)e damage points, riplegs,

to e#posed piping components before the system tha s. If rupture has occurred, lea!age may be temporarily prevented by the fro)en fluid. =o damage. and deadlegs of piping systems containing ater should be carefully e#amined for

+.,

T8PES OF INSPECTION AN

SUR0EILLANCE "

4ifferent types of inspection and surveillance are appropriate depending on the circumstances and the piping system . These include the follo ing " a. b. c. d. e. Internal visual inspection. Thic!ness measurement inspection. 6#ternal visual inspection. Iibrating piping inspection (upplemental inspection.

+.,.! INTERNAL 0ISUAL INSPECTION 3 Internal visual inspections are not normally performed on piping. 2hen possible and practical, internal visual inspections may be scheduled for systems such as large3diameter transfer lines, ducts, or other large3diameter piping systems. (uch inspections are similar in nature to pressure vessel inspections and should be conducted ith methods and procedures similar to those outlined in API 500.

+.,.) THIC>NESS -EASURE-ENT INSPECTION "

A thic!ness measurement inspection is performed to determine the internal condition and remaining thic!ness of the piping components. measurements may be obtained and shall be performed by the inspector or e#aminer. Thic!ness hen the piping system is in or out of operation

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+.,., E/TERNAL 0ISUAL INSPECTION "

In addition to these scheduled e#ternal inspections that are documented in inspection records, it is beneficial for personnel deterioration or changes to the inspector. ho fre%uent the area to report

+.,.+ SUPPLE-ENTAL INSPECTION "

@ther inspections may be scheduled as appropriate or necessary. 6#amples of such inspections include periodic use of radiography and-or thermography to chec! for fouling or internal plugging, thermography to chec! for hot spots in refractory lined systems, or inspection for environmental crac!ing. detection and surveillance. detecting locali)ed corrosion. Acoustic emission, acoustic lea! detection, and thermography can be used or remote lea! ?ltrasonics and-or radiography can be used for

+.+

THIC>NESS -EASURE-ENT LOCATIONS "

+.+.! 1ENERAL " Thic!ness measurement locations ,T5=+s. are specific areas along the piping circuit here inspections are to be made. The nature of the T5= varies The selection of T5=+s shall according to its location in the piping system. described in 5.8 +.+.) T-L -ONITORIN1 " 6ach piping system shall be monitored by ta!ing thic!ness measurements at T5=+s. Piping circuits ith high potential conse%uences if failure should occur

consider the potential for locali)ed corrosion and service3specific corrosion as

27

and those sub*ect to higher corrosion rates or locali)ed corrosion have more T5=s and be monitored more fre%uently.

ill normally

The minimum thic!ness at each T5= can be located by ultrasonic scanning or radiography. 6lectromagnetic techni%ues also can be used to identify thin areas that may then be measured by ultrasonics or radiography. 2hen accomplished ith ultrasonics, scanning consists of ta!ing several thic!ness measurement at the T5= searching for locali)ed thinning. The thinnest reading or an average of several measurement readings ta!en inspection date. 2here appropriate, thic!ness measurements should include measurements at each of the four %uadrants on pipe and fittings, ith special attention to the inside and outside radius of elbo s and tees recorded. T5=+s should be established for areas general uniform corrosion. T5=s should be mar!ed on inspection dra ings and on the piping system to allo repetitive measurements at the same T5=s. This recording procedure provides data for more accurate corrosion rate determination. +.+., T-L SELECTION 3 In selecting or ad*usting the number and locations of T5=s the inspector should ta!e unto account the patterns of corrosion that been e#perienced in the process unit. ould be e#pected and have ith continuing &?I, corrosion at (-A ell as for here corrosion-erosion could increase corrosion rates. As a minimum, the thinnest reading and its location shall be ithin the area of a test point shall be recorded and used to calculate corrosion rates, remaining life, and the ne#t

interfaces, or other locations of potential locali)ed corrosion as

28

5ore T5=s should be selected for piping systems characteristics " a.

ith any of the follo ing

'igher potential for creating a safety or environmental emergency in the event of a lea!.

b. c. d.

'igher e#pected or e#perienced corrosion rates. 'igher potential for locali)ed corrosion. 5ore comple#ity in terms of fittings, branches, deadlegs in*ection points, and other similar items.

e.

'igher potential for &?I

/e er T5=s can be selected for piping systems characteristics " a. b. c. =o

ith any of the follo ing three

potential for creating a safety or environmental emergency in the

event of a lea!. $elatively non3corosive piping systems. =ong, straight3run piping systems. ith either of the follo ing t o

T5=s can be eliminated for piping systems characteristics " a. b. 6#tremely lo

potential for creating a safety or environmental emergency

in the event of a lea!. ;on3corrosive systems, as demonstrated by history or similar service, and systems not sub*ect to changes that could cause corrosion.

+.&

THIC>NESS -EASURE-ENT -ETHO S 3

29

?ltrasonic thic!ness measuring instruments usually are the most accurate mean for obtaining thic!ness measurements on installed pipe larger than ;P( 0. $adiographic profile techni%ues are preferred for pipe diameters of ;P( 0 and smaller. $adiographic profile techni%ues may be used for locating areas to be measured, particularly in insulted systems or corrosion is suspected. 2here practical , ultrasonics can then be used to obtain the actual thic!ness of the areas to be recorded. /ollo ing ultrasonic readings at T5=s, proper repair of insulation and insulation for &?I. $adiographic profile techni%ues, be considered as an alternative. 2hen ultrasonic measurements are ta!en above 050 o/ ,:5o&., instruments, couplants, and procedures should be used that measurements at the higher temperatures. 5easurements should be ad*usted by the appropriate temperature correction factor. ill result in accurate hich do not re%uire removing insulation, may eather coating is recommended to reduce the potential here non3uniform or locali)ed

a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Improper instrument calibration. 6#ternal coatings or scale. 6#cessive surface roughness. 6#cessive Lroc!ingM of the probe ,on the curved surface. (ubsurface material fla s, such as laminations. Temperature effects Eat temperatures above 050 o/ ,:5o&.F (mall fla detector screens.

30

h.

Thic!ness of less than 0-J inch ,8.1 mm. for typical digital thic!ness gauges.

In addition, it must be !ept in mind that the pattern of corrosion can be non3 uniform. /or corrosion rate determinations to be valid, it is important that measurements on the thinnest point be repeated as closely as possible to the same location. Alternatively, the minimum reading or an average of several readings at a test point may be considered. 2hen piping systems are out of service, thic!ness measurements may be ta!en through openings using calipers. &alipers are useful in determining appro#imate thic!nesses of castings, forgings, and valve bodies, as appro#imations from &?I on pipe. Pit depth measuring devices also may be used to determine the depth of locali)ed metal loss. ell as pit depth

+..

PRESSURE TESTIN1 OF PIPIN1 S8STE-S "

Pressure tests are not normally conducted as part of a routine inspection. 6#ceptions to this include re%uirements of local *urisdictions, after alterations or conducted , pressure tests shall be performed in accordance re%uirements of A(56 7 80.8 If a pressure test is to be maintained for a period of time and the test fluid in the system is sub*ect to thermal e#pansion, precautions shall be ta!en to avoid e#cessive pressure. elded ith the hen specified by the inspector or piping engineer. 2hen they are

31

2hen a pressure test is re%uired, it shall be conducted after any heat treatment. A pneumatic pressure test may be used hen it is impracticable to hydrostatically test due to temperature, structural, or process limitations. 'o ever, the potential ris!s to personnel and property of pneumatic testing shall be considered A(56 7 80.8 shall be applied in any pneumatic testing. 4uring a pressure test, here the test pressure ill e#ceed the set pressure of hen carrying out such a test. As a minimum, the inspection precautions contained in

the safety valve on a piping system, the safety relief valve or valves should be removed or blan!ed for the duration of the test. As an alternative, each valve dis! must be held do n by a suitably designed test clamp. The application of an additional load to the valve spring by turning the ad*usting scre is not recommended. @ther appurtenances that are incapable of =ines ithstanding the test pressure, such as gage glasses, pressure gages, e#pansion *oints, and rupture dis!s, should be removed or blan!ed. a reduced pressure in accordance containing e#pansion *oints that cannot be removed or isolated may be tested at ith the principles of A(56 7 80.8. If bloc! valves are used to isolate a piping system for a pressure test, caution should be used to not e#ceed the permissible seat pressure as described in A(56 7 0:.89 or applicable valve manufacturer data. ?pon completion of the pressure test, pressure relief devices of the proper settings and other appurtenances removed or made inoperable during the pressure test shall be reinstalled or reactivated. +.' -ATERIAL 0ERIFICATIONS AN TRACEABILT8 3

4uring repairs or alterations of lo 3 to high alloy piping systems, the inspector shall verify the installation of the correct ne materials. At the discretion of the 32

o ner-user or the inspector, this verification can be either by 000 percent chec!ing or testing in certain critical situations or by sampling a percentage of the materials. Testing can be accomplished by the inspector or the e#aminer ith the use of

suitable portable methods, such as chemical spot testing, optical spectrographic analy)ers, or >3ray fluorescent analy)ers. &hec!ing can involve verifying test reports on materials, mar!ings on piping components and bolting, and !ey dimensions. If a piping system component should fail because an incorrect material consider the need for further verification of e#isting piping materials. The e#tent of further verification ill depend upon circumstances such as the as

inadvertently substituted for the proper piping material, the inspector shall

conse%uences of failure and the li!elihood of further material errors.

+.9

INSPECTION OF 0AL0ES "

;ormally, thic!ness measurements are not routinely ta!en on valves in piping circuits. The body of a valve is normally thic!er than other piping components for design reasons. 'o ever, hen valves are dismantlted for servicing and repair, the shop should be attentive to any unusual corrosion patterns or thinning and, hen noted, report that information to the inspector. If gate valves are !no n to be or are suspected of being e#posed to corrosion-erosion, thic!ness readings should be ta!en bet een the seats, since this is an area of high turbulence and high stress. &ontrol valves or other throttling valves, particularly in high pressure drop3and3 slurry services, can be susceptible to locali)ed corrosion-erosion of the body

33

do nstream of the orifice. If such metal loss is suspected, the valve should be removed from the line for internal inspection. The inside of the do nstream mating flange and piping also should be inspected for local metal loss. &ritical chec! valves should be visually and internally inspected to ensure that they ill stop flo reversals.

An e#ample of a critical chec! valve may be the chec! valve located on the outlet of a multistage, high head hydro3processing charge pump. /ailure of such a chec! valve to operate correctly could result in over pressuring the piping during a flo reversal. The normal visual inspection method should include " a. &hec!ing to insure that the flapper is free to move, as re%uired, e#cessive looseness from ear. b. The flapper stop should not have e#cessive li!elihood that the flapper remain in an open position position. c. The flapper nut should be secured to the flapper bolt to avoid bac!ing off in service. =ea! chec!s of critical chec! valves are normally not re%uired. ear. This ill minimi)e the ithout

ill move past the top dead central position and hen the chec! valve is mounted in a vertical

+.:

INSPECTION OF ?EL S IN* SER0ICE 3

Inspection for piping re%uirements for ne of internal inspection. eld %uality is normally accomplished as a part of the construction, repairs, or alterations. 'o ever, 2hen preferential elds are

often inspected for corrosion as part of a radiographic profile inspection or as part eld corrosion is noted, additional elds in the same circuit or system should be e#amined for corrosion.

34

If the noted imperfections are a result of original

eld fabrication, inspection eld %uality

and-or engineering analysis is re%uired to assess the impact of the on piping integrity. This analysis may be one or more of the follo ing a. b. c. d. Inspector *udgment. &ertified elding inspector *udgment. Piping engineer *udgment. 6ngineering fitness3for3service analysis.

Issues to consider follo ing a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. *.

hen assessing the %uality of e#isting

elds include the

@riginal fabrication inspection acceptance criteria. 6#tent, magnitude, and orientation of imperfections. =ength of time in3service. @perating versus design conditions. Presence of secondary piping stresses ,residual and thermal. Potential for fatigue loads ,mechanical and thermal.. Primary or secondary piping system. Potential for impact or transient loads. Potential for environmental crac!ing. 2eld hardness.

In many cases for in3service

elds, it is not appropriate to use the random or eld %uality in A(56 7 80.8 These

spot radiography acceptance criteria for

35

acceptance criteria are intended to apply to ne elds, not *ust the elds ,or elders. in the system. (ome elds may e#ist that

construction on a sampling of

elds e#amined, in order to assess the probable %uality of all

ill not meet these criteria but

ill still perform

satisfactorily in service. +.!( INSPECTION OF FLAN1E JOINTS 3

The mar!ings on a representative sample of ne ly installed fasteners and gas!ets should be e#amined to determine hether they meet the material specification. The mar!ings are identified in the applicable A(56 and A(T5 standards. Nuestionable fasteners should be verified or rene ed. /asteners should e#tend completely through their nuts. Any fastener failing to do so is considered acceptably engaged if the lac! of complete engagement is not more than one thread. /langed and valve bonnet *oints should be e#amined for evidence of lea!age, such as stains, deposits, or drips. Process lea!s onto flange and bonnet fasteners may result in corrosion or environmental crac!ing. This e#amination should include those flanges enclosed and3spray guards. ith flange or splash3

36

&.

FRE@UENC8 AN E/TENT OF INSPECTION

&.!

1ENERAL 3
The fre%uency and e#tent of inspection piping circuits depend on the forms of degradation that can affect the piping and conse%uence of a piping failure. Inspection strategy based on li!elihood and conse%uence of failure, is referred to as ris!3based inspection. Piping classification scheme in (ection given belo fre%uency and e#tent of inspection. certain piping circuits. is based on the conse%uence of a failure. The classification is used to establish The o ner-user may devise a more ould consider the e#tensive classification scheme that more accurately assesses conse%uence for The conse%uence assessment potential for e#plosion, fire, to#icity, environmental impact and other potential effects associated ith a failure. After an effective assessment is conducted, the results can be used to establish a piping circuit inspection strategy and more specifically better define the follo ing " a. b. c. d. The most appropriate inspection methods, scope, tools and techni%ues to be utili)ed based on the e#pected forms of degradation; The appropriate inspection fre%uency; The need for pressure testing after damage has been incurred or after repairs or modifications have been completed; and The prevention and mitigation steps to reduce the li!elihood and conse%uence of a piping failure.

37

&.)

PIPIN1 SER0ICE CLASSES 3

All process piping systems shall be categori)ed into different classes. (uch a classification system allo s e#tra inspection efforts to be focused on piping systems that may have the highest potential conse%uences if failure or loss of containment should occur. In general, the higher classified systems re%uire more e#tensive inspection at shorter intervals in order to affirm their integrity for continued safe operation. &lassifications should be based on potential safety and environmental effects should a lea! occur. &.).! CLASS ! 3 (ervices ith the heist potential of resulting in an immediate emergency if a lea! (uch an emergency may be safety or 6#amples of &lass0 piping include, but are not

ere to occur are in &lass 0. environmental in nature.

necessarily limited to, those containing the follo ing " a. b. /lammable services that may auto3refrigerate and lead to brittle fracture. Pressuri)ed services that may rapidly vapori)e during release, creating vapors that may collect and form an e#plosive mi#ture, such as &1, &8 and &9 streams. c. d. e. f. 'ydrogen sulfide ,greater than 8 percent eight . in a gaseous stream. Anhydrous hydrogen chloride. 'ydrofluoric acid. Piping over or ad*acent to ater and piping over public through ays.

&.).) CLASS ) 3

38

(ervices not included in other classes are in &lass 1. This classification includes the ma*ority of unit process piping and selected off3site piping . Typical e#amples of these services include those containing the follo ing "

a. @n3site hydrocarbons that ill slo ly vapori)e during release. b. 'ydrogen, fuel gas and natural gas c. @n3site strong acids and caustics. &.)., CLASS , 3

(ervices that are flammable but do not significantly vapori)e are not located in high activity areas are in &lass 8 .

hen they lea! and (ervices that dare

potentially harmful to human tissue but are located in remote areas may be included din this class. 6#amples of &lass 8 service are as follo s "

a. b. c.

@n site hydrocarbons that ill not significantly vapori)e during release. 4istillate and product lines to and from storage and loading. @ff3site acids and caustics.

&.,

INSPECTION INTER0ALS 3
The interval bet een piping inspections shall be established and maintained using the follo ing criteria "

a. b.

&orrosion rate and remaining life calculations. Piping service classification. 39

c. d.

Applicable *urisdictional re%uirements Oudgment of the inspector, the piping engineer, the piping engineer supervisor, or a corrosion specialist, based don operating conditions, previous inspection history, current inspection results, and conditions that may arrant supplemental inspections covered in 5.9.5 of code.

Thic!ness measurements should be scheduled based on the calculation of not more than half the remaining life determined from corrosion rates indicated or at the ma#imum intervals suggested in Table :30, hichever is shorter. (horter intervals may be appropriate under certain circumstances. Prior to using Table :30, corrosion rates should be calculated in accordance ith 7.08 of code. The inspection interval must be revie ed and ad*usted as necessary after each inspection or significant change in operating conditions. deterioration must be considered intervals. Beneral corrosion, locali)ed corrosion, pitting, environmental crac!ing, and other forms of hen establishing the various inspection

&.+

E/TENT OF 0ISUAL E/TERNAL AN

CUI INSPECTIONS "

6#ternal visual inspections, including inspections for corrosion under insulation ,&?I., should be conducted at ma#imum intervals listed in Table :30 to evaluate items such as those in Appendi# 4. The e#ternal visual inspection on bare piping is to assess the condition of paint and coating systems, to chec! for e#ternal corrosion, and to chec! for other forms of deterioration. This e#ternal visual inspection for potential &?I is also to assess insulation condition and shall be conducted on all piping systems susceptible to &?I listed in 5.8.8.0 of code

40

/ollo ing the e#ternal visual inspection of susceptible systems, additional e#amination is re%uired for the inspection of &?I. The e#tent and type of the additional &?I inspection are listed in Table :31 . 4amaged insulation at higher elevations may result in &?I in lo er areas remote from the damage. ;46 inspection for &?I should also be conducted as listed in Table :31 at suspect locations of 5.8.8.0 ,e#cluding c . meeting the temperature criteria for 5.8.8.0 ,e,f,h.. $adiographic e#amination or insulation removal and visual inspection is normally re%uired for this inspection at damaged or suspect locations. assessment methods may be used inspected and, inspected. The e#tent of the &?I program described in Table :31 should be considered as target levels for piping systems and locations ith no &?I inspection e#perience. It is recogni)ed that several factors may affect the li!elihood of &?I to include " a. b. c. d. =ocal climatic conditions Insulation design. &oating %uality. (ervice conditions. ith &?I inspection e#perience may increase or reduce the &?I ith operational here @ther ;46 here applicable. If the inspection of the

damaged or suspect areas has located significant &?I, additional area should be arranted, up to 000 percent of the circuit should be

/acilities

inspection targets of Table :31. An e#act accounting of the &?I inspection target is not re%uired. The o ner-user may confirm inspection targets history or other documentation. Piping systems that are !no n to have a remaining life of over 00 years or that are ade%uately protected against e#ternal corrosion need not be included for the ;46 inspection recommended in Table :31. 'o ever, the condition of the 41

insulating system or the outer *ac!eting, such as a cold3bo# shell, should be observed periodically by operating or other personnel. If deterioration is noted, it should be reported to the inspector. systems " a. b. c. d. Piping systems insulated effectively to preclude the entrance of moisture. Oac!eted cryogenic piping systems Piping systems installed in a cold bo# in ith an inert gas. Piping systems in lo hich the temperature being maintained is sufficiently or sufficiently high to preclude the presence of ater. hich the atmosphere is purged The follo ing are e#amples of these

&.&

E/TENT OF THIC>NESS -EASURE-ENT INSPECTION "

To satisfy inspection interval re%uirements, each thic!ness measurement inspection should obtain thic!ness readings on a representative sampling of T5=s on each circuit . This representative sampling should include data for all the various types of components and orientations ,hori)ontal and vertical. found in each circuit. This sampling also must include T5=s the more accurately the ne#t inspection date necessary. The e#tent of inspection for in*ection points is covered in 5.8.0 of code. ith the earliest rene al Therefore, date as of the previous inspection. The more T5=s measured for each circuit, ill be pro*ected. scheduled inspection of circuits should obtain as many measurements as

5.:

6>T6;T @/ (5A==37@$6, A?>I=IA$P PIPI;B, A;4 &@;;6&TI@;( I;(P6&TI@;( "

T'$6A464 3

&...! S-ALL BORE PIPIN1 INSPECTION "

42

(mall bore piping ,(7P. that is primary process piping should be inspected in accordance ith all the re%uirements of this document. (7P that is secondary process piping has different minimum re%uirements depending upon service classification. &lass0 secondary (7P shall be inspected to the same re%uirements as primary process piping. Inspection of &lass1 and &lass 8 secondary (7P is optional. (7P deadlegs ,such das level bridles. in &lass 1 and &lass 8 systems should be inspected here corrosion has been e#perienced or is anticipated. &...) AU/ILIAR8 PIPIN1 INSPECTION " ith instruments and

Inspection of secondary, au#iliary (7P associated

machinery is optional. &riteria to consider in determining hether au#iliary (7P ill need some form of inspection include the follo ing " a. b. c. d. &lassification. Potential for environmental or fatigue crac!ing. Potential for corrosion based on e#perience ith ad*acent primary system. Potential for &?I.

&..., THREA E *CONNECTIIONS INSPECTION " Inspection of threaded connections ill be according to the re%uirements

listed above for small3bore and au#iliary piping. 2hen selecting T5=s on threaded connection, include only those that can be radio3graphed during scheduled inspection. Threaded connections associated rene al ith a thic!er ith machinery and sub*ect to fatigue elded components. The 43

damage should be periodically assessed and considered for possible all or upgrading to

schedule for such rene al follo ing " a. b. c. d. e. f. g. &lassification piping

ill depend on several issues, including the

5agnitude and fre%uency of vibration. Amount of unsupported eight. &urrent piping all thic!ness. 2hether or not the system can be maintained on stream. &orrosion rate. Intermittent service.

TABLE .*!****RECO--EN E -A/I-U- INSPECTION INTER0ALS Ty4es o% Ci#cuit &lass 0 &lass 1 &lass 8 In*ection points (oil3to3air interfaces TEicDness -easu#e6ents 5 years 00 years 00 years 8 years 3333 0isual E5te#nal 5 years 5 years 00 years 7y &lass 7y &lass

Note "

Thic!ness measurements apply to systems for hich T5=s have been established in accordance ith 5.5

44

TABLE

.*) *** RECO--EN E E/TENT OF CUI INSPECTION FOLLO?IN1 0ISUAL INSPECTION

A44#o5i6ate A6ount o% Follo$u4 E5a6ination $itE N E o# Insulation Re6o"al at A#eas $itE a6a2ed Insulation Pi4e Class 0 75Q 1 50Q 8 15Q

A44#o5i6ate A6ount o% CUI Ins4ection by N E at Sus4ect A#eas ; &.,.,.) < on Pi4in2 Syste6s $itEin Susce4tible Te64e#atu#e Ran2es ; &.,.,.) e.%.E < 50Q 88Q 00Q

45

.. INSPECTION
..! CORROSION RATE

ATA E0ALUATION

ETER-INATION 3

..!.! RE-AININ1 LIFE CALCULATIONS 3 The dreaming life of the piping system shall be calculated from the follo ing formula "
t

actual H t minimum 33333333333333333333333333333

$emaining life ,years. R

&orrosion rate Einches ,mm. per yearF here "

t

actual

the actual minimum thic!ness, in inches ,mm.,determined at the time of inspection as specified 5.:

minimum R the minimum re%uired thic!ness, in inches ,mm. for the limiting section or )one.

The long term ,=.T.. corrosion rate of piping circuits shall be calculated from the follo ing formula "

&orrosion rate ,=.T.. R

initial 3 t last

333333333333333333333333333333333 time ,years. bet een last and initial inspections

46

The short term ,(.T.. corrosion rate of piping circuits shall be calculated from the follo ing formula " &orrosion rate ,(.T.. R
t

previous H t last

333333333333333333333333333 time ,years. bet een last and previous inspections =ong term and short term corrosion rates should be compared to see hich results in the shortest remaining life. ..!.) E/ISTIN1 PIPIN1 S8STE-S " &orrosion rates shall be calculated on either a short term or a long term basis. /or the short term calculation, readings from the t o most recent inspections shall be used. /or the long term calculation, all thic!nesses from the most recent and initial ,or nominal. inspections shall be used. In most cases, the higher of these t o rates should be used to estimate remaining life and so set the ne#t inspection interval. If calculations indicate that an inaccurate rate of corrosion has been assumed, the rate to be used for the ne#t period shall be ad*usted to agree rate found. ith the actual

..)

-A/I-UALLO?ABLE ETER-INATION 3
The ma#imum allo able

?OR>IN1

PRESSURE

or!ing pressure ,5A2P. for the continued use of

piping systems shall be established using the applicable code. &omputations may be made for !no n materials if all the follo ing essential details are !no n to comply ith the principles of the applicable code " a. ?pper and-or lo er temperature limits for specific materials. 47

b. c. d. e.

Nuality of materials and or!manship. Inspection re%uirements. $einforcement of openings. Any cyclical service re%uirements.

/or un!no n materials, computations may be made assuming the lo est grade material and *oint efficiency in the applicable code. recalculated, the 2hen the 5A2P is all thic!ness used in these computations shall be the actual

thic!ness as determined by inspection ,see definition. minus t ice the estimated corrosion loss before the date of the ne#t inspection. Allo ance shall be made for the other loadings in accordance ith the applicable code. The applicable code allo ances for pressure and temperature variations from 5A2P are permitted provided all of the associated code criteria are satisfied.

..,

-INI-U- RE@UIRE

THIC>NESS

ETER-INATION 3

The minimum re%uired pipe

all thic!ness, or retirement thic!ness, shall be

based on pressure, mechanical, and structural considerations using the appropriate design formulas and code allo able stress. &onsideration of both general and locali)ed corrosion shall be included. potential conse%uences if failure consider /or services ith high ere to occur, the piping engineer should

increasing the re%uired minimum thic!ness above the calculated

minimum thic!ness to provide for unanticipated or un!no n loadings, undiscovered metal loss, or resistance to normal abuse.

..+

REPORTIN1 AN

RECOR S FOR PIPIN1 S8STE- INSPECTION

Any significant increase in corrosion rates shall be reported to the o ner-user for appropriate action.

48

The o ner-user shall maintain appropriate permanent and progressive records of each piping system covered by API 570. These records shall contain pertinent data such as piping system service; classification; identification numbers; inspection intervals; and documents necessary to record the name of the individual performing the testing, the date, the types of testing, the results of thic!ness measurements and other tests, inspections, repairs ,temporary and permanent., alterations, or rerating. 4esign information and piping dra ings may be included. Information on maintenance activities and events affecting piping system integrity also should be included. inspection records.. The use of a computer based system for storing, calculating, and analy)ing data should be considered in vie follo ing " of the volume of data that ill be generated as part of a piping test3point program. &omputer programs are particularly useful for the The date and results of re%uired e#ternal inspections shall be recorded. ,see API $P 579 for guidance on piping

a. b. c.

(toring the actual thic!ness reading. &alculating short and long term corrosion rates, retirement dates, 5A2P, and reinspection intervals on a test point by test point basis. 'ighlighting areas of high corrosion rates, circuits over3due for inspection, close to retirement thic!ness, and other information.

49

'.

REPAIRSF ALTERATIONSF RERATIN1

'.!

REPAIRS AN

ALTERATIONS 3
hich the piping system as built

The principles of A(56 780.8 or the code to shall be follo ed. '.!.! AUTHORI7ATION 3 All repair and alteration

or! must be done by a repair organi)ation as defined in or! to a piping system may not be given ithout ill

(ection 8 and must be authori)ed by the inspector prior to its commencement. Authori)ation for alteration prior consultation se%uence. ith, and approval by, the piping engineer. The inspector

designate any inspection hold points re%uired during the repair or alteration The inspector may give prior general authori)ation for limited or ith the routine repairs and procedures, provided the inspector is satisfied competency of the repair organi)ation. '.!.) APPRO0AL " All proposed methods of design, e#ecution, materials, elding procedures,

e#amination, and testing must be approved by the inspector or by the piping engineer, as appropriate. @ ner-user approval of on stream elding is re%uired. 2elding repairs of crac!s that occurred in service should not be attempted ithout prior consultation ith the piping engineer in order to identify and correct the cause of the crac!ing. 6#amples are crac!s suspected of being caused by vibration, thermal cycling, thermal e#pansion problems, and environmental crac!ing.

50

The inspector shall approve all repair and alteration accordance ith the re%uirements of API 570 '.!., ?EL IN1 REPAIRS ; '.!.,.! INCLU IN1 ON(STREA-< "

or! at designated hold

points and after the repairs and alterations have been satisfactorily completed in

TE-PORAR8 REPAIRS " /or temporary repairs, including on steam, a full encirclement

elded split sleeve or bo# type enclosure designed by the piping engineer may be applied over the damaged or corroded area. =ongitudinal crac!s shall not be repaired in this manner unless the piping engineer has determined that crac!s ould not be e#pected to propagate from under the sleeve. In some cases, the piping engineer ill need to consult ith a fracture analyst. If the repair area is locali)ed ,for e#ample, pitting or pinholes. and the specified minimum yield strength ,(5P(. of the pipe is not more than 90,000 psig ,175,J00 !Pa., a temporary repair may be made by fillet elding a properly designed split coupling or plate The material for the repair shall patch over the pitted area ,(ee 7.1.8 for design considerations and Appendi# & for an e#ample . match the base metal unless approved by the piping engineer. /or minor lea!s, properly designed enclosures may be the lea! of the elded over

hile the piping system is in service, provided the eld and the piping component can ithstand elding

inspector is satisfied that ade%uate thic!ness remains in the vicinity ithout the li!elihood of further material damage, such as form caustic service.

51

Temporary repairs should be removed and replaced

ith a suitable

permanent repair at the ne#t available maintenance opportunity. Temporary repairs may remain in place for a longer period of time only if approved and documented by the piping engineer. '.!.,.) PER-ANENT REPAIRS " $epairs to defects found in piping components may be made by preparing a ith 7.1 &orroded areas may be restored accordance be removed before ith eld metal deposited din elding groove that completely removes the defect and ith eld metal deposited din accordance then filling the groove

ith 7.1 (urface irregularities and contamination shall elding. Appropriate ;46 methods shall be

applied after completion of the eld. If it is feasible to ta!e the piping system out of service, the defective area may be removed by cutting out a cylindrical section and replacing it code. Insert patches ,flush patches. may be used to repair damaged or corroded areas if the follo ing re%uirements are met " a. b. /ull penetration groove elds are provided. /or &lass 0 and &lass 1 piping systems, the elds shall be 000 percent radio3graphed or ultrasonically tested using ;46 procedures that are approved by the inspector. c. Patches may be any shape but shall have rounded corners ,0 inch ,15mm. minimum radius. ith a piping component that meets the applicable

52

'.!.+ NON*?EL IN1 REPAIRS ;ON STREA-< " Temporary repairs of locally thinned sections or circumferential linear defects may be made on stream by installing a properly designed and fabricated bolted lea! clamp. The design shall include control of a#ial thrust loads if the piping component being clamped is ,or may become. insufficient to control pressure thrust. The effect of clamping ,crushing. forces on the component also shall be considered. 4uring turnarounds or other appropriate opportunities, temporary lea! sealing and lea! dissipating devices, including valves, shall be removed and appropriate actions ta!en to tSrestore the original integrity of the piping system. The inspector and-or dipping engineer shall be involved in determining repair methods and procedures. Procedures that include lea! sealing fluids ,pumping. for process piping should be revie ed for acceptance by the inspector or piping engineer. The revie should ta!e into consideration the compatibility of the sealant material; the pumping pressure on the clamp ,especially ris! of sealant affecting do nstream flo ith the lea!ing hen reEpumping.; the

meters, relief valves, or machinery, the

ris! of subse%uent lea!age at bolt threads causing corrosion or stress corrosion crac!ing of bolts; and the number of times the seal area is re3pumped.

'.)

?EL IN1 AN

HOT TAPPIN1 "

elding shall be done in accordance ith the principles

All repair and alteration

of A(56 7 80.8 or the code to hich the piping system as built. Any elding conducted on piping components in operation must be done in ith API Publ 1100. The inspector shall use as a minimum the T

accordance

53

(uggested 'ot Tap &hec!listM contained in API Publication 1100 for hot tapping performed on piping components. '.).! PROCE URESF @UALIFICATIONSF AN The repair organi)ation shall use RECOR S 3 elding procedures %ualified in

elders and

accordance ith A(56 780.8 or the code to hich the piping as built. The repair organi)ation shall maintain records of prior to the start of elding. '.).) PERHEATIN1 AN '.).).! POST?EL HEAT TREAT-ENT " elding procedures and elder

performance %ualifications. These records shall be available to the inspector

PREHEATIN1 " Preheat temperature used in mas!ing accordance elding repairs shall be in elding

ith the applicable code and %ualified

procedure. 6#ceptions for temporary repairs must be approved by the piping engineer. Preheating to not less that 800 o/ ,050o&. may be considered as an alternative to post eld heat treatment ,P2'T. for alterations or repairs of piping systems initially post eld heat heated as a code re%uirement ,see note.. This applies to piping constructed of the P3 0 steels listed in A(56 780.8. P38 steels , alternative ith the e#ception of 5n35o steels, also may receive the 800o/,050o&. minimum preheat hen the piping system operating temperature is high hen there is no enough to provide reasonable toughness and startup.

identifiable ha)ard associated ith pressure testing , shutdo n, and The inspector should determine that the mKinimum elding, 54 preheat temperature is measured and maintained. After

the *oint should immediately be covered cooling rate. NOTE "

ith insulation to slo

the

Preheating may not be considered as an alternative to environmental crac!ing prevention. Piping systems constructed of other steel initially re%uiring P2'T normally are post eld heat treated if alterations or repairs involving pressure retaining elding are performed. The use of the preheat alternative ho should consider the elding procedure here this hether the elds, re%uires consultation ith the piping engineer

potential for environmental crac!ing and ill provide ade%uate toughness. thin area, and elding support clips. '.).).) POST?EL HEAT TREAT-ENT "

6#amples of situations

alternative could be considered include seal

eld metal buildup of

P2'T of piping system repairs or alterations should be made using the applicable re%uirements of A(56 780.8 or the code to the piping as built. hich (ee 7.1.1.0 for an alternative preheat

procedure for some P2'T re%uirements. 6#ceptions for temporary repair must be approved by the piping engineer. =ocal P2'T may be substituted for 8:03 degree banding on local repairs on all materials, provided the follo ing precautions and re%uirements are applied. a. b. The application is revie ed, and a procedure is developed by the piping engineer. In evaluating the suitability of a procedure, consideration shall be given to applicable factors, such as base metal thic!ness, thermal gradients, material properties, changes

55

resulting from P2'T, the need for full penetration

elds,

and surface and volumetric e#aminations after P2'T. Additionally, the overall and local strains and distortions resulting from the heating of a local restrained area of the piping all shall be considered in developing and evaluating P2'T procedures. c. A preheat of 800o/ ,050o&., or higher as specified by specific elding procedures, is maintained hile elding. d. The re%uired P2'T temperature shall be maintained for a distance of not less than t o times the base metal thic!ness measured form the eld. The P2'T temperature shall be monitored by a suitable number of thermocouples ,a minimum of t o. based on the si)e and shape of the area being heat treated. e. &ontrolled heat also shall be applied to any branch connection or other attachment ithin the P2'T area. f. The P2'T is performed for code compliance and not for environmental crac!ing resistance. '.)., ESI1N " 7utt *oints shall be full penetration groove elds.

Piping components shall be replaced hen repair is li!ely to be inade%uate. ;e connections and replacement s shall be designed and fabricated according to the principles of the applicable code. The design of temporary enclosures and repairs shall be approved by the piping engineer.

56

;e code.

connections may be installed on piping systems provided the design,

location, and method of attachment conform to the principles of the applicable

/illet3 elded patches re%uire special design considerations, especially relating to eld3*oint efficiency and crevice corrosion. of piping, provided it is in accordance re%uirements. " a. b. The proposed patch provides design strength e%uivalent to a reinforced opening designed according to the applicable code. The proposed patch is designed to absorb the membrane strain of the part in a manner that is in accordance code, if the follo ing criteria are met " 0. The allo able membrane stress is not e#ceeded in the piping part or the patch. 1. The strain in the patch does not result in fillet allo able stresses for such elds. 8. An overlay patch shall have rounded corners ,se Appendi# &. '.).+ -ATERIALS " The materials used in ma!ing repairs or alterations shall be of !no n %uality, shall conform to the applicable code, and shall be compatible original materials. /or material verification re%uirements see 9.J eldable ith the eld stresses e#ceeding ith the principles of the applicable /illet3 elded patches shall be designed by the piping engineer. A patch may be applied to the e#ternal surfaces ith 7.0.8 and meets either of the follo ing

'.).& NON* ESTRUCTI0E E/A-INATION "

57

Acceptance of a

elded repair or alteration shall include ;46 in accordance

ith

the applicable code and the o ner-user+s specification, unless other ise specified in API 570 '.).. PRESSURE TESTIN1 " After elding is completed, pressure test in accordance ith 9.7 shall be

performed if practical and deemed necessary by the inspector. Pressure tests are normally re%uired after alterations and ma*or repairs. 2hen a pressure test is not necessary or practical, ;46 shall be utili)ed in lieu of a pressure test. (ubstituting special procedures for a pressure test after an alteration or repair may b e done only after consultation ith the inspector and the piping engineer. 2hen it is not practical to perform a pressure test of a final closure eld that *oins a ne or replacement section of piping to an e#isting system, all of the follo ing re%uirements shall be satisfied " a. The ne or replacement piping is pressure tested. eld is a full penetration butt3 eld bet een a eld nec! flange

b. The closure

and standard piping component or straight sections of pipe of e%ual diameter and thic!ness, a#ially aligned , not miter cut ., and of e%uivalent materials. Acceptable alternatives are 0. slip3on flanges for design cases upto &lass 050 and 500 o/, ,1:0o&. and 1. soc!et elded flanges or soc!et elded unions for si)es ;P( 1 or less and design cases upto &lass 050 and 500 o/ ,1:0o&.. spacer designed for soc!et A elding or some other means shall be

used to establish a minimum 0-0: inch ,0.: mm . gap. (oc!et

58

elds shall be per A(56 780.8 and shall be a minimum of t o passes. c. Any final closure butt3 eld shall be of 000 percent radiographic %uality; @$ angle beam ultrasonics fla detection may be used, provided the appropriate acceptance criteria have been established. d. 5T or PT shall be performed on the root pass and the completed eld for butt3 elds and on the completed eld for fillet elds.

'.,

RERATIN1
$erating piping systems by changing the temperature rating or the 5A2P may

be done only after all of the follo ing re%uirements have been met " a. &alculations are performed by the piping engineer or the inspector. b. All ratings shall be established in accordance code to hich the piping system ith the re%uirements of the

as built or by computation using the

appropriate methods in the latest edition of the applicable code. c. &urrent inspection records verify that the piping system is satisfactory for the proposed service conditions and that the appropriate corrosion allo ance is provided. d. $erated piping systems shall be lea! tested in accordance to hich the piping system code for the ne ith the code

as built or the latest edition of the applicable

service conditions, unless documented records indicate as performed at greater than or e%ual to the test condition. An increase in the rating temperature that

a previous lea! test pressure for the ne

does not affect allo able tenside stress does not re%uire a lea! test.

59

e. The piping system is chec!ed to affirm that the re%uired pressure relieving devices are present, are set at the appropriate pressure, and have the appropriate capacity at set pressure. f. The piping system rerating is acceptable to the inspector or piping engineer. g. All piping components in the system ,such as valves, flanges, bolts, gas!ets, pac!ing, and e#pansion *oints. are ade%uate for the ne combination of pressure and temperature. E. i. *. Pi4in2 %le5ibility is adeGuate %o# desi2n te64e#atu#e cEan2es. Appropriate engineering records are updated. A decrease in minimum operating temperature is *ustified by impact test results, if re%uired by the applicable code.

60

9.

INSPECTION OF BURIE

PIPIN1

Inspection of buried process piping is different from other process piping inspection because significant e#ternal deterioration can be caused by corrosive soil conditions. (ince the inspection is hindered by the inaccessibility of the affected areas of the piping, the inspection of buried piping is treated in a separate section of API 570.

9.!

T8PES AN

-ETHO S OF INSPECTION

9.!.! Abo"e 1#ade 0isual Su#"eillance 3 Indications of lea!s in buried piping may include a change in the surface contour of the ground, discoloration of the soil, softening of paving asphalt, pool formation, bubbling ater puddles, or noticeable odor. (urveying the route of buried piping is one method of identifying problem areas. 9.!.) Close Inte#"al Potential Su#"ey 3 The close interval potential survey performed at ground level over the buried pipe can be used to locate active corrosion points on the pipe+s surface. &orrosion cells can form on both bare and coated pipe here the bare steel ill be measurably

contacts the soil. (ince the potential at the area of corrosion can be determined by this survey techni%ue. 9.!., Pi4e Coatin2 Holiday Su#"ey 3

different from an ad*acent area on the pipe, the location of the corrosion activity

The pipe coating holiday survey can be used to locate coating defects on buried coated pipes, and it can be used on ne ly constructed pipe systems to ensure that the coating is intact and holiday free. 5ore often it is used to evaluate

61

coating serviceability for buried piping that has been in service for an e#tended period of time. 9.!.+ Soil Resisti"ity " &orrosion of bare or poorly coated piping is often caused by a mi#ture of different soils in contact ith the pipe surface. The corrosiveness of the soils can be here the determined by a measurement of the soil resistivity. =o er levels of resistivity are relatively more corrosive than higher levels, especially in areas pipe is e#posed to significant changers in soil resistivity. 9.!.& CatEodic P#otection -onito#in2 3 &athodicallyJ protected buried piping should be monitored regularly to assure ade%uate levels of protection. 5onitoring should include periodic measurement and analysis of pipe to soil potentials by personnel trained and e#perienced in cathodic protection system operation. to ensure reliable system operation. 9.!.. Ins4ection -etEods 3 (everal inspection methods are available. e#ternal or all condition of the piping, internal condition. 6#amples are as follo s " a. Intelligent pigging. This method involves the movement of a device ,pig. through the piping either been removed from service. hile it is in service or after it has (everal types of devices are available (ome methods can indicate the 5ore fre%uent monitoring of critical cathodic protection components, such as impressed current rectifiers, is re%uired

hereas other methods indicate only the

employing different methods of inspection.

62

b.

Iideo cameras. Television cameras are available that cana be inserted into the piping. These cameras may provide visual inspection information on the internal condition of the line.

c.

6#cavation.

In many cases, the only available inspection

method that can be performed is unearthing the piping in order to visually inspect the e#ternal condition of the piping and to evaluate its thic!ness and internal condition.

9.)

FRE@UENC8 AN

E/TENT OF INSPECTION "

9.).! Abo"e*1#ade 0isual Su#"eillance " The o ner- user should, at appro#imately : month intervals survey the surface conditions on and ad*acent to each pipeline path. 9.).) Pi4e to Soil Potential Su#"ey " A close interval potential survey on a cathodically protected line may be used to verify that the buried piping has a protective potential throughout its length. /or poorly coated pipes corrosion control. /or piping ith no cathodic protection or in areas here lea!s have occurred due here active corrosion cells here cathodic protection potentials are inconsistent, the survey may be conducted at 5 year intervals for veritication of continuous

to e#ternal corrosion, a pipe to soil potential survey may be conducted along the pipe route. The pipe should be e#cavated at sites have been located to determine the e#tent of corrosion damage.

63

9.)., Pi4e Coatin2 Holiday Su#"ey " The fre%uency of pipe coating holiday surveys is usually based on indications that other forms of corrosion control are ineffective. /or e#ample, on a coated pipe here there is gradual loss of cathodic protection potentials or an e#ternal corrosion lea! occurs at a coating defect, a pipe coating holiday survey may be used to evaluate the coating. 9.).+ Soil Co##osi"ity " /or piping buried in lengths greater than 000 feet , 80 m . and not cathodically protected, evaluations of soil corrosivity should be performed at 5 year intervals. (oil resistivity measurements may be used for relative classification of the soil corrosivity. 9.).& CatEodic P#otection " If the piping is cathodically protected, the system should be monitored at intervals in accordance ith (ection 00 of ;A&6 $P00:K or (ection 00 of API $P :50. 9.).. E5te#nal and Inte#nal Ins4ection Inte#"als " If internal corrosion of buried piping is e#pected as a result of inspection on the above grade portion of the line, inspection intervals and methods for the buried portion should be ad*usted accordingly. The inspector should be a are of and consider the possibility of accelerated internal corrosion in deadlegs. The e#ternal condition of buried piping that is not cathodically protected should be determined by either pigging, hich can measure all thic!ness or by e#cavating according to the fre%uency given in Table K30. (ignificant e#ternal corrosion detected by pigging or by other means may re%uire e#cavation and evaluation even if the piping is cathodically protected. 64

Piping inspected periodically by e#cavation shall be inspected in lengths of : feet HJ feet , 1.0 m31.5 m . at one or more locations *udged to be most suspectible to corrosion. 6#cavated piping should be inspected full circumference for the type and e#tent of corrosion , pitting or general . and the condition of the coating. If inspection reveals damaged coating or corroded piping, additional piping shall be e#cavated until the e#tent of the condition is identified. If the average thic!ness is at or belo retirement thic!ness, it shall be repaired or replaced. all

If the piping is contained inside a casing pipe, the conditional of the casing should be inspected to determine if ater and- or soil has entered the casing. The inspector should verify the follo ing " a. both ends of the casing e#tend beyond the ground line; b. the ends of the casing are sealed if the casing is not self3draining; and c. the pressure carrying pipe is properly coated and rapped.

9.).' LeaD Testin2 Inte#"als " An alternative or supplement to inspection is lea! testing ith li%uid at a pressure

atleast 00 percent greater than ma#imum operating pressure at intervals one3half the length of those sho n in Table K30 for piping not cathodically protected and at the same intervals as sho n in Table K30 for cathodically protected piping. The lea! test should be maintained for a period of J hours. /our hours after the initial pressuri)ation of the piping system, the pressure should be noted and, if necessary, the line repressuri)ed to original test pressure and isolated from the pressure source.

65

If, during the remainder of the test period, the pressure decreases more than 5 percent, the piping should be visually inspected e#ternally and- or inspected internally to find the lea! and assess the e#tent of corrosion. measurements may be helpful in locating lea!s during lea! testing. 7uried piping also may be surveyed for integrity by using temperature3corrected volumetric or pressure test methods. Table K30 /re%uency of Inspection for 7uried Piping 2ithout 6ffective &athodic Protection Soil Resisti"ity; oE6*c6 < U 1,000 1,000 to 00,000 V 00,000 Ins4ection Inte#"al ; yea#s < 5 00 05 (onic

@ther alternative lea! test methods involve acoustic emission e#amination and the addition of a tracer fluid to the pressuri)ed line , such as helium or sulfur he#afloride .. If the tracer is added to the service fluid, the o ner- user shall confirm suitability for process and product.

9.,

REPAIRS TO BURIE PIPIN1 S8STE-S 3 66

9.,.! Re4ai#s to Coatin2s " Any coating removed for inspection shall be rene ed and inspected appropriately. /or coating repairs, the inspector should be assured that the coating meets the follo ing criteria " a. It has sufficient adhesion to the pipe to prevent under film migration of moisture. b. c. d. It is sufficiently ductile to resist crac!ing. It is free of voids and gaps in the coating , holidays .. It has sufficient strength to resist damage due to handling and soil stress. e. It can support any supplemental cathodic protection.

In addition, coating repairs may be tested using a high voltage holiday detector. The detector voltage shall be ad*usted to the appropriate value for the coating material and thic!ness. Any holidays fould shall be repaired and retested. 9.,.) Cla64 Re4ai#s 3 If piping lea!s are clamped and reburied, the location of the clamp shall be logged in the inspection record and may be surface mar!ed. 7oth the mar!er and the record shall note the date of installation and the location of the clamp. All clamps shall be considered temporary. The piping should be permanently repaired at the first opportunity.

67

9.,.,

?elded Re4ai#s 3 2elded repairs shall be made in accordance in J.1 of &ode. 9.,.+ Reco#ds 3 $ecord systems for buried piping should be maintained in accordance clamps shall be maintained. ith 7.: of

&ode. In addition, a record of the location and date of installation of temporary

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68

RECO--EN E

PRACTICE API* &'+

! REASONS FOR INSPECTION

A. 0. GENERAL The primary purpose of inspection is to identify active deterioration mechanisms and to specify repair, replacement, or future inspections for affected piping. 1. 7y developing a database of inspection history, the user may predict and recommend future repairs and replacements. 8. The user can act to prevent or retard further deterioration and, most importantly, prevent loss of containment. 9. This should result in increased operating safety, reduced maintenance cost, and more reliable and efficient operations. 5. API 570, Piping Inspection &ode provides the basic re%uirements for such an inspection program. This recommended practice supplements API 570 by providing piping inspectors ith information that can improve s!ill and increase basic !no ledge and practices. B. 0. SAFETY A lea! or failure in a piping system may be only a minor inconvenience, or it may become a potential source of fire or e#plosion, depending on the temperature, pressure, contents, and location of the piping.

69

1.

Ade%uate inspection is a prere%uisite for maintaining the lines containing flammable fluids and to#ic chemicals in a safe operable condition.

8.

(everal

safety regulations mandate piping, that carries ha)ardous

chemicals be inspected according to accepted codes and standards, hich includes API 570.

C. 0.

RELIABILITY AND EFFICIENT OPERATION Thorough inspection and analysis and the use of historical records of piping systems are essential to the attainment of acceptable reliability, efficient operation, and optimum on stream service. 1. Piping replacement schedules can be developed to coincide piping service life. ith planned

maintenance turnaround schedules through methodical forecasting of

D. 0.

REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS $egulatory re%uirements usually cover only those conditions that affect safety and environmental concerns. 1. Inspection groups in the Petrochemical industry familiar ith the industry+s

problems inspect for other conditions that adversely affect plant operation. 8. 6ach plant should be familiar piping inspection. ith the local re%uirements for process

70

) CORROSION -ONITORIN1 OFPROCESS PIPIN1

0.

The single most fre%uent reason for replacing piping is corrosion.

thinning due to

1.

The !ey to the effective monitoring of piping corrosion is identifying and establishing thic!ness monitoring locations ,T5=s. .

8.

T5=s are designated areas in the piping system

here thic!ness

measurements are periodically ta!en. 7y ta!ing repeated measurements and recording at the same points over e#tended periods, corrosion rates can more accurately be calculated.

(ome of the factors to consider for process piping are "

hen establishing the corrosion monitoring plan

a. b. c. d.

&lassifying the piping in accordance ith API 570. &ategorising the piping into circuits of similar corrosion behavior. Identifying susceptible locations here accelerated corrosion is e#pected. Accessibility of the T5=s for monitoring.

PIPIN1 CIRCUITS3 0. A piping circuit is a section of piping of environment of similar corrosivity and construction material. hich all points are e#posed to an

hich is of similar design conditions and

71

1.

7y identifying li!e environments as circuits, the spread of calculated corrosion rates of the T5=s in each circuit is reduced.

8.

&orrosion rates are normally increased at areas of increased velocity and- or turbulence. 6lbo s, reducers, tees, control valves, and orifices are e#amples of piping components here accelerated corrosion may occur because of increased velocity and - or turbulence.

9.

(uch components are normally areas to locate additional T5=s in a piping circuit.

5.

Areas of no flo , such as deadlegs , (ection :.8.1 . may cause accelerated corrosion and may need additional T5=s.

INJECTION POINTS3

0. 1.

In*ection points are some times sub*ect to accelerate or locali)ed corrosion. In*ection points may be treated as separate inspection circuits and need to be inspected thoroughly on a regular schedule.

WWWWWWWWW

FRE@UENC8 AN TI-E OF INSPECTION

72

GENERAL: The fre%uency of piping inspections should be determined by the follo ing conditions " a. b. The conse%uence of a failure , piping classification ., The degree of ris! , li!elihood and conse%uence of a failure . c. d. e. The amount of corrosion allo ance remaining The historical data available $egulatory re%uirements.

API 570 re%uires classifying piping systems according to the conse%uences of failure. The fre%uency and thoroughness of piping inspections e#tensive in lo ill range from often and

piping classes here deterioration is e#treme, to seldom and cursory in

high piping classes in non3corrosive services.

INSPECTION WHILE EQUIPMENT IS OPERATING

An effective, program of piping inspection all thic!ness measurements as possible

ill include obtaining as many of the re%uired hile a plant is on stream. 7oth ambient and

high temperature ultrasonic thic!ness measurements may be ta!en. @n most piping, all thic!ness radiographs can be ta!en independently through undisturbed insulation. $adiographs can also be used to identify corroded areas. @n stream inspection can reduce do ntime by the follo ing means "

73

6#tending process runs by assuring piping conditions are suitable for continued operation.

Permitting fabrication of replacement piping before a shutdo n. 6liminating unnecessary for e#ample, personnel or! and reducing shutdo n personnel re%uirements; ho are other ise used to remove insulation and brea!

flanges for inspection during the turnaround can be made available for other or!. Aiding maintenance planning to reduce surges in personnel re%uirements. or!3load, thus, stabili)ing

INSPECTION WHILE EQUIPMENT IS SHUT DOWN

Inspections that cannot be made

hile the e%uipment is operating must be made

hen

the system is shut do n. In addition, hen piping is opened for any reason, it should be inspected internally as far as accessibility permits. Ade%uate follo up inspections

should be conducted to determine the causes of defects, such as lea!s, misalignment, vibration, and s aying that ere detected hile the unit as operating.

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SAFET8 PRACTICES IN INSPECTION

, API 579 H &'APT6$ J .

74

A )

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ( 8.1 )

Procedures for segregation of piping, installation of blinds etc. shall be integral part of safety practices of the plant. In general piping to be opened shall be " Isolated from all sources of harmful li%uids and gases, vapours. Purging to remove all oil and to#ic gases Precautions should be ta!en before hammer testing crac!s, failures, or allo contents to be released. hich may cause

B )

PREPARATORY WORK ( 8.2 )

All possible preparatory inspection hich include " (caffolds erection

or! should be done before scheduled start of

6#cavation of buried piping at inspection points &hec! availability and or!ing condition of inspection tools re%uired Availability and condition of e%uipments and clothing for personnel safety

;ecessary arning signs 7arricades

INSPECTION PROCE URES

, API3579 H &'APT6$ 00 .

75

A )

INSPECTION DURING OPERATION : a. =ea!age spots , corrosion product build up at pipe support and clamps

contact area . b. c. d (igns of misalignment, vibrations (upports and vibrations 6#ternal condition of piping insulation a < LeaDa2e s4ots3 " =ea!s in utility piping may not be ha)ardous. =ea!s in hot to#ic, volatile gases may be dangerous. lea! drippings may corrode piping belo . attention shall be given to flange *oints, pac!ing glands, e#pansion *oints, valve bonnets etc. =ea!s may be stopped or reduced by

tightening flanges, pac!ing glands. Isolate the piping and attend to it if situation arrants.

b < -

-isali2n6ent

Pipes dislodged from supports, (hifting of base plate, brea!ing of foundation Pipe supports forced out of plumb 6#pansion *oints e#cessively damaged 6%uipment alls at terminal points sho ing deformation hich piping is

6#cessive repair of bearings of rotating machinery to

connected.

c <

Su44o#ts B 0ib#ations

76

Physical damage, distortion , movement of supports,

failure or loosening of

foundation bolts $estricted operations of pipe rollers, slide plates 7ro!en pipe anchors 4amage to small branch line due to thermal movement of larger lines , >3P3C

directions . If e#cessive vibrations are observed in a piping elds shall be inspected for

crac!s, especially at points of restraints, anchors Additional supports may be considered for poorly supported lines (ee! advice of &onsultant - Piping 6ngineer to eliminate - dampen the

vibrations d < E5te#nal Co##osion 4ue to defects in &oating, painting or damaged insulation (urvey for &?I shall be done in operation to the e#tent possible =ines that s eat, li%uid spills, condensate ,relief valves do n stream . may

cause e#ternal corrosion 'ot spots due to damage of internal refractory lining. ;ight glo or balding of pipes may be seen ater, air, may be used till system is

To arrest balding e#ternal cooling by

removed for maintenance

INSPECTION

URIN1 SHUT

O?N

77

0. Iisual inspection after pipe is opened at various flanged *oints and valves. , /lash light and e#tension lights and mirrors magnifying glasses may be used . may reveal follo ing " a . b . 6#cessive corrosion - 6rosion, fouling &rac!s , elds are most prone areas . investigate crac!s further by blast

cleaning and et fluorescent 5PI, =PI and ?T c . Bas!et faces of flanges shall be chec!ed for scratches, cuts, pitting etc , $ef. A(56 7 0:.5 Para :.0 . d . Ialves, bodies to be chec!ed for thic!ness, flanged ends for defects X above and other parts , seat stem spring for damage and brea!age, chec! studs and nuts for deformation, shaving of threads etc. e . &hec! threaded *oints for loose threads, corrosing, cross threading, ensure ne f . Teflon tapes are used hile putting bac! in place

Areas seen as hot spots e#ternally shall be inspected for damage internally and repaired

g .

4amage to internal painting, coating, cladding shall be surveyed and repaired

PRESSURE TESTS
0 . Piping systems sub*ect to pr. Test include " a. b. ?nderground lines and other inaccessible piping 2ater and other non3ha)ardous utility lines

78

c.

=ong oil3transfer lines in arcas

here a lea! or spill

ould not be

ha)ardous to personnel or harmful to the environment. d. e. f. &omplicated manifold systems. (mall piping and tubing systems. All systems after a chemical cleaning operation.

1 . 8 .

API 570 sec. 8.7 gives guidelines for preparing piping for pressure Testing. 4uring li%uid pressure Test, all air must be e#pelled, or else failure could be more violent than li%uid3full system.

9 .

A"oid o"e# 4#essu#e H yield limit may e#ceed. ?se calibrated pressure Bauges ,gauge range 0 < to 9 times test pressure.. 'o ever, 1 to 8 times Pt is preferred.

5 .

Fluids used 3 a. b. c. d. ater H ,preferred . =i%uid products normally carried if not to#ic or inflammable (team Air, ;itrogen, 'elium

: .

2ater as test medium may not be suitable for a. b. c. d. Acid lines Iacuum lines , vertical lines . &orrosion of Austentic (teels , (&& . 5ay free)e in cold eather

79

7 .

(team may be used particularly if it is used for heating or purging. 'o ever, difficulty in draining condensate from all areas and &ompressibility ,unsafe . Inaccessibility and burn to personnel on lea!age could put severe restrictions. All precautions of pneumatic testing stated in A(56 7 80.8 must be observed for steam testing as ell.

Pneu6atic tests3
Pneumatic tests ith soap solutions are permissible. 'o ever, best gaseous

mediums ould be inert gases li!e nitrogen 'elium etc. 'elium is ideal as it can detect minutest crac!s hich other ise in ater, air, steam or ;itrogen testing. 'elium lea!age in ppm levels can be detected by 'elium sniffers. 'ence they are used hen service conditions are particularly critical. HA--ER TESTIN1 'ammer testing is old method to detect une#pected thin sections. ould be missed

&ast Irons and &austic lines inside coated lines should not be hammered

$e%uires personal e#pertise

'ammer test shall be follo ed up by other methods li!e ?T at suspected areas.

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80

NSPECTION OF UN ER1ROUN PIPIN1

In addition to product corrosion the ?nderground Piping is e#posed to soil

corrosion. /ollo ing methods are adopted in inspection of ?nderground Piping "

1.

A survey above ground of the piping route could sho pool formation, noticeable odor etc. for probable cause. All Pipes are inspected at and *ust belo the point

discoloration of soil,

hich corrosion and lea! may be

here they enter earth,

concrete, asphalt etc. since these areas are more prone to corrosion.

8.

&lose internal potential survey H This techni%ue measures the potential of the pipe to the soil directly over pipe at fi#ed intervals , 5 ft, 00 ft. etc. . Pipe contact can be made at an above ground attachment. (udden change of P-( potential is location for further scrutiny , by e#cavation, if re%uired ..

9.

'oliday pipe coating survey is employed to ensure that coating is intact and holiday free.This techni%ue is used for predicting corrosion activity in specific area and coating replacement decisions.

5.

(oil resistivity testing " This techni%ue is used for relative classification of the soil resistivity.=o er levels of resistivity are more corrosive than higher levels.

81

:.

&athodic Protection 5onitoring " This shall be carried out regularly to assure ade%uate levels of protection.

Periodic monitoring includes chec!ing condition of sacrifical anodes or rectifier currents in impressed current system.

7.

Intelligent Pigging " This method involves movement of device ,pig. through piping. 'o ever, this techni%ue re%uires line to be free from restrictions ,i.e. full bore valves, absence of reduces. and five diameter ban!ds. Iery effective

techni%ue in long distance piping. 'o ever, blant piping has limited use.

J.

Iideo &ameras condition of pipe.

"

These provide direct visual information on internal

K.

6#cavation " (ometimes the only available method is unearthing of piping for visual inspection of e#ternal condition of piping and evaluate its thic!ness.

00.

=ea! testing periodically.

"

IIB lines that can not be visually inspected should be

a.

Pressure decay method " Pressurise the line, bloc! it, remove source of pressure, monitoring over a period of time ill provide indicating

of pressure tightness. Performance can be confirmed by lea! simulation.

82

b.

Iolume in- volume out method uses volumetric measuring meter at each end of the line. Performance can be determined by lea! simulation.

c.

(ingle point volumetric method is similar to pressure decay method e#cept that a graduated cylinder is employed to chec! level reduction by lea!age.

d.

5a!er chemical ,tracer. may be added to line to detect lea! and soil gas samples near line are tested for presence of ma!er chemicals.

e.

Accoustic emission technology detects and locates lea!s by sound created by lea! and detected by senser.

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83

RETIRE-ENT THIC>NESS FOR PIPES

, API 579 Par. 00.0 . 0 . Thic!ness formulas from A(56 780.8 shall be used. t R tm Y A 2here tm R P4 3333333333333333 Y A 1(6 Y1PP P4 33333333 1(6 or,

tm R

Z , 7arlo

formula.

, for t V 4-: or P-(6 V 0.8J5, special considerations re%uired . In practice t is generally higher due to rounding up of pipe schedule to higher number.

1 .

/or lo

pressure and temperatures, above thic!nesses could be so small for etc. .

sufficient structural strength for span and other ?4= , insulation, sno

8 .

Absolute minimum thic!ness , pressure, sag, buc!ling etc.

t a . shall be determined based on internal

Pipe should not be permitted to deteriorate belo called

this thic!ness , t a .,

hich is

L$etirement Thic!nessM i.e. Pipe shall be retired , replaced . at this

thic!ness.

9 .

Above calculations shall be performed by or under direction of Piping 6ngineer.

84

RETIRE-ENT THIC>NESSFOR 0AL0ES B FLAN1E FITTIN1S3 , API 579 H Para 00.1 . 0.(tress pattern for valves and flanges in %uite comple# due to simultaneous effects of " 1. Internal pressure 7olts load forces and movements (tress concentration due to shape A(56 7 0:.89 determines that min. Ialve all thic!ness ,t v. shall be tv R tv R 0.5 # t Z.. 0.85 # t Z for Ialve classes 050 H 1500 for Ialve class 9500 ith ( R 7000 psi and Pressure same as that

2here, t R Thic!ness of &ylinder from P H T ratings

Actual thic!ness , ta . given in 7 0:.89 R tv Y 0.0 In.,fi#ed. Ialve thic!ness per API :00 have additional corrosion and erosion re%uirement over , ta . from 7 0:.89 8. 2here corrosion - erosion is anticipated thic!ness measurements shall be made to determine metal loss. 9. /ormula for calculating retirement thic!ness of pipe can be used for Ialves and flanged fittings using factor 0.5 and 5 Ialves from A(56 7 80.8.

&alculations described above not re%uired for

elded fittings. Pipe thic!ness can be

adopted for elded fittings using appropriate corrections for shape, if necessary.

85

INSPECTION RECOR S
, API 570 H &hapter 01 . 0. Inspection records provide "

A comprehensive picture of general condition , i.e. health . of piping system 4ecide on additional - supplementary inspections 6valuation of remaining useful life 4eciding on probable retirement and replacement programmes and ta!e advance action for the same.

The data should be arranged on suitable forms so that successive inspection records furnished a chronological picture. 1. (!etches " @riginal isometric s!etches may be used or ne to sho 8. T5=s and other relevant information. " $ecord of thic!ness data obtained from periodic or s!etches made

Thic!ness 4ata

scheduled inspections shall be sho n on s!etches and tabulated and attached s!etches . /ig. 89 sample form 9. $evie of $ecords " $ecords of previous inspection shall be revie ed soon

after current data is available from field and follo 3up action sheets shall be prepared sho ing " Approaching retirement thic!ness ;eed of further investigation based on past and present data , i.e. e#cessive corrosion rates on both occasions .

86

In other cases specific features to be monitored during on3stream or ne#t shut do n inspection.

A list for predictable repairs and alterations shall be made so that maintenance dept. can obtain materials, !eep components ready, if nessary, fabricate ell ahead of ne#t shut do n. This list ill also help to plan manpo er for ne#t shut do n.

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87

PLANT PIPIN1 CO E * AS-E B ,!.,

PIPIN1 FUN A-ENTALS
!. 1ene#al 3
Prior to study of Plant piping code, a %uic! revie essential for prper understanding of the code. A 4i4e o# a tube is hollo , longitudinal product. [A tube+ is a general term used for hollo product having circular, elliptical or s%uare cross3section or for that matter cross3section of any closed perimeter. A 4i4e is tubular product of circular cross3section that has specific si)es and thic!nesses governed by particular dimensional standard. of piping fundamentals is

).

Classi%ication 3
Pipe can be classified based on methods of manufacture or based on their applications.

,.

-etEods o% 6anu%actu#e 3
(eamless pipes are manufactured by dra ing or e#trusion process. 6$2 pipes , 6lectric resistance or induction elded pipes . are formed from a strip hich is longitudinally elded along its length. 2elding may be by 6lectric resistance, high fre%uency, elding, 6$2 pipes can also be dra n for obtaining re%uired dimensions and tolerances.

88

Pipes in small %uantities are manufactured by 6/2 , 6lectric fusion process here in instead of electric resistance elded by manual or automatic electric arc process. There are spiral seam elded pipes,

elding .

elding, the longitudinal seam is

hich are large dia pipes 500 ;7 and

above, and pipes are made by

elding a spiral seam produced by forming

continuous steel s!elp into circular shape. &entrifugally cast pipes are made by spraying molten metal along a rotating die here the pipes are cast in shape due to centrifugal action. Classi%ication based on end use " Pipes a re classified as " 0. Pressure pipes or Process pipes =ine pipes (tructural pipes Pressure pipes are those hich are sub*ected to fluid pressure and or

temperatures. /luid pressure in generally internal pressure due to fluid being conveyed or may be e#ternal pressure , e.g. *ac!ed piping . and are mainly used as plant piping. 1. =ine Pipes are mainly used for long distance conveying of the fluids and are sub*ected to fluid pressures. These are generally not sub*ected to high temperatures. 8. (tructural pipes are not used for conveying fluids and therefore not sub*ected to fluid pressures or temperatures. They are used as structural components , e.g. handrails, columns, sleeves etc. . and are sub*ected to static loads only. 89

9.

Pi4es i6ensional Standa#ds "

4iameters " Pipes are designated by ;ominal si)e, (tarting form 0-JM ;ominal si)e, and increasing in steps. 0. 1. 8. 9. 5. Pipe si)es increases in steps of 0-JM fir 0-JM to <M " 0-JM, DM, 8-JM, <M ;ominal si)e. (i)es in steps of DM " <M, \M, 0M, 0 DM, 0 <M In steps of <M upto 9M " 0 <M, 1M, 1 <M, 8M, 8 <M, 9M In steps of 0M upto :M " 9M. 5M, :M In steps of 1M upto 8:M " :M, JM, 00M ZZ. 6tc.

/or the ;ominal si)e upto including 01M, there is one uni%ue @.4. , different from nominal si)e . and I.4. ould vary depending on schedule number. /or ;ominal si)es 09M and above, @.4. is same as ;ominal si)e.

&.

ScEedule No. "

Pipes are designated by schedule number or E5t#a St#on2 ,>(. and eight designation li!e Std. ,(.,

ouble E5t#a St#on2 ,>>(.

Pipe schedule number S is defined as " (ch. ;@. ( R 0000 P-( 2here P R Internal Pressure ,psi. ( R Allo able tensile strength of material used.

90

&ommon pipe schedules are (ch 90, (ch J0, (ch 010, (ch 0:0, for larger pipe si)es intermediate schedule numbers , (ch10, (ch 80 etc. . are also employed , $ef. Pipe 4imension &hart . /or &arbon steel, Pipe all thic!ness tolerance is Y 01 <Q i.e. Pipe all

thic!ness can vary 01 <Q from thic!ness obtained from dimension chart. /or stainless steels schedule numbers are designated by suffi# S i.e. 00(, 90(, J0( e tc. =ength " Pipes are manufactured in [random length+ hich is Y 10+ H0M and in

double random length Y 90+ H0M.

..

Fittin2s
Pipe fittings are the components come in scre ed, up a piping system. The ma*ority of pipe fittings are specified by the nominal pipe si)e, type, material and the name of the fitting. ,scre ed, 7esides the end connections mentions above elded, soldered, flanged. it is also possible to order bell and spigot hich tie together pipe lines, valves, and other

parts of a piping system. They are used in Lma!ing upM a pipe line. /ittings may elded, soldered, or flanged varieties and are used to change the si)e of the line or its direction and to *oin together the various parts that ma!e

fittings, hich are usually cast iron and used for lo pressure service. In general, a fitting is any component in piping system that changes its direction, alters its function, or simply ma!es end connections. A fitting is *oined to the system by bolting, system. elding or scre ing, depending on many variables in the

91

..!

Butt*?elded Fittin2s 2elded fittings are used primarily in systems meant to be permanent. They have the same all thic!ness as the mating pipe. Among the many advantages of butt elded systems are the follo ing " 0. 1. 8. 9. 5. :. 7. J. They have a smooth inner surface and offer gradual direction change ith minimum turbulence. They re%uire much less space for constructing and hanging the pipe system. They form lea!3proof constructions. They are almost maintenance free. They have a higher temperature and pressure limit. They form a self3contained system. They are easy to insulate They offer a uniform all thic!ness through3out the system.

@ne of the ma*or disadvantages of butt3 elded systems is that are not easy to dismantle. Therefore, it is often advisable to provide the system ith enough flanged *oints so that it can be bro!en do n at intervals. , @ne of the main uses of the butt3 elded system, is for steam lines, hich are usually in high3temperature- high3pressure service .. ..) SocDet ?elded Fittin2s (oc!et elded fittings have certain advantages over butt3 elded fittings.

They are easier to use on small3si)e pipelines and the ends of the pipes need not be beveled since the pipe end slips into the soc!et of the *oint. 2ith soc!et3 elded fittings there is no danger of the the pipeline and restricting flo advantages of the soc!et3 elded system are " eld protruding into Thus, the or creating turbulence.

92

0. 1. 8. 9.

The pipe does not need to be beveled. ;o tac! elding is necessary for alignment since *oint and the pipe are self 3aligning. 2eld a material can not e#tend into the pipeline. It can be used in place of threaded fittings, therefore, reducing the li!elihood of lea!s, fittings. hich usually accompany the use of threaded elded

5.

It is less e#pensive and easier to construct than other systems.

@ne of the ma*or disadvantages of this type of fitting is the possibility of a mismatch inside the fitting here improperly aligned or mated parts may create a recess here corrosion could start. (oc!et3 elded fittings have the same inside diameter as standard ,(chedule 90., e#tra strong ,(chedule J0., and double e#tra strong ,(chedule 0:0. pipe, depending on the eight of the fitting and mating pipe. (oc!et3 elded fittings rare covered in A(A 70:.00. They are drilled to match the internal diameter of schedule 90 or schedule J0 pipe. .., Flan2ed Fittin2s /langed connections are found on piping systems throughout the petrochemical and po er generation fields on pipelines that are a minimum of 1 in.,5.0J cm . in diameter. The ma*ority of flanged fittings are made of cast steel or cast iron. /langed steel fittings are used in place of cast iron here the system is here

sub*ected to shoc! or high3temperature- high3pressure situations

the danger of fire is prevalent, because cast iron has a tendency to c rac! or rupture under certain stresses. A flange may be cast or forged onto the ends of the fitting or valve and bolted to a connecting flange hich is 93

scre ed or

elded onto the pipeline, thereby providing a tight *oint. An

assortment of facings, ring *oint grooves, and connections are available in flange variations. @ne advantage of flanged systems is that they are easily dismantled and assembled. @ne of the disadvantages is that they are considerably than an e%ually rated butt3 elded system, because of the large amount of metal that go into ma!ing up *oints and flanges. 5oreover, flanged fittings occupy far more space than the butt3 elded or scre ed e%uivalents. 7ecause of this higher eight load, a flanged system becomes far more e#pensive to support or hang from the e#isting structure.

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94

STU 8 OF AS-E B ,!.! CO E RE@UIRE-ENTS

!.! 1ENERAL 3
The &ode sets forth engineering re%uirements deemed necessary for safe design and construction of pressure piping. ?nless agreement is specifically made bet een contracting parties to use another issue, or the regulatory body having *urisdiction imposes the use of another issue, the latest 6dition and Addenda issued at least : months prior to the original contract date for the first phase of activity covering a piping installation shall be the governing document for all design, materials, fabrication erection, e#amination, and testing for the piping until the completion of the and initial operation. or!

!.)

SCOPE 3
$ules for the Process Piping &ode (ection 780.8 0 have been developed considering piping typically found in petroleum refineries; chemical, pharmaceutical, te#tile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants; and related processing plants and terminals ithin the property limits. This &ode prescribes re%uirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, e#amination, inspection, and testing of piping.

!.,

EFINITIONS 3
0.8.0 CEe6ical 4lant " an industrial plant for the manufacture or processing of chemicals, or of ra materials or intermediates for such chemicals. A chemical plant may include supporting and service facilities, such as storage, utility, and aste treatment units. 95

0.8.1 Fluid se#"ice " a general term concerning the application of a piping system, considering the combination of fluid properties, operating conditions, and other factors hich establish the basis for design of the piping system. (ee Appendi# 5. a. Cate2o#y 0. Fluid Se#"ice " a fluid service in hich all the

follo ing apply " the fluid handled is nonflammable, nonto#ic, and not damaging to human tissues as defined in para 800.1 ; 1. the design gage pressure does not e#ceed 0085 !PA ,050 psi. ; and 8. the design temperature is from H1K o & ,310o /. through 0J:o & ,8::o /. b. Cate2o#y - Fluid Se#"ice " a fluid service in hich the potential hich a

for personnel e#posure is *udged to be significant and in

single e#posure to a very small %uantity of a to#ic fluid, caused by lea!age, can produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or bodily contact, even measures are ta!en. c. Hi2E P#essu#e Fluid Se#"ice " a fluid service for see also para. A800 d. No#6al Fluid Se#"ice " a fluid service pertaining to most piping covered by this &ode, i.e. not sub*ect to the rules for &ategory 4, &ategory 5, or 'igh Pressure /luid (ervice. 96 hich the o ner hen prompt restorative

specifies the use of &hapter I> for piping design and construction;

0.8.8 Pet#oleu6 #e%ine#y H an industrial plant for processing or handling of petroleum and products derived directly from petroleum. (uch a plant may be an individual gasoline recovery plant, a treating plant, a gas processing plant ,including li%uefaction., or an integrated refinery having various process units and attendant facilities. 0.8.9 Pi4in2 co64onents H mechanical elements suitable for *oining or assembly into pressure3tight fluid3containing piping systems. &omponents include pipe, fittings, flanges, gas!ets, bolting, valves, and devices such as e#pansion *oints, fle#ible *oints, pressure hoses, traps, strainers, in3line portions of instruments, and separators.

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97

ESI1N OF PIPES FOR SER0ICE CON ITIONS

!.! ESI1N CON ITIONS 3

This paragraph defines the temperatures, pressures, and forces applicable to the design of piping, and states the considerations that shall be given to various effects and their conse%uent loadings.

0.0.0

esi2n P#essu#e " The design pressure of each component in a piping system shall be not less than the pressure at the most severe condition of coincident internal or e#ternal pressure and temperature ,minimum or ma#imum. e#pected during service.

0.0.1

esi2n Te64e#atu#e " The design temperature of each component in a piping system is the temperature at hich, under the coincident pressure, the greatest thic!ness or highest component rating is re%uired.

0.0.8

esi2n -ini6u6 Te64e#atu#e " The design minimum temperature is the lo est component temperature e#pected in service.

0.0.9 Bases %o#

esi2n St#esses "

The bases for establishing design stress values ,allo able stress values. for metallic materials in this &ode are as follo s.

98

7asic allo able stress values at temperature for materials not e#ceed the lo est of the follo ing " 0. 1. the lo er of one3third of (5T( and one3third of tensile strength at temperature; the lo er of t o3third of (5P( and t o H thirds of yield strength at temperature;

).)

?EL

JOINT @UALIT8 FACTORF EJ 3

eld *oint %uality factors 6 * tabulated in Table A307 elded *oints for pressure3

7asic Nuality /actors. The

are basic factors for straight or spiral longitudinal containing components as sho n in Table 801.8.9 Increased Nuality /actors. factors

Table 801.8.9 also indicates higher *oint %uality

hich may be substituted for those in Table A307 for certain !inds of

elds if additional e#amination is performed beyond that re%uired by the product specification.

).,

PRESSURE

ESI1N OF CO-PONENTS 3

1.8.0 St#ai2Et Pi4e " The re%uired thic!ness of straight sections of pipe shall be determined in accordance ith follo ing e%uation. tm R t Y c The minimum thic!ness T for the pipe selected considering manufacturer+s minus tolerance, shall be not less than tm.

99

The follo ing nomenclature is used in the e%uations for pressure design of straight pipe. tm t c T d P 4 6 ( P R R R R R R R R R R minimum re%uired thic!ness, including mechanical, corrosion, and erosion allo ances. pressure design thic!ness. the sum of the mechanical allo ances ,thread or groove depth. plus corrosion and erosion allo ances. pipe all thic!ness ,measured or minimum per purchase specification inside diameter of pipe. internal design gage pressure. outside diameter of pipe as listed in tables of standards or specification or as measured. %uality factor from Table A30A or A307 stress value of materials. coefficient from Table 809.0.0, valid for t U 4-: and for materials sho n. The value of P may be interpolated for intermediate temperatures.

/or t V 4-:, d Y 1c 333333333333 4 Y dY1c

St#ai2Et Pi4e Unde# Inte#nal P#essu#e " /or t U 4-:, the internal pressure design thic!ness for straight pipe shall be not less than that calculated in accordance ith 6%. ,8a. " P4 333333333333333 1,(6 Y PP.

100

/ollo ing 6%uation may be used instead of above e%uation P4 3333333 1(6

/or t V 4-: or for P-(6 V 0.8J5, calculation of pressure design thic!ness for straight pipe re%uires special consideration of factors such as theory of failure, effects of fatigue, and thermal stress. 1.8.1 BlanDs " The minimum re%uired thic!ness of a permanent blan! ,representative configurations sho n in /ig. 809.5.8. shall be calculated in accordance ith 6%. ,05. 8P 333333333 Y c 0:(6

tm

dg

here3 dg R inside diameter of gas!et for raised or flat face flanges, or the gas!et pitch diameter for ring *oint and fully retained gas!eted flanges. same as defined earlier. design gage pressure same as defined earlier sum of allo ances defined earlier. WWWW

6 P ( c

R R R R

101

).

-ATERIALS

1ene#ic

esc#i4tion3

&lassification of materials by generic description involves the grouping of materials into broad categories according to certain attributes such as general composition, mechanical properties, product form, or end use. There are no precise rules governing hich attributes to apply in defining material groups, and the level of detail afforded the classification system depends largely on the level of detail needed to communicate specific ideas. &onse%uently, materials may be generically grouped according to very broad characteristics, for e#ample metal or nonmetal, ferrous or nonferrous, or cast or rought. Alternatively, materials may be placed in more narro ly defined generic groups such as mild steel, 8>> series stainless steel, or ;i&r5o alloy. 2ith piping materials, generic grouping based on alloy content is most popular. These groups usually reflect the primary alloy content, and may include varying levels of comple#ity depending upon the e#tent to hich one needs to communicate specific material needs. Table35.0 gives an indication of the progression from simple generic descriptors, to comple# generic descriptors, hich may involve some elements of a standardi)ed classification system ,e.g., 800 series austenitic stainless steel..

Table &.! Le"els o% 1ene#ic Classi%ication o% -ate#ials (imple &arbon (teel =o Alloy (teel (tainless (teel ;ic!el Alloy Intermediate =o &arbon (teel &r35o (teel Austenitic (tainless (teel 'igh ;ic!el Alloy &omple# /ully Ailled, =o &arbon (teel 1 D &r305o (teel 800 (eries Austenitic (tainless (teel ;i&r5o Alloy

102

Beneric material descriptions are fre%uently used during the early stages of a pro*ect, including pro*ect definition, conceptual design, front end design, preliminary design, process design, and-or budget estimation. /or materials selection purposes during these stages, the user must be a are of &ode re%uirements, but is not loo!ing for a precise solution for each piping system. $ather, the user should be loo!ing at more global issues including resistance of generic material groups to various forms of corrosion, material cost and availability for various product forms, delivery times, need for %ualification testing, and e#istence of suitable forming and *oining technology. Trade ;ames and Proprietary 4esignations Trade names are used by manufacturers to uni%uely identify their materials and products. (ample trade names include Inconel :15, Incoloy J15, 'astelloy &3175, &arpenter 10&b38, Allegheny3 =udlum Al3: >;, 5ather G Platt >eron 000, =incoln /leet eld 5PY, and I45 0K15h5o. Although there are definite commercial reasons for the e#istence of trade names ,e.g., typically to induce purchasers to specify and buy only the product of a particular manufacturer., many manufacturers and trade associations publish trade name e%uivalency charts. &onse%uently, there is usually no need to restrict material selections through use of a single trade name. 'o ever, t o e#ceptions do e#ist here it may be necessary to specify materials by trade name. The e#ceptions are" a. 5aterials of very recent development, still be protected by patent right, and b. (ophisticated materials re%uired for very severe service situations, here all potential manufacturers may not be e%ually capable of ma!ing the same %uality of product. ,/or certain high alloy materials, minor chemistry or processing modifications can dramatically affect alloy performance..

Co66on AST- Ca#bon Steel Pi4in2 -ate#ials3

/or everyday or!, most piping systems are constructed from carbon steel. 5aterial designations are seemingly inconsistent and random and, for the most part, !no ledge of specifications and grades can only be gained ith e#perience. ;evertheless, for practical guidance, specification and grade designations can be grouped according to product form and notch toughness properties, as in Table 5.00. Table &.!( Co66on AST- Ca#bon Steel Pi4in2 -ate#ial S4eci%ications B 1#ades 103

Product /orms Pipe /langes G /orged /ittings 2rought /ittings &astings 7olts, (tuds, and &ap (cre s ;uts ;otes to Table 5.00 0. 1.

(ee ;ote,s. 1 8

A(T5 5aterials ithout Impact Tests A 58 Br. 7 A 00: Br.7 A 005 A 189 Br. 2P7 A 10: Br. 2&7 A 10: Br. 2&&

A(T5 5aterials ith Impact Tests A 888 Br. 0 A 888 Br. : A 850 Br. =/1 A 910 Br. 2P=: A 851 Br. =&7 A 851 Br. =&& A 810 Br. =7 A 810 Br. =75 A 0K9 Br. 7 A 0K9 Br. 75

9,5

A 0K8 Br. 77 A 0K8 Br. 775

9,5

A 0K9 Br. 1' A 0K9 Br. 1'5

8. 9. 5.

&olumn headings refer to impact testing re%uirements of the material manufacturing specifications. /or A(T5 A 58, the type of pipe should also be specified, here ( R (eamless, 6 R 6lectric $esistance 2elded, and / R /urnace 7utt 2elded. ;ote" Type ( is normally used for pressure piping, Type 6 is sometimes used, but Type / is rarely used. /orged fittings include eldolets, threadolets, and soc!olets ,2@T, T@=, (@=.. 775, 1'5, =75, A;4 75 refers to grades ith strength and hardness control, typically for resistance to sulfide stress crac!ing in sour ,' 1(. environments. (ee also ;A&6 5$@075. Nuenched and tempered lo alloy bolting has e#cellent notch toughness at lo er temperatures. 780.8 permits use of lo alloy steel bolting to lo er temperatures than ould be e#pected for corresponding carbon steel piping components. (ee the L5in. TempM. &olumn of 780.8 Table A31 for lo er limit of temperature.

104

-ate#ial ReGui#e6ents o% B,!.,3

5aterials considerations are specifically covered in 780.8 &hapter III, but there are also material references in many other chapters. The &ode categorises various fluids as belo , the material selection many times is governed by nature of fluid. Table &.!! Fluid Se#"ice Cate2o#ies ;ormal /luid (ervice Pertains to most piping covered by the &ode and includes piping not classified ithin the other fluid services listed belo E]800.1F. (ervice in hich the fluid is nonflammable, nonto#ic, and not damaging to human tissue; the design pressure does not e#ceed 050 psig ,0080 !Pag.; and the design temperature is from 310^/ ,31K^&. T@ 8::^/ ,0J:^&.E]800.1F. (ervice in hich a single e#posure to a very small %uantity of to#ic fluid can produce serious irreversible harm on breathing or body contact, even hen prompt restorative measures are ta!en E]800.1F. (ervice hich applies hen designated by the o ner, typically for pressures in e#cess of that allo ed by A(56 70:.5 &lass 1500 rating, for the specified design temperature and material group E]!800,a.F. 'igh Pressure ,A. (ervice . ;otes to Table 5.00 a. /or e#act descriptions and classification of fluid service, refer to 780.8. b. (evere cyclic conditions are defined by 780.8 as Lconditions hich are vibrating, cyclic or fatigue in nature, ith ( 6 e#ceeding 0.J (A and ith the e%uivalent number of cycles e#ceeding 7000; or other conditions hich the designer determines ill produce an e%uivalent effect E]800.1F.M 6ven though it may appear that severe cyclic conditions satisfy the 780.8 definition for a Lfluid serviceM, they have not been included as a separate fluid service in the above table because, hen severe cyclic conditions e#ist, they are typically a subset of one of the other four listed fluid services. -ate#ials and S4eci%ications HI,),.!J

Cate2o#y

Se#"ice

&ategory 5 (ervice

105

780.8 classifies materials as listed, unlisted, un!no n, or reclaimed, and places conditions on the used of such materials. Table 5.01 summari)es the characteristics of each material classification. In most cases, &ode users deal ith listed materials. These may be considered as materials, hich are Lpre%ualifiedM for &ode use based on inherent properties E]818F and listed in 780.8 Tables A30 and A31. /or pressure design purposes, the &ode provides stress values for the listed materials as a function of temperature ,since mechanical behavior is temperature dependent.. 'o ever, the suitability of a particular material for a particular fluid service is beyond the scope of the &ode E]800,c.,:.F. A materials specialist should be consulted to ensure correct materials selection for a fluid service. Te64e#atu#e Li6itations HI,),.)J 780.8 recogni)es that material properties and behavior in service are temperature dependent. A significant portion of b80.8 &hapter III deals ith temperature limitations for materials, in particular lo er temperature limits here impact testing may apply. The &ode also imposes cautionary and restrictive temperature limits in Tables A30 and A31, and re%uires designers to verify that materials are suitable for service throughout the operating temperature range E]818.1F. Table &.!) -ate#ial Classi%ications H I,),.!J

=isted 5aterials

E]818.0.0F Those materials or components hich conform to a specification listed in 780.8 Appendi# A, Appendi# 7, or Appendi# A, or to a standard listed in 780.8 Table 81:.0, A81:.0 or A81:.0. for pressure design, listed materials and allo able stress values are provided for listed materials, these are most convenient to use. E]818.0.1F Those materials hich conform to a published specification covering chemistry, physical, and mechanical properties, method and process of manufacture, heat treatment, and %uality control, and hich other ise meet the re%uirement of the &ode. E]818.0.8F Those materials of un!no n specifications, not to be used for pressure containing piping components. E]818.0.9F ?sed materials, hich have been salvaged and properly identified, as conforming to a listed or published specification.

?nlisted 5aterials

?n!no n 5aterials $eclaimed 5aterials

?pper Temperature =imits E]818.1.0F

106

?pper temperature limits for listed limited materials are the ma#imum temperatures for hich a stress value or rating is sho n directly in or referenced by the &ode. The &ode may also provide notes to the stress value tables, precautionary information in Appendi# /, and -or restrictions ithin the te#t of &ode. /or e#ample, from Table A30, the upper temperature limit for A(T5 A 00: Brade 7 pipe is 0000^/ even though there are t o notes pertaining to use of the material above J00^/ and K00^/, respectively. ]/818.9,a. ,1. and ]/818.9,a.,9. also discuss these notes. @f course, the &ode does permit use of listed materials at temperatures above the ma#imum indicated by the stress value or rating, provided there is no prohibition in the &ode E]818.1.1,a.F and provided the designer verifies the serviceability of the material E]818.1.0,b.F. Ierification ould typically involve material specialists ith an engineering bac!ground and a Lsound scientific program carried out in accordance ith recogni)ed technologyM E]818.1.9F. =o er Temperature =imits and Impact Testing E]818.1.1F =o er temperature limits for materials are established as a means of controlling ris! of brittle fracture. Terms fre%uently used in lo er temperature limit discussions include notch sensitivity, impact testing, &harpy testing, and notch brittleness. /or must &ode users, the basic %uestion to be ans ered is" L4o I need to use impact tested materialsM, ans ering the %uestion can be comple# and convoluted; ho ever, the basic steps to determining the ans er are listed belo and are discussed in detail in the follo ing paragraphs. a. select the design minimum temperature for the piping. This may involve process engineering and or heat transfer specialists, and consideration of ambient temperature effects. b. obtain the minimum permissible temperature for the proposed piping materials according to 780.8 rules.

c. /ollo the instructions of 780.8 to determine hether impact tests are re%uired ,e.g., Table 818.1.1.. d. If impact tests are re%uired, consult the additional re%uirements of 780.8 regarding impact test methods and acceptance criteria. Co66on Code Pa#a2#a4Es Relatin2 to NotcE Tou2Eness and Lo$ Te64e#atu#e ReGui#e6ents /or the convenience of users of the guide, several clauses and tables applicable to 780.8 impact testing re%uirement are listed in Table 5.05 belo . ?sers are cautioned that this guide is not a substitute for the A(56 780.8 &ode, hich should be consulted for all re%uirements affecting pressure piping design and construction. Table 5.05 780.8 &lauses and Tables Applicable to Impact Testing

107

&lause or Table 800.8.0 800.5.0 800.K 801.1.9,h. 80K.1.1 810.0.9,c . 818.1 818.1.1 818.1.8 818.8 818.9.1,a. 818.9.1,b. Table 818.8.0 Table 818.1.1 Table 818.8.5 Table A30 Table A31

4escription 4esign 5inimum Temperature 4ynamic 6ffects H Impact $educed 4uctility 6ffects Allo ances for Pressure and Temperature Iariations ,belo minimum temperature sho n in Appendi# A. the

&arbon (teel 7olting ,note that 775, =75, 77, =7, 1'5, 75, 1', and 7 are lo alloy steels, not carbon steels. 5aterials ,of un!no n specification used for piping supports. Temperature =imitations =o er Temperature =imits, =isted 5aterials Temperature =imits, ?nlisted 5aterials Impact Testing 5ethods and Acceptance &riteria 4uctile Iron @ther &ast Irons Impact Testing $e%uirements for 5etals $e%uirements for =o Temperature Toughness Tests for 5etals

5inimum $e%uired &harpy I3;otch Impact Ialues 7asic Allo able (tresses in Tension for 5etals ,see 5in. Temp. column and ;ote : at the beginning of the table. 4esign (tress Ialues for 7olting 5aterials ,see 5in. Temp. column and ;ote : at the beginning of the table.

-ate#ials Selection 2hen selecting materials for plant piping systems, legal, code, commercial, and technical considerations must be addressed.

108

Le2al Conside#ations =egal considerations include understanding and appreciation of" a. legislation applicable to the *urisdiction having authority over the design, construction and operation of the piping system; and b. contracts hich e#ist bet een various parties. /or e#ample, many states, provinces, and countries have legislated the use of 780.8 rules for construction of piping systems, so the &ode essentially become a legal document. =ocal *urisdictions may also operate under government acts and regulations, hich impose additional re%uirements that, may be" a. technical ,e.g., prohibitions concerning certain materials or design practices., or b. organi)ational ,e.g., registration of designs, registration of registration and accreditation of %uality control systems. elding procedures,

/or many pro*ects, contract documents, including specifications prepared by the o ner or o ner+s engineer, impose restrictions on" a. 5aterials ,e.g., %uality level, notch toughness properties, service environment, product form., and b. /abrication-construction methods ,e.g., bending, forming, hydrotest ater %uality, cleaning chemicals. B,!., Code Conside#ations As indicated earlier in this chapter, the 780.8 &ode is concerned ith pressure integrity ,safety.. This is manifest, for e#ample, through provision of allo able design stresses as a function of temperature, rules for notch toughness evaluation and brittle fracture avoidance, restrictions for various fluid service categories, re%uirements for eld procedure %ualifications, restrictions on forming and bending practices, e#amination re%uirements, and numerous prohibitions, limitations, conditions, and precautionary measures scattered throughout the &ode. elding, heat treating,

Although &ode issues must be considered in the material selection process, the &ode does not instruct the user on ho to select specific materials. ]800, c.,:. states" L&ompatibility of materials ith the service and ha)ards from instability of contained fluids are not ithin the scope of this &ode. (ee Para. /818M. The first sentence of ]/818,a. states" L(election of materials to resist deterioration in service is not ithin the

109

scope of this &odeM. &learly, the technical issues related to materials selection must be considered by personnel ith specific training in this area. Co66e#cial Conside#ations 5aterials decisions invariably have an impact on pro*ect cost and schedule. &an the material be purchased in the re%uirement form_ 2hat ill be the initial cost_ 2hen ill the material be available_ 2hat is the life cycle cost relative to other material options_ 2ho can fabricate the material into a piping system_ 2hen can it be delivered and at hat cost_ 2hat are the anticipated maintenance costs ith the selected material_ These %uestions can be difficult to ans er, but every materials decision has a commercial impact, hich must be considered. The level of detail given to study of the commercial impact is idely variable depending on pro*ect scope, technical comple#ity, and management. TecEnical Conside#ations Technical considerations begin ith an understanding of process and containment re%uirements including pressure, temperature, fluid velocity, and fluid characteristics, as ell as ris! and conse%uences of failure. 5aterial properties are then evaluated in light of this understanding, and generally include consideration of chemical, mechanical, and physical properties, as ell as corrosion resistance, eldability, and formability. /undamentally, final materials selection involves the proper matching of material properties ith process design conditions, mechanical design conditions, fabrication and construction conditions, and operating conditions.

Table 5.0: provides and overvie pro*ect variables.

of some material selection issues relative to other

P#oAect 0a#iable

-ate#ials Selection Issues Beneral eight loss corrosion =ocali)ed corrosion ,pitting, crevice, fretting. 110

Process 4esign &onditions and &orrosion

$esistance 5echanical 4esign &onditions and 5echanical Properties

/abrication and &onstruction &onditions

@perating &onditions

(tress corrosion crac!ing ,a.!.a environmental crac!ing. (trength ,i.e., re%uired thic!ness. 4uctility and resistance to brittle fracture 'ardness ,re%uirements usually lin!ed to process design via stress corrosion crac!ing issues =o temperature notch toughness ,in addition to ambient temperature effects, can also be lin!ed to process design such as significant Ooule3 Thompson effects on blo do n of high pressure gases, or handling of cryogenic fluids. 'igh temperature strength and creep resistance Iibration and fatigue resistance shop or field or!, including availability of e%uipment and s!illed personnel forming and bending needs *oining needs , elding, threading, bra)ing, and soldering. ease of maintenance and repair, including availability of e%uipment and s!illed personnel ,e.g., manned or unmanned plant. product delivery re%uirements, planned on H stream efficiency, and proposed plant or unit turnaround schedule ade%uacy of pro*ect safeguards H e.g., prevention of lea!age bet een streams ,one or t o chec! valves., ade%uacy of pressure and temperature controls

/rom Table 5.0:, one might correctly assume that selection of materials is an evolutionary process, especially for technically comple# pro*ects. Benerally the materials selection process involves a series of steps, separated in time, ith each step narro ing do n possibilities until the best option is determined. As pro*ect details unfold, this narro ing of options is typically manifested by a change in the ay materials are identified, going from very generic descriptions ,e.g., stainless steel. to specifications, type, and grade ,e.g., A(T5 A 801 TP809=.. The level of detail applied during materials selection depends heavily on factors such as the scope, si)e and comple#ity of the pro*ect, the stage of the pro*ect, the corporate style of the participants, and the availability of materials specialists. Although the steps sometimes overlap, careful analysis of several pro*ects ould sho at least three distinct phases of materials selection ith the follo ing characteristics" a. &onceptual design 3 overvie of process technology 111

b. Process design H details of process technology c. 5echanical design H primary scope of 780.8 &onceptual 4esign H overvie of Process Technology

4evelopment of a materials selection and corrosion control philosophy for a pro*ect normally begins ith evaluation and understanding of the process technology. Although this step in the materials selection process is not al ays evident or obvious, and may even be omitted hen the process is ell understood, it is a logical starting point for a grass roots pro*ect. As an e#ample, in the very early stages of pro*ect development, here Lballpar!M economics are being thrashed out, the main interest of management is Lbig pictureM material costs. That dreaded classic %uestion generally reaches the materials specialist. 'o much stainless steel do e have to buy_. @f course, at the conceptual stage process details can be s!etchy at best, so there is much crystal ball ga)ing at this point. ;evertheless, best efforts are made to provide a very generic overvie of material options, !no ing that management doesn+t generally understand that there are at least fifty different !inds of stainless steel, each ith its o n uni%ue price and delivery terms, and hundreds of material options that go by much stranger sounding names than Lstainless steelM. The *ob of the materials specialist, ho may also be called the corrosion specialist, is to e#amine the proposed process for any ma*or issues, hich could *eopardi)e the pro*ect in financial and-or schedule terms. This is normally done in consultation ith process professionals ho have defined the process in terms of bloc! flo diagrams, process stream compositions, and chemical reactions that may occur. A fe typical %uestions to be ans ered during conceptual design are listed belo . a. b. c. d. Are carbon steels ade%uate_ &an coatings or chemicals be used economically to control corrosion_ If high alloy materials are re%uired, ho much ill they cost_ 'o ell is the interaction bet een the process environment and the material understood_ e. Is there a re%uirement for materials testing prior to selection_ f. &ould re%uired materials testing *eopardi)e the pro*ect in financial or schedule terms_ As an e#ample, consider conceptual design for a plant for handling high velocity et natural gas at 0000psi, ith 15Q &@ 1 and '1( AT 100^/. 7are carbon steel ould not be a li!ely candidate material due to e#cessive eight loss corrosion. Inhibitors could be considered, but ade%uate corrosion control may not be possible. The process is a bit hot for conventional organic coatings or plastic liners. 7oth &@ 1 and '1( could permeate the coating and cause coating failure if the system ere sub*ect to rapid pressure changes. Intermediate alloys containing chromium could or! ith ade%uate control elding and heat treatment. 'igh alloy steels ,stainless steels. could also or!, but

112

there is a large increment in cost and there may be potential for chlorides and resultant chloride stress corrosion crac!ing ,&I(&&.. P#ocess esi2n

If development economics favor further or!, the ne#t phase of material selection is generally made coincident ith or slightly lagging behind process design. Process information is e#amined in detail and materials are selected based on compatibility ith process stream characteristics and other e#ternal variables if they are !no n. 4ecisions often re%uire consultation ith process engineers for clear understanding of process conditions, including steady and non3steady state conditions such as start3up, upset, planned shutdo n, and unplanned shutdo n. As an e#ample of the material selection process for a given stream, one might designate piping materials such as carbon steel ,&(. ith a suitable corrosion ere important. 'o ever, if it is also !no n that the pipe might be e#posed to lo ambient temperatures here impact properties ere re%uired, one might upgrade the material selection to &(IT ,carbon steel, impact tested. . /or another stream, hich could be considered very corrosive, one might specify 8>>= stainless steel, here L=M grade is imposed to resist 'AC sensiti)ation during elding, and the possibility of intergranular corrosion is service. If that same stream contained an a%ueous chloride phase at J0^&, 8>> ould be susceptible to &I(&&. In that case, one might specify a duple# stainless steel or superduple# stainless steel, depending upon chloride level, o#ygen content and temperature. 2hile there is no single method for ma!ing and documenting materials selection decisions, the normal output at this stage of a pro*ect is a &orrosion and 5aterials $eport. The ord corrosion is generally included in the title of the report, since many of the material selection decisions reflect a response to corrosion predictions. The report typically contains the basis for decision ma!ing, as ell as narratives describing issues, concerns, and limitations governing final materials selection for a given portion of the process. 5aterial selection diagrams ,5(4+s. and-or material selection tables are generally included ith the &orrosion and 5aterials $eport. 5(4+s are typically modified process flo diagrams ,P/4+s. sho ing generic material choices and corrosion allo ances for each corrosion circuit. &orrosion circuits are elements of the process ith similar corrosion characteristics, and are fre%uently e%uivalent to process streams defined on the P/4, or to subsets of process streams. Presentation of materials selection data in diagram is generally the most useful format for communication ith other design professionals, ho ill use the information during completion of subse%uent or!. (uch presentation also assists in maintaining materials engineering input on the pro*ect. A simplified e#ample of a 5(4 for an amine s eetening unit is sho n in /igure 5.0

113

4uring the mechanical design stage, the process characteristics sho n by process simulations and P/4+s and the material re%uirements sho n by the &orrosion and 5aterials $eport and 5(4+s, are carefully e#amined. Then a piping class, hich summari)es detailed mechanical and material re%uirements, is generally assigned to each line in the piping system. ;ote that the use of piping classes is not a 780.8 re%uirement; it is a typical approach to mechanical design ithin the pressure piping industry. An e#ample of a simple piping class is sho n in /igure 5.1. It is a table of information for a given pressure rating and service characteristic, hich describes acceptable piping component types and dimensions, as ell as material specifications, types, classes, and-or grades. Piping components include pipe, forgings, fittings, valves, bolting, gas!ets, and other piping specials. ?sually the piping class contains information about corrosion allo ance, post eld heat treatment, and nondestructive e#amination. 2ithin a corporation, piping classes often e#ist from previous pro*ects, or are supplied by the firm contracted to complete the engineering. 2hen they do not e#ist, they are usually developed on the basis of process, material, and mechanical re%uirements. The piping class designator is typically an alphanumeric descriptor such s 41 or AA1?, hich is sho n on the piping dra ings ,collectively, a group of dra ings including P G I4+s, 5/4+s, piping plans and sections, and isometrics., usually as part of the line number. a typical line number ould be : in '&389101341, here : in. is the nominal pipe si)e, '& is the commodity descriptor ,e.g., hydrocarbon., 89101 is the line serial number, and 41 is the piping class. (pecification brea!s, hich may be for material or pressure reasons, are also applied to piping dra ings. 4epending on pro*ect scope and technical comple#ity, the mechanical design stage may also include preparation of detailed material specifications ,stand alone or supplementary. to address issued such as material chemistry, processing re%uirements, product form ,cast, forged, elded., fracture toughness, eldabilty, heat treatment, nondestructive e#amination, and various forms of corrosion resistance.

WWWWWWWW

114

,. FABRICATIONF ASSE-BL8F AN ERECTION

Int#oduction3

&hapter I of the 780.8 &ode is devoted to the fabrication, assembly, and erection of piping systems. These terms are defined by ]800.1 as follo s. a. /abrication is the preparation of piping for assembly, including cutting, threading, grooving, forming, bending, and *oining of components into subassemblies. /abrication may be performed in the shop or in the field. Assembly is the *oining together of t o or more piping components by bolting, elding, bonding, scre ing, bra)ing, soldering, cementing, or use of pac!ing devices as specified by the engineering design. 6rection is the complete installation of a piping system in the locations and on the supports designated by the engineering design, including any field assembly, fabrication, e#amination, inspection, and testing of the system as re%uired by the code.

b.

c.

/abrication, assembly, and erection re%uire the use of many special processes including" a. /orming and bending by cold and hot methods; b. Ooining by elding, bra)ing, soldering, or mechanical methods including threading, flanging, specialty high pressure connections, and mechanical interference fits ,5I/.; and c. 'eat treatment by local methods, or by permanent or temporary furnaces. 780.8 assumes some understanding of the special processes used during fabrication, assembly, and erection of piping systems. 'o ever, as ith materials of construction, the level of understanding is idely varied and often restricted to a fe processes in the user+s repertoire of e#perience. &onse%uently, the ob*ective of this chapter is to e#plore the basic technology behind some of the special processes in relation to re%uirements of the &ode.

115

Bendin2 and Fo#6in2 HI,,)J 1ene#al 7ending and forming processes are sophisticated technical operations. An evaluation of the effects of bending and forming on material properties is integral to the use of such products in piping systems. In this light, the follo ing &ode statements should be considered as more than simple motherhood" a. ]881.0 states" Lpipe may be bent and components may be formed by any hot or cold method hich is suitable for the material, the fluid service, and the severity of the bending or forming process.M b. ]881.8 states" Lthe temperature range for forming shall be consistent ith material, intended service, and specified heat treatmentM. These &ode clauses are intended to trigger the engineering input necessary to verify that final material properties ill be satisfactory for the intended service. And, even though the &ode does impose re%uirement for design ,e.g., ]809.1. and fluid service ,e.g.,]80:.1., engineering input is still needed. The &ode does not and can not provide rules to address the specific re%uirements of every situation. As part of an engineering evaluation, belo are some useful starting %uestions regarding the effects of bending and forming on material properties for a specific service. a. 2hat effect ill the bending or forming temperature and deformation parameters ,e.g., cold, arm, or hot bending, strain rate and total strain. have on strength, ductility, hardness and notch toughness of the resulting bend_ b. 2hat effect ill the resulting microstructure have on general corrosion, locali)ed corrosion ,galvanic, pitting, and-or crevice corrosion., stress corrosion crac!ing, or long3term mechanical properties_ c. 2hat are the ris!s relative to formation of hard spots, undesirable precipitation effects, fatigue resistance, and creep resistance_ 'opefully the above %uestions ould be ans ered ith the help of metallurgical and-or corrosion specialists, in combination ith suitable testing hen appropriate. Bendin2 The need for changes to the direction of flo in piping systems has traditionally been accommodated through the use of manufactured fittings such as elbo s and tees. 'o ever, changes to direction of flo may also be made through the use of pipe bends. In fact, ith modern e%uipment, substantial economic benefits can be derived from the

116

use of bends, by virtue of reduced fitting, ,;46. costs.

elding, and nondestructive e#amination

7efore e#amining bends in detail, a fe comments regarding bend types may be useful to readers ith no bending e#perience. In the bending and piping industries, bend types are often described by a multitude of terms. Although a formal classification system does not e#ist, bends are usually referred to in terms of" a. 5ethod of manufacture, including cold bends, hot bends, furnace bends, induction bends, arm bends, ram bends, three point bends, miter bends, segmented bends, corrugated bends, and creased bends; b. =ocation of manufacture, that is, field bends or factory bends; c. (hape or appearance, such as =3bends, (3bends, rin!le bends, miter bends, segmented bends, corrugated bends, and creased bends; and d. /unction or end3use, such as sag bends, overbends, side bends, and combination bends. ;ote that several of the terms described in ,c. and ,d. above are rooted in cross3country pipeline construction, here bends are normally used to accommodate changes of elevation associated ith the terrain or to provide for e#pansion and contraction of the pipeline ith changes of temperature. /or plant piping systems, it is most common to use bending terms reflective of the method of manufacture, hich may include combinations of terms ,e.g., three point cold bend, hot furnace bend, hot induction bend.. $egardless of bend type, all bends have certain features and dimensional characteristics hich must be carefully specified during piping design and controlled during bend procurement and manufacture ,see /igure :.0.. . 780.8 addresses limitations on outer fiber elongation ,strain. in clauses dealing ith post bend heat treatment E]881.9F. In addition to 780.8 re%uirements, be cautions about outer fiber strain restrictions imposed by other standards, hich may be applicable to the piping system ,e.g., ;A&6 5$@07:.. Although not specified in 780.8, hen longitudinally elded pipe is used for bending, the longitudinal eld should be placed as near as practical to the neutral a#is of the bend. Heat T#eat6ents ReGui#ed A%te# Bendin2 o# Fo#6in2 Through heat treatment rules 780.8 does address some of the adverse effects of bending and forming operations on material properties. The rules are based on type of bending operation ,hot or cold., type of material, and outer fiber strain. $egardless of material thic!ness, heat treatment is re%uired according to conditions prescribed by ]880"

117

a. After hot bending and forming operations carried out on P nos.8, 9, 5, :, and 00A materials; b. After cold bending and forming. 0. of P3;o. 0 to P3;o.: materials here the outer fiber elongation in the direction of severest forming ,usually e#trudes. e#ceeds 50Q of specified minimum elongation stated for the specification grade, and thic!ness of the starting pipe material; 1. of any material re%uiring impact testing, if the ma#imum calculated fiber strain after bending or forming e#ceeds 5Q; and 8. hen specified by the engineering design. 2ith regard to ,a. above, the materials listed are capable of transformation hardening hen cooled from hot bending and forming temperatures, so heat treatment is aimed at restoring mechanical properties to a level reasonably consistent ith the starting materials. 2ith regard to ,b. above, or! hardening effects imparted by cold bending and forming reduce the ductility and notch toughness ,impact strength. of materials. As ell, cold bending and forming operations generate residual stresses in the finished parts. 'eat treatment is therefore applied as a tool to reduce the negative conse%uences of these effects ,e.g., brittle fracture.. ?eldin2 5ost people associated ith the pressure piping industry ill, at some point, come in contact ith elding. This could mean" a. 2riting a elding procedure, b. Nualify a elding procedure or elding personnel, c. $evie ing a elding procedure for acceptance of re*ection in a specific application, or d. 4oing the elding, hich ill li!ely involve trying to interpret someone else+s elding procedure. To laymen, elding is a magic act. 2ith the common arc elding processes, the arc ignites ith a flash of bright light, the magician , elder. moves the bright light along the interface bet een the metals and LprestoM, a eld is created. @f course, ell3informed piping professionals !no that elding is a lot more than smo!e and mirrors. It is a very comple# interdisciplinary science involving aspects of mechanical, civil, electrical, and metallurgical engineering. Thorough technical understanding of elding operations re%uires specific training, hich is only available at select engineering, technical, and trade schools. 780.8 provides elding guidance in the areas of" a. responsibility E]81J.0F, b. %ualificationsE]81J.1F, and

118

c. technical and or!manship criteria E]81J.8 through ]81J.:F. these are discussed in detail in the follo ing sections. ?eldin2 Res4onsibility HI,)9.!J 780.8 is very clear regarding responsibility for elding. ]81J.0 states" Leach employer is responsible for the elding done by the personnel of his organi)ation and; e#cept as provided in paragraphs. 81J.1.1 and 81J.1.8, shall conduct the tests re%uired to %ualify elding procedures, and to %ualify and as necessary re%ualify elders and elding operatorsM. This philosophy is consistent ith other sections of the A(56 code and ith similar codes, standards, and specifications around the orld. The t o e#ceptions in ]81J.0, regarding the need for employers to conduct %ualification tests, are" a. Procedure Nualifications 7y others E]81J.1.1F, and b. Performance Nualification 7y @thers E]81J.1.8F Although these e#emptions e#ist, the employer is not e#empt from responsibility for elds prepared according to procedures or personnel %ualified by others. &lose e#amination of the conditions attached to these e#emptions ill enhance understanding as to hy the employer is responsible for all elding. $egarding e#emption of an employer from eld procedure %ualifications through use of elding procedures %ualified by others, interpretation of 780.8 restrictions sho s that the e#emption is limited to lo ris! situations. /or the e#emption to apply, the &ode has the follo ing re%uirements" a. The inspector must be satisfied E]81J.1.1,a.F" 0. 1. 2ith the capability of the organi)ation providing the procedure E]81J.1.1,a.,0.F; and That the employer intending to use the procedure has not made any changes to it. elding

b. 7ase metals are restricted to P3;o. 0, P3;o. 8, P3;o. 9 Br. 0 ,08Q&r ma#.., or P3 ;o. J E]81J.1.1,b.F. c. Impact tests are not re%uired E]81J.1.1,b.F. d. 7ase metals to be *oined are of same P3;o., e#cept P3;o. 0, P3;o. 8, and P3;o. 9 Br. 0 may be elded to each other as permitted by A(56 (ection E>E]81J.1.1, c.F. e. 7ase metal thic!ness does not e#ceed \ in. ,0K mm. E]81J.1.1, d.F. f. P2'T is not re%uired E]81J.1.1, d.F g. 4esign pressure does not e#ceed A(56-A;(I 70:.5 &lass 800 at design temperature E]81J.1.1, e.F. h. 4esign temperature is in the range 310^/ through 750^/ ,31K^& through 8KK^&., inclusive E]81J.1.1, e.F

119

i. 2elding processes are restricted to (5A2 or BTA2 or combination thereof E]81J.1.1, f.F. *. 2elding electrodes are restricted to those listed in ]81J.1.1, g.. !. 6mployer accepts responsibility for both the 2P( and PN$ by a signature E]81J.1.1, h.F. l. 6mployer has at least one elder- elding operator ho, hile in his employ, has passed a performance %ualification test using the procedure and the P3;o. of material specified in the 2P(. Nualification must have been ith a bend test per A(56 (ection I> Para N23801. Nualification by radiography alone is not acceptable E]81J.1.1,i.F. Al ays consult the latest revision of the &ode for any changes to the e#emption restrictions, hich may occur from time to time. $egarding e#emption of an employer from performance %ualification testing, a performance %ualification made another employer may be accepted, sub*ect to the follo ing restrictions E]81J.1.8F" a. The inspector must specifically approve the e#emption. b. The %ualification is limited to piping using the same or e%uivalent procedure essential variables ithin the limits of A(56 (ection I>. ith

c. The employer must obtain a copy of the performance %ualification test record from the previous employer, hich contains information prescribed by ]81J.1.8. This re%uirement seriously restricts the portability of elding %ualifications. /or e#ample, hy ould an employer release such records to a competitor, unless the competitor is part of the same corporate group_ The restriction has been overcome in some ;orth American locations through %ualification tests administered by the *urisdiction having authority over the or! ,e.g., state or province.. In other locations, especially developing countries here massive pro*ects are underta!en, the portability restriction has been overcome by general acceptance of %ualification cards issued by some large local industrial organi)ation. Typically, the %ualifying organi)ation issues each elder a laminated I4 card containing the elder+s photograph and other %ualification information. @f course, elder performance %ualification cards are valuable. =aminated photographic I4 is essential and must be carefully controlled. /or e#ample, ithout laminated photographic I4 it ould be %uite possible to have one %ualified elder sho ing up at different test centers, passing %ualification tests for all of his friends. Alternatively, it ould be possible for un%ualified elders to be substituted on the or! by forgery of %ualification cards ithout photographic I4. ?eldin2 @uali%ication E]81J.1F

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Although the %ualification e#emptions discussed above may be used, normally the employer is re%uired to conduct elding %ualifications. 780.8 controls the details of elding %ualifications by referencing" a. A(56 (ection I>E]81J.1.0,a.F, b. (upplementary technical re%uirements E]81J.1.0,b. through 81J.1.0, f.F, and c. $e%uirements for %ualification records E]81J.1.9F. 7y e#ternal reference to A(56 (ection I>, the 780.8 &ode ta!es advantage of a general or!ing document governing elding %ualifications for the entire A(56 &ode. Topics in the follo ing paragraphs, hich address elding variables listed in A(56 (ection I>, are indicated by the LN2M prefi# to clause numbers. Joints HI@?*+()J The terminology used to describe eld *oints can be confusing, ith meaning often dependent on the industry sector here or! is carried out, as ell as on applicable codes and standards. 6#perience and intuition often form the basis for understanding various terms. /or e#ample, the term Lbutt eldM is commonly used in pressure piping applications to describe a butt *oint ith a groove eld, hich is typically a full penetration groove eld. To properly communicate distinction relative to" elding re%uirements it is important to ma!e some basic

a. *oint types, b. eld types, and c. *oint geometry and end preparation. /ollo ing from these basics, several supplementary details should also be considered, including" a. b. c. d. e. degree of *oint penetration full or partial, eld profile H conve# or concave, alignment and fit3up details, bac!ing type, if used, including eld metal and bac! elded *oints, and access for elding ,i.e., single elded *oints, double elded *oints.

Joint Ty4es

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There are five basic types of *oints, as described in Table :30. ;ote that the *oint is the interface bet een the members. This distinction is important, since it governs interpretation of eld symbols and thic!ness of the *oint ,e.g., for preheat purposes.. Table ..! Fi"e Basic Joint Ty4es 7utt Ooint &orner Ooint Tee *oint =ap *oint 6dge *oint A *oint bet een t o members aligned appro#imately in the same plane. A *oint bet een t o members appro#imately at right angles ,K0^. to each other A *oint bet een t o members appro#imately at right angles ,K0^. to each other, in the form of a T. A *oint bet een t o overlapping members. A *oint bet een the edges of t o or more parallel or nearly parallel members.

Ty4es o% ?elds There are three basic types of elds, as listed in Table :.1

Table ..) Basic ?eld Ty4es Broove 2eld /illet 2eld Plug or (lot 2eld A eld made in the groove bet een t o members to be *oined. A eld of appro#imately triangular cross section, *oining t o surfaces appro#imately at right angles to each other. A eld made through a circular or elongated hole in one member of a lap or T *oint, *oining that member to the surface of the other member e#posed through the hole.

End P#e4a#ation And Joint 1eo6et#y 6nd preparation E]81J.9.1F refers to the shape and dimensions of the base metal hen vie ed as a cross section at the elding end, prior to fit3up and elding. Ooint geometry refers to the shape and dimensions of a *oint hen vie ed in cross section after fit3up and prior to elding.

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/or pressure piping, *oint geometry refers mainly to the type of groove to be used, of hich there are many. 780.8 provides some guidance concerning end preparations and resultant *oint geometry E]81J.9.1,a.,1. and /ig. 81J.9.1F. /or manually elded piping butt *oints, the single3vee groove is most common. /or thic! *oints, ho ever, compound vee grooves may be used to reduce elding costs, distortion, and residual stress. In other situations, decision regarding *oint geometry involve consideration of several issues, including &ode re%uirements, selected elding process, si)e and type of filler metal, elding position, access to the root of the *oint, availability of suitable tools for *oint preparation, and economy. Joint Penet#ation Joint 4enet#ation #e%e#s to tEe 6ini6u6 de4tE tEat a 2#oo"e $eld e5tends %#o6 its %ace into tEe AointF e#clusive of reinforcement ,i.e., eld metal in e#cess of the %uantity re%uired to fill the *oint.. 2ith pressure piping, it is normal to aim for full ,complete. penetration elds here the eld metal completely fills the groove and is fused to the base metal throughout the total thic!ness. =imits on incomplete penetration are listed in 780.8 and discussed later in this boo!. In some cases, the engineering design may re%uire partial penetration *oints. The e#tent of penetration may be described in terms of the effective throat, although specification of the ma#imum amount of incomplete penetration is more useful hen nondestructive e#amination methods are applied to verify *oint %uality. As an e#ample of a situation here partial penetration *oints ould be used, consider a butt3 elded cement mortar lined piping system. 2ith this type of construction, a thin gas!et of suitable diameter ,e.g., compressed asbestos or e%uivalent. is spot glued to the cement surface of one member of a *oint. The other member is then fit up tight against the gas!et and the *oint is clamped. The root bead is then deposited, ta!ing care not to penetrate completely through the root face of the carrier pipe. If they are penetrates the root face of the carrier pipe, the gas!et may burn and loose its ability to provide a seal, or concentrated heat from the arc may cause the cement to crac! and fall a ay from the pipe all. BacDin2 2hile one normally thin!s of 100 and 800 series stainless steels in the classification of austenitic materials, the group also includes may nonferrous alloys. Imposes t o special re%uirements for nonferrous and nonmetallic bac!ing rings, specifically" 0. that the designer approve their use, and

123

1. that the elding procedure using them be %ualified as re%uired by ]81J.1.0,e.. in addition to the above &ode restrictions on bac!ing rings, designers normally prohibit their use for" a. corrosive services here the space bet een the ring and the pipe might be a location for crevice or pitting attac!. b. &yclic or vibrating services here notches associated development of fatigue crac!s, and c. &ryogenic or lo brittle fracture. temperature services ith rings become sites for

here notches become sites for initiation of

Consu6able Inse#ts HI,)9.).!;e<F I,)9.,.,J I,)9.,.,J indicates that consumable inserts may be used provided" a. they are of the same nominal composition as the filler metal, b. they ill not cause detrimental alloying of the eld metal, and c. their suitability is demonstrated by eld procedure %ualification E I81J.1.0,e.F. In general, the 780.8 position on consumable inserts is consistent ith that of A(56 (ection I>, hich treats consumable inserts as a nonessential variable for the common arc elding processes, hich ould use inserts ,e.g., BTA2.. 'o ever, under strict interpretation, the A(56 position on nonessential variables means that a 2P( could be amended ithout re%ualification, hether the insert ere added or deleted. ?nder 780.8 rules, addition or deleted. ?nder 780.8 rules, addition or deletion of an insert ould not be permitted ithout a supporting PN$ ,i.e., re%ualification. P#e*Eeatin2 " 780.8 defines preheating as the application of heat to the base metal immediately before or during a forming, elding, or cutting process E]800.1F. This definition has a slightly broader scope than the definition provided in A(56 (ection I> ]N2 H 9K1. 780.8 also states that preheat is used, along ith heat treatment to minimi)e the detrimental effects of high temperature and severe thermal gradients inherent in elding E]880.0F. Although not specifically mentioned in 780.8, these detrimental effects can include" a. cold ,hydrogen . crac!ing, b. hard, brittle heat affected )ones,

124

c. distortion, and-or d. high residual stress. Preheat can also be used to assist in the fusion ,melting. of metals ith high conductivity such as copper and copper alloys, and thic! sections of aluminum and aluminum alloys. Preheat is sometimes used to assist in the alignment of parts, but such practice is usually discouraged due to lac! of control over the alignment activity and the potential introduction of abnormally high stresses. A(56 (ection I> defines preheat temperature as the minimum temperature in the eld *oint preparation immediately prior to elding; or in the case of multiple pass elds, the minimum temperature in the section of the previously deposited eld metal, immediately prior to elding E]N2 H 9K1F. ;ote that the A(56 definition of preheat temperature as applied to multipass elds is also !no n as minimum interpass temperature in other codes, standards, and specifications. In this boo!, the term minimum interpass will be used when referring to the minimum temperature of the deposited eld metal before starting the ne#t pass of a multipass eld since, from a technical perspective, it is not al ays necessary that the temperature bet een passes meet or e#ceed the minimum preheat temperature at the start of the first pass. A(56 (ection I> defines interpass temperature as the highest temperature in the eld *oint immediately prior to elding, or in the case of multipass elds, the highest temperature in the section of the previously deposited eld metal, immediately before the ne#t pass is deposited E]N2 H 9K1F. Again, strictly spea!ing, the interpass temperature as defined by A(56 is the maximum interpass temperature. In practice, it is measured near the start of the ne#t pass. 5ost re%uirements for preheat and minimum interpass temperature control are aimed at prevention of cold crac!ing in transformation hardenable materials such as carbon steels, lo alloy steels, intermediate alloy steels, and martensitic stainless steels. /or cold crac!s to form, the four conditions listed in the left column of Table :37 must be satisfied simultaneously. The magnitude of any one of the four conditions cannot be defined ith accuracy and depends largely on the other three conditions. The beneficial effect of preheat on each of these conditions is sho n in the right column of Table :.7.

Table ..' In%luence o% P#eEeat and -ini6u6 Inte#4ass Te64e#atu#e on Conditions ReGui#ed %o# Cold C#acDin2 Conditions Necessa#y %o# Cold Bene%its o% P#eEeat and -ini6u6 C#acDin2 Inte#4ass Te64e#atu#e Cont#ol Presence of hydrogen in sufficient 4iffuses hydrogen a ay from the *oint, 125

%uantity. (ufficient tensile stress, hich may be applied, residual, or a combination of both. A susceptible microstructure, hich is normally interpreted to mean a hard microstructure, hence the fre%uent use of hardness tests to assess the ris! of cold crac!ing. A temperature threshold belo some critical level ,e.g.,800^/., hich depends some hat on alloy content and metal structure.

reducing the ris! of crac!ing. Alters stress distribution during elding and offers a small reduction of residual stress upon completion of elding. $educes probability of forming susceptible microstructure by slo ing the cooling rate. Aeeps the eldment above threshold temperature for crac!ing until the eld is completed.

Another term used by A(56 (ection I> is preheat maintenance. Although not specifically defined by the code, e#amination of ]N2 H 90:.1 sho s that the term applies to the maintenance or reduction of preheat upon completion of elding, prior to any re%uired post eld heat treatment. The primary reason for preheats maintenance after completion of elding is to continue diffusion of hydrogen from the eldment. It may also be used for reduction of thermal gradients and resulting residual stresses or distortions, and-or for isothermal transformation. 2hen preheat maintenance is specified for a elding procedure, it should include both temperature and time. (imply indicating LyesM on the eld procedure specification is meaningless. /or most &ode users, the follo ing %uestions regarding preheat and interpass control must be ans ered" a. 2hat preheat and minimum interpass temperatures should be used for the application_ b. 'o should the heat be applied_ c. 'o , here, and hen should the temperature be measured_ 4etailed technical ans ers to the above %uestions can be very comple#. (ince most piping applications involve some legal re%uirement ,contractual and-or *urisdictional., the obvious starting point for ans ers is to e#amine the minimum re%uirements of 780.8 and A(56 (ection I>. Preheating for all types of piping elds is covered in 780.8 under ]880. The second sentence of ]880.0 states" L The necessity for preheating and the temperature to be used shall be specified in the engineering design and demonstrated by procedure %ualificationM. If such re%uirements are not included in the engineering design, then the minimum &ode re%uirements are generally assumed. In addition to information contained in 780.8 Table 880.0.0, there are numerous other methods of evaluating or verifying re%uirements for preheat and interpass temperature control. (ome techni%ues, ith associated comments, are described belo "

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a. ;omographs are a favorite tool of technical specialists for estimating preheat re%uirements. @ne common method used for carbon and carbon3manganese steels as published by the 7ritish 2elding Institute in a boo! entitled 2elding (teels ithout 'ydrogen &rac!ing by /.$. &oe. The techni%ue has a sound scientific basis in that it accounts for base metal thic!ness, arc energy input, carbon e%uivalent, and hydrogen potential of the elding process. The publication also describes techni%ues for dealing ith alloy steels. b. /or the less technically inclined, the use of Lloo!3upM tables is very common. These may be in very simple or very comple# form. /or A(56 code users, the appendi# of a boo! entitled Weldability of Steels by R.D. (tout and 2.4.4oty can be a very useful source of preheat information. This appendi# is based on 2$& 7ulletin 0K0 first published in Oanuary 0K79 and republished in 5arch 0K7J. Although the information may appear to be a bit dated ,depending upon the current state of your career., it nevertheless addresses the comple# issues of base metal thic!ness, carbon content and general chemistry ,e, g., hardness and hardenability., and hydrogen potential. c. @ther sections of the A(56 code are often consulted for preheat information including A(56 (ection IIII, 4ivision 0, Appendi# $; A(56 (ection IIII, 4ivision 1, Appendi# 4; and A(56 (ection I, A H 000. d. (everal types of preheat calculators have been developed over the years. @ne common calculator is available from the =incoln 6lectric &ompany. It incorporates the influence of hydrogen, carbon e%uivalent and thic!ness on preheat selection. e. &omple# preheat calculation techni%ues have been published, hich relate cooling rates calculated by various formulae ,e.g., solutions to $osethal+s e%uations for heat flo from a moving heat source. to time3temperature transformation ,TTT or e%uivalent. diagrams. 'o ever, these techni%ues find little application ithin the pressure piping industry, due to the comple#ity of calculations, the need to select values for LconstantsM hich are not constant over the temperature ranges involved in elding, and the lac! of complete time3temperature transformation data for the materials involved. @f course, as computers continue to change our orld, one may find increasing application of these more fundamental methods. 780.8 does not restrict the methods of preheat, but some o ner specifications do. (ome methods of preheating include" a. @#yfuel gas fired torch ,propane, butane, and sometimes acetylene., b. 6lectric resistance elements, c. Induction coils, and

127

d. 6#othermic !its. /rom a practical elding perspective, the method of heating is not generally an issue as long as the correct preheat temperature is achieved, ith the heat uniformly applied throughout the full thic!ness and circumference of the *oint. In some cases, the use of o#yacetylene torches is prohibited by o ner specifications due to the intensity of the heat source and the ris! of local damage to the base metal or eld metal if the heat is concentrated at one location. 780.8 re%uires that the preheat temperature be chec!ed to ensure that the temperature specified by the 2P( is obtained prior to and during elding E]880.0.8,a.F. 'o ever, 780.8 does not prescribe" a. The e#act methods by hich temperature must be measured, b. The location of temperature measurements, or c. The timing of temperature measurements. te64e#atu#e 6easu#e6ents3 a. Temperature indicating crayons, thermocouple pyrometers, or other suitable means shall be used to measure temperature, E]880.0.8,a.F b. Thermocouples may be attached by capacitor discharge elding ithout the need for elding procedure and performance %ualifications, sub*ect to visual e#amination of the area after thermocouple removal, E]880.0.8,b.F and c. The preheat )one shall e#tend at least 0 inch beyond each edge of the eld. , ;ote that many o ner specifications re%uire at least 1 inches and some as much as : inches. E]880.0.9F. Although the &ode definitions of preheat and interpass temperature refer to the deposited eld metal, temperature measurement directly on hot eld metal can result in contamination and is generally discouraged. &ommon industry practice is to measure preheat and interpass temperature in a manner hich insures that the correct preheat has been reached from the edge of the elding groove to the outer limits of the specified preheat )one idth. Preheat temperature, by definition, is measured immediately before the start of elding; ho ever, interpass temperature measurement can be the sub*ect of some debate. 2hen interpass temperature control is re%uired by a 2P(, the interpass temperature

128

is normally measured immediately before the start of the ne#t pass, at the location here the ne#t pass ill be started. Purists may argue that by only measuring the temperature at the starting point of the ne#t pass, it is possible for the ne#t pass to be placed over eld metal thatis not e#actly ithin the interpass range. It+s true, of course, but practically spea!ing, interpass temperature measurement for process piping is hardly an e#acting science. 1as %o# SEieldin2F BacDin2F and Pu#2in2 H]@? K +(9J Protection of hot and molten metal from the atmosphere is a necessary part of most elding operations. Protection may be accomplished using" a. e#ternally supplied shielding, bac!ing, and purging gases, and-or b. flu#es hich decompose to give a slag covering and-or a gaseous shield. 6#ternally supplied protective gases prevent atmospheric contamination of the hot molten metal by displacing air from the eld area. In general, protective gases may be" a. Inert gases li!e helium or argon, hich do not react ith the hot metal, b. $eactive gases such as carbon dio#ide, nitrogen, or hydrogen, hich do react in a limited ay ith the hot metal and may be o#idi)ing or reducing depending upon the specific gas-metal interaction, or c. 5i#ture of inert and-or reactive gases ,e.g., 75Ar-15&@ 1 .. /or many elding applications, shielding gases are actually mi#turers of gases, ith the composition of the mi#ture optimi)ed to provide the best combination of shielding characteristics and process operating characteristics. (election of a gas depends on several some hat interrelated factors including" a. cost and availability at re%uired purity levels, b. 6ase of handling, stability, and physiological effects, c. 5etallurgical characteristics including solubility in metals being elded, reactions ith metals being elded and resultant degree of protection afforded to hot metal, effects on etting behavior, effects on penetration as it affects type and thic!ness of metals to be elded, and effects on end properties of the eld deposit, and d. 2elding process characteristics including elding position, ease of arc ignition as influenced by ioni)ation potential of the gas, arc stability, and penetration as affected by thermal conductivity of the gas.

129

(olubility is a particularly important issue in gas selection, since dissolved gas in the molten metal can lead to porosity on free)ing. Insert gases such as helium and argon have very limited solubility in most metals and are therefore used e#tensively for gas shielded arc elding processes. Although carbon dio#ide is virtually insoluble in most metals, it is reactive and ill cause some surface o#idation and some loss of o#idi)able elements. ;evertheless, carbon dio#ide is used e#tensively for B5A2 and /&A2 of carbon and lo alloy steels. In some cases, limited amounts of certain gases are included in the shielding gas mi#ture to accomplish ob*ectives other than shielding. Three e#amples are listed belo " a. ;itrogen has been added to stainless steel shielding gases as an alloy addition, hich imparts improved corrosion resistance and strength, and as a techni%ue of controlling phase balance in duple# stainless steel eld metal. @#ygen may be added to argon in amounts typically from 0 to 5Q, to improve etting of stainless steel deposits, to improve bead shape, and to reduce undercutting. 'ydrogen has been added to shielding gases to increase penetration characteristics, through increased arc voltage and conse%uent increased heat input.

b.

c.

As a ord of caution, minor additions of reactive gases should not be attempted ithout thorough understanding of the conse%uences, and procedure %ualification to evaluate the effect of such additions. Cleanin2 H],)9.+.!J H],)9.+.!J does provide some motherhood statements about cleaning, but a elding procedure should be specified about cleaning methods, solutions, abrasives, and tools. This is particularly true for nonferrous metals and stainless steels, since inappropriate cleaning methods can lead to crac!ing ,prior to or in service. and-or loss of corrosion resistance. I81J.5.0,d. prohibits peening on the root pass and final pass of a eld. Peening or! hardens the metal, reduces ductility, and therefore increases the ris! of crac!ing during or after elding. Peening bet een passes can be permitted because heat of subse%uent eld passes heat treats ,softens. the peened eld metal of previous passes. ;ote that chipping necessary for slag removal is not considered to be peening. ]81J.5.0,e. is intended to prohibit elding under adverse eather conditions. 5oisture can cause porosity and hydrogen cold crac!s. 6#cessive ind blo s shielding a ay causing porosity and brittle elds, for both gas shielded and coated electrodes. Another

130

practical issue ith e#cessive ind under dry or arid conditions is the s irling of dirt, ithin the elder+s helmet, ma!ing it difficult to see the eld pool. If you cann+t see hat you+re doing, you can+t eld. ]81J.5.0,f. provides some general advice on preserving the seat tightness of eld end valves. The valve manufacturer should al ays be consulted concerning elding conditions appropriate to maintaining seat tightness and responsibility for dismantling, reassembly, and testing hen necessary. (ome issues to consider include characteristics of sealing materials and ris! of heat damage ,e.g., plastic or metal3to3metal seat elements., use of e#tended bodies for soft seated valves, or use of a ater %uench to cool have materials hich do not transformation harden,e.g., austenitic stainless steels.. ]81J.5.8 indicates that seal elds must be done by a %ualified elder. 2hile this re%uirement may seem obvious, significant commercial gains can be made through the use of un%ualified elders. The need for seal elds to cover all threads is imposed to avoid notch effects, hich could cause brittle fracture or fatigue crac!s. /or the record, a seal eld is not a bac! eld. -ecEanical Testin2 5echanical testing re%uirements for elding procedures are found in A(56 (ection I>. 'o ever, if the base metal ill not ithstand the 0J0 degree guided bend test re%uired by A(56 (ection I>, 780.8 permits %ualification if the eld bend specimen ill undergo the same degree of bending as the base metal , ithin 5 degree. E]81J.1.0,b.F. As ell, hen impact testing is re%uired by the &ode or engineering design, 780.8 indicates that those re%uirements shall also be met in %ualifying eld procedures E]81J.1.0,d.F.

Heat T#eat6ent HI,,!J 'eat treatment is used to minimi)e certain detrimental effects associated bending and forming processes E]880F. ith elding,

4epending on the nature of each process, attendant high temperatures, severe thermal gradients, and-or severe metal forming operations ,cold or!. can result in dramatic loss of toughness, reduction of ductility, increased hardness, and-or high residual stresses. In turn, these can lead to premature, une#pected, and potentially catastrophic failures caused by brittle fracture, fatigue crac!ing, stress corrosion crac!ing, and-or hydrogen embrittlement.

131

780.8 provides basic heat treatment practices suitable for most elding, bending, and forming operations, but arns that they are not necessarily appropriate for all service conditions E]880F. &ommon e#amples here compliance ith minimum 780.8 heat treatment re%uirements could be considered inappropriate include process streams containing caustics, amines used for gas s eetening operations, and hydrogen sulfide. In the case of process streams containing hydrogen sulfide, it is !no n that the minimum temperature allo ed by Table 880.0.0 may not cause sufficient softening for resistance to sulfide stress crac!ing in severe sour environments. This accounts for the careful ording in clause 5.8.0.8 of ;A&6 (tandard 5$@0753K5, hich states" L=o 3alloy steel and martensitic stainless steel eldments shall be stress relieved at a minimum temperature of :10^& ,0050^/. to produce a ma#imum hardness of 11 '$& ma#imum.M Typically, temperatures re%uired to satisfy the 11 '$& ma#imum criterion for lo alloy steels are ell above :10^& ,0050^/.. given the to#ic nature of sour environments, before construction one should confirm that proposed heat treatment cycles are capable of satisfying ma#imum hardness restrictions. &onfirmation ould typically involve cross3sectional hardness surveys of the procedure %ualification test coupons. Fo#6s o% Heat T#eat6ent There are many forms of heat treatment, each intended to accomplish a certain tas!. /re%uently, more that one tas! is accomplished by a particular thermal cycle. 'eat treatments listed in 780.8 table 880.0.0 are best described as stress relieving heat treatments, since the primary purpose of the treatment is the reduction of residual stresses due to elding, forming, or bending operations. (uch treatment may also result in improved ductility, lo er hardness ,note that 780.8 does impose some hardness restrictions., better toughness, and reduced distortion during subse%uent machining operations. 780.8 also allo s the use of annealing, normali)ing and tempering, in lieu of a re%uired heat treatment after elding, bending, or forming, provided that the mechanical properties of any affected eld and base metal meet specification re%uirements after such treatment and that the substitution is approved by the designer E]880.1.0F. Stress relief of carbon and lo alloy steel is carried out at a temperature slightly belo the lo er critical temperature ,A 0 . of the steel, hence there is some use of the term subcritical stress relief ,i.e., there is no phase transformation at subcritical temperatures.. /or high alloy materials, such as austenitic stainless steels, considerably higher temperatures are re%uired for effective stress relief due to the inherent hot strength of these materials. Although 780.8 does not mandate application of heat treatment to elding

132

austenitic stainless steels, hen applied ,e.g., for service reasons., it is usually carried out at a temperature of appro#imately 0:50^/. Annealing is a common term in the heat3treating business, but there are many types of anneal. A full anneal is performed at high temperature ,e.g., about 50 to 000^/ above the upper critical temperature for carbon steels., follo ed by slo cooling, generally in a furnace. It provides ma#imum softening, resulting in lo est hardness and strength. A stress relief anneal is performed on carbon and alloy steels at a temperatures slightly belo the lo er critical temperature, and many also be !no n as a subcritical stress relief or subcritical anneal. 7oth the stress relief anneal and full anneal are applied as softening treatments, but other effects may result from the thermal cycles including changes to mechanical properties, physical properties, and microstructure. Although Lfull annealM is generally implied hen the ord LannealM is used ithout any %ualifier, if a Lfull annealM is re%uired, fe er surprises ill occur if the term Lfull annealM is used. (ometimes the term solution anneal is used to describe hat might properly be called a solution heat treatment. In this case, an alloy is heated to a temperature high enough to dissolve one or more constituents into solid solutions, and then cooled rapidly enough to hold the constituents in solid solution. (olution heat treatments are generally applied to highly alloy steels and other high alloy materials for the purpose of dissolving one or more constituents, hich may affect the properties of the material. /or e#ample, many of the austenitic stainless steel pipes purchased according to A(T5 A 801 are supplied in the solution treated condition. Normalizing of carbon and lo alloy steels is carried out by heating to a temperature range similar to that used for a full anneal, but the parts are allo ed to cool in still air. This can save time and money compared to annealing, if the soft structure of the full anneal is not re%uired. ;ormali)ing is also effective in refining the grain si)e and homogeni)ing the structure, resulting in better toughness, more uniform mechanical properties, and better ductility. Tempering is a heat treatment, hich may be applied to transformation hardenable steels after a normali)ing operation and is generally applied after a %uenching operation. Tempering is carried out belo the lo er critical temperature. It is used to reduce hardness and improve toughness and ductility at the e#pense of reduced strength.

Heat T#eat6ent ReGui#e6ents

133

I880.0.0 imposes the follo ing heat treatment re%uirements" a. b. 'eat treatment shall be in accordance ith the material groupings and thic!ness ranges in Table 880.0.0 e#cept as provided in ]880.1.0 and ]880.1.1. 'eat treatment to be used after production elding shall be specified in the 2P( and shall be used in %ualifying the elding procedure. The engineering design shall specify the e#amination and-or other production %uality controls ,not less than the re%uirements of 780.8. to ensure that the final elds are of ade%uate %uality. 'eat treatment for bending and forming shall be in accordance ith ]881.9.

c.

d.

1o"e#nin2 TEicDness %o# Heat T#eat6ent o% ?eld H]880.0.8F 780.8 contains a detailed treatment of metal thic!ness rules governing the need for heat treatment, as ell as e#ceptions to the rules E]880.0.8F. Table :.J belo may be used to assist ith interpretation of 780.8 re%uirements.

Table ..9 1o"e#nin2 TEicDness and E5e64tions %o# Post$eld Heat T#eat6ent ;P?HT< o% ?elds 2eld Type P2'T Boverning Thic!ness And 6#ceptions 7utt 2elds and elds not covered P2'T re%uired hen the thic!ness of the else here in this table thic!er component measured at the *oint e#ceeds the limits provided in Table 880.0.0. ;o e#ceptions. 7ranch &onnection 2elds for set3on P2'T re%uired hen the thic!ness or set3in designs, ith or ithout through the eld in any plane is greater reinforcement, as per /ig. 81J.5.9 4 than t ice the minimum material thic!ness re%uiring heat treatment as specified in Table 880.0.0. ;o e#ceptions. (ee 780.8 for assistance 134

/illet 2elds for slip3on, soc!et, and seal elded connections ;P( 1 and smaller; and for e#ternal nonpressue parts such as lugs and pipe supports in all pipe si)es

ith eld thic!ness calculations P2'T re%uired hen the thic!ness through the eld in any plane is more than t ice the minimum material thic!ness re%uiring heat treatment as specified in Table 880.0.0. There are three e#ceptions to this rule"

0. 'eat treatment is not re%uired for P3 ;o. 0 materials ith eld throats 7 5-J in. ,70: mm., regardless of base metal thic!ness. 1. 'eat treatment is not re%uired for P3 ;o. 8,9,5 or 00A materials ith eld throats 7 < in. ,708 mm., regardless of base metal thic!ness, provided that preheat applied during elding as not less than the recommended preheat ,see Table 880.0.0 and the 2P(., and that base metal (5T( is less than 70 !si ,9K0 5pa.. 8. 'eat treatment is not re%uired for ferritic materials hen elds are made ith filler metal hich does not air harden. ,see ;ote 0.. ,0. ;ote that this can be a dangerous e#ception for some services and should be used ith caution. Oust because the filler metals do not harden, doesn+t mean the heat3affected )ones of the base metals have not hardened. /urthermore, *ust because the deposited filler metal may be in a soft and ductile condition, doesn+t mean the base metal heat affected )ones are in the same condition.

EGui46ent and -etEods o% Heat T#eat6ent 780.8 does not impose limitations on heating e%uipment and methods. It only indicates that the heating method must provide the re%uired metal temperature, metal temperature uniformity, and temperature control, and then lists methods hich may be used for heating including furnace, local flame heating, electric resistance, electric induction, and e#othermic chemical reaction E ]880.0.9F. 'eating methods used for heat treatment may be classified in terms of the facility used for heat3treating and the energy source. /acilities can be discussed in terms of local heat treatment and furnace heat treatment. a. =ocal heat treatment involves the heating of a small band of metal. ;ormally the band being heat3treated is stationary, but in some manufacturing operations, the band moves. 6#amples of moving bands include in3line3tempering operations used 135

during manufacture of %uenched and tempered pipe and local heating operations used in the manufacture of induction bends. b. /urnace heat treatment generally involves placing the item to be heat treated inside a permanent furnace operated by a fabrication shop or commercial heat treater. 'o ever, it is possible to construct temporary heat treatment facilities ,e.g., at the *ob site., hich may range from simple ad hoc insulated bo# constructions to comple# portable furnaces. There are several energy sources used in heat3treating. &urrent commercial sources of heat energy and characteristics are discussed belo " a. 6lectric resistance heat is produced hen an electric current is passed through ires made from a material ith high electrical resistivity. The electric current increase atomic movement in the ire, and this energy is then released in the form of heat. There is a ide selection of heating elements available in the mar!etplace, ith various si)es and shapes to fit practically any geometry. 'eaters are fle#ible and durable and are commonly used for local heat treatment of elds during field construction. Although resistance elements may burn out or short circuit against the pipe, there are several advantages supporting use of electric resistance heat, especially for local heat treatment of elds. a. 'eat can be continuously and evenly applied. b. Temperature can be ad*usted accurately and %uic!ly. c. 2elders can or! in relative comfort. /or preheating applications, they do not have to stop intermittently to raise preheat temperature. d. 'eat input can be ad*usted fairly easily for e#ample, to control the amount of heat applied to different pipe %uadrants or sections of dissimilar thic!ness such as eld3in valves. b. 'eat can be produced by chemical reaction using e#othermic !its. The chemical composition of constituents in modern e#othermic heat !its is proprietary, ho ever. 2hen materials in the !it are reacted, heat is released. 'eating cycles are controlled in terms of the si)e, shape, and heating value of the e#othermic charge; the si)e, shape, and mass of the component to be heat treated; and the local environmental conditions. Although e#othermic !its offer the advantages of portability, lo capital e%uipment cost, and simple operator training, they have t o ma*or limitations" 0. 1. @nce the !it has been ignited, it is difficult to perform any further ad*ustments. It is usually difficult or impossible to satisfy &ode and o ner re%uirements on heating rate, holding time, and cooling rate.

/or these reasons, use of e#othermic !its is restricted by many o ner specifications, e#cept perhaps for infre%uent use at remote locations such as drilling sites. (uccessful application of e#othermic !its re%uires careful planning and contingency measures.

136

c.

$adiant heaters use infrared radiation generated by a gas flame or %uart) lamp to develop heat. Infrared radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation, hich behaves similarly to light. The intensity of the radiation falls off in proportion to the s%uare of the distance bet een the heat emitter and the part heated. $adiation reaching the part is either absorbed, causing the temperature of the part to increase, or reflected , asted.. &onse%uently, surface condition of the metal ill affect the efficiency of the process, as ill the relative positions of the heater and the part, since the heater must LseeM the part for effective heating. d. Induction coils create heat ith the passage of alternating current ,ac.. The alternating magnetic field associated ith the alternating electrical field penetrates the metal to be heated, changes strength and direction in phase ith the e#ternal alternating electric current, and produces eddy currents in the part to be heat3 treated. The rise and collapse of magnetic fields and their associated eddy currents stimulate atomic movement resulting in the release of heat ithin the part. Te64e#atu#e -easu#e6ent 780.8 does not impose restrictions on the devices used for temperature verification E]880.0.:F. Although devices such as temperature indicating crayons, thermometers, and optical pyrometers may be used, thermocouple pyrometers are generally used to measure and record the temperature of the surfaces being heat3treated. /or proper temperature measurement, the hot end of the thermocouple *unction must be in direct contact ith the surface of the pipe or !ept at the same temperature as the pipe by being inserted into a terminal *oined to the pipe. 780.8 does not impose any restrictions on the thermocouple attachment methods. To this end, one may observe on various *ob sites, attachment of thermocouples using steel bands, ire, ad hoc clamping devices, or eld metal. The suitability of any of these thermocouple attachment methods should be addresses by specifications developed during the engineering design or by NA-N& personnel monitoring the or!. /or e#ample, steel bands or ires can become loose at the heat treatment temperature so that the thermocouple is no longer in contact ith the surface, leading to false temperature readings. Ad hoc clamping devices can or! loose, and the attachment method of such devices can cause local damage to the pieces being heat3treated. ?se of eld metal to fi# the thermocouple to the pipe surface changes the composition of the *unction, resulting in measurement error. 6#perience ith attachment of thermocouples by capacitor discharge elding indicates that the process or!s ell. 780.8 has specific statements permitting the attachment of thermocouples to pipe using capacitor discharge elding ithout the need for eld procedure and performance %ualifications E]880.0.:, ]880.0.8,b.F 780.8 does not address the number of thermocouples re%uired or the placement of thermocouples. Although these issues should be dealt ith in construction specifications, perhaps discussion of a fe sources of measurement error ould be useful in ma!ing such determinations.

137

a. 'eat rises. 2ith local heat treatment, the temperature measured on the top of a pipe ill normally be higher than the temperature measured on the bottom of the pipe. Typically, as diameter increases, steps are necessary to allo introduction of more heat at the bottom and sides of the pipe than at the top of the pipe. The need for additional temperature measurement points and heating controls does have commercial implications. b. The pipe ill be hottest ad*acent to the source of the heat. 4uring local heat treatment, the pipe is normally heated from the outside, so the inside surface ill be a bit cooler than the outside surface, depending upon the thic!ness of the pipe and the e#tent to hich insulation is used and drafts prevented. /or e#ample, if the bore of the pipe is not plugged ith insulation and the ind is histling through it, a substantial difference bet een the inside and outside surface temperatures might be e#pected. (ince heat treatments are often conducted for service reasons, and the service is usually on the inside of the pipe, specific attention is re%uired to ensure that the inside surface is ade%uately heated ,and that the outside surface is not e#cessively heated.. c. The surface temperature of a resistance coil or other radiant heat source is considerably above that of the pipe being heated. If the hot *unction of the thermocouple is not insulated form the heat source, the temperature reading ill be higher than the actual temperature at the pipe surface. d. Thermocouple ires should run along the pipe surface under the insulation for several inches before coming outside the insulation on the pipe surface. If the ires are brought straight out of the insulation from the point of contact ith the pipe, heat may be conducted a ay from the hot *unction leading to a temperature reading lo er than the pipe surface. e. 5easurement errors may be introduced if e#tension ires are not of the same composition as the thermocouple ires, all the ay from the hot *unction to the cold *unction. 4on+t accidentally reverse the ires at a connection point. f. 6nsure that instrumentation is properly calibrated. 7attery operated circuits should be calibrated at regular intervals and the output of regulated po er supplies should be chec!ed occasionally for accuracy. g. 4amaged or contaminated thermocouples and e#tensions can lead to measurement error and should be chec!ed regularly for physical damage ,severe bends, !in!s, partially bro!en ires, eld spatter or slag trapped bet een the ires.. Heatin2 and Coolin2 Rates HI,,!.!.+J 780.8 does not impose restrictions on heating and cooling rates E]880.0.9F. A(56 (ection IIII, 4ivision 0, ?&(35: re%uirements are fre%uently applied, but there are causes here insulation and coils are ripped off immediately after the soa! period. In the stress relieving business, time is money, especially if the heat treater is or!ing by the eld or lump sum. (o, if heating and cooling rates need to be controlled, it should be stated in specifications or other contract documents. Ha#dness TestsH]880.0.9F 780.8 ma!es the follo ing statements regarding hardness testing.

138

'ardness tests of production elds and of hot bent and hot3formed piping are intended to verify satisfactory heat treatment. 'ardness limits apply to the eld and to the heat affected )one ,'AC. tested as close as practicable to the edge of the eld. a. 2here a hardness limit is specified in Table 880.0.0, at least 00Q of elds, hot bends, and hot formed components in each furnace heat treated batch and 000Q of those locally heat treated shall be tested. b. 2hen dissimilar metals are *oined by elding, the hardness limits specified for the base and elding materials in Table 880.0.0 shall be met for each material. The &ode does not discuss many of the technical details necessary to give an accurate and representative appraisal of production eld hardness. &onse%uently, o ner specifications are recommended for guidance on applying this simple but often misused and abused test method. @ ner specifications should consider the si)e of hardness indentations relative to the si)e of eld )ones to be measured, surface preparation of the eld, methods for locating the )ones of interest, and training re%uirements for hardness testing personnel.

WWWWWWWW

139

AS-E B !..&
PIPE FLAN1ES AN FLAN1E !.
SCOPE 3
1ene#al " This (tandard covers a. b. c. d. Pressure temperature ratings, materials, dimensions, tolerances, mar!ing, testing. for pipe flanges and flanged fittings in si)es ;P( < through ;P( 19 and in rating &lasses 050, 800, 900, :00, K00, 0500 and 1500, /langes and flanged fittings may be cast, forged, or , for blind flanges and certain reducing flanges only . plate materials, $e%uirements and recommendations regarding bolting and gas!ets are also included. Codes and Re2ulations " A flange or flanged fitting used under the *urisdiction of other codes is sub*ect to any limitation of that code or regulation. This includes any ma#imum temperature, temperature limitation, or rule governing the use of a material at lo ratings in this (tandard.

FITTIN1S

or provisions for operation at a pressure e#ceeding the pressure temperature

140

).

PRESSURE*TE-PERATURE RATIN1S
Ratin2 Basis $atings are ma#imum allo able or!ing gage pressures at the temperatures /or intermediate

sho n in Tables for the applicable material and rating. temperatures, linear interpolation is permitted. Ratin2 Te64e#atu#e

The temperature sho n for a corresponding pressure rating is the temperature of the pressure containing shell of the flange or flanged fitting. In general, this temperature is the same as that of the contained fluid sub*ect to the re%uirements of the applicable code or regulation. /or any temperature belo shall be no greater than the rating sho n for H10 o/. Te64e#atu#e Conside#ations Flan2e AttacE6ent (oc!et elding and threaded flanges are not recommended for service above H50o/ if severe thermal gradients or thermal cycling are involved. H10 o/, the rating

500o/ or belo

Hi2E Te64e#atu#e Se#"ice At temperatures in the creep range, gradual rela#ation of flanges, bolts, and gas!ets may progressively reduce bolt loads. It may be necessary to arrange for periodic tightening of bolts to prevent lea!age. thermal gradients may re%uire the same attention. Ooints sub*ect to substantial

141

2hen used above 900o/, &lass 050 flanged *oints may develop lea!age unless care is ta!en to avoid imposing severe e#ternal loads and-or severe thermal gradients. /or other classes, similar consideration should be above 750 o/. Lo$ Te64e#atu#e Se#"ice (ome of the material listed in the rating tables undergo sufficient decrease in toughness at lo temperatures that they cannot safely sustain shoc! loadings, sudden changes of stress or temperature, or high stress concentrations. Syste6 Hyd#ostatic Test /langed *oints and flanged fittings may be sub*ected to system hydrostatic tests at a pressure not to e#ceed 0.5 times the 000 o/ rating rounded off to the ne#t higher 15 psi.

,.

SI7E
The si)e of a flange or flanged fitting covered by this (tandard is its nominal pipe si)e, ;P(. ?se of LnominalM indicates that the stated si)e or dimension is only for designation, not measurement. The actual dimension may or may not be the nominal si)e.

+.

-AR>IN1
Na6e

The manufacturer+s name or trademar! shall be applied.

142

-ate#ial a. b. c. &ast flanges and flanged fittings shall be mar!ed ith A(T5 specification, ith

grade identification symbol, and the melt number or melt identification. Plate flanges, forged flanges, and flanges fittings shall be mar!ed A(T5 specification number and grade identification symbol. A manufacturer may supplement these mandatory material indications ith his trade designation for the material grade, but confusion of symbols shall be avoided. Ratin2 Class The mar!ing shall be the applicable pressure rating class " 050, 800, 900, :00, K00, 0500 or 1500. esi2nation The designation 70: shall be applied preferably located ad*acent to the class designation, to indicate conformance to this (tandard. SiCe The nominal pipe si)e shall be given.

&.

-ATERIALS
1ene#al /langes and flanged fittings covered by this (tandard shall be castings, forgings and ,for blind flanges only. plate.

143

Tou2Eness (ome of the materials listed in Table 0A undergo a decrease in toughness used at lo hen

temperatures, to the e#tent that &odes referencing this (tandard

may re%uire impact tests for application even at temperatures higher than Y10 o/. It is the responsibility of the user to assure that such testing is performed. 1asDets The user is responsible for selection of gas!et materials e#pected bolt loading service conditions. ithout in*urious crushing, and hich ill ithstand the

hich are suitable for the

..

I-ENSIONS
?all tEicDness /or inspection purposes the minimum all thic!ness t m of flanged fittings at the

time of manufacture shall be as sho n in Tables 00, 08, 0:, 0K, 11, 15 and 1J, e#cept as provided in para :.0.0. (ee Anne# 4 for the basis used to establish values of tm. Additional metal thic!ness needed to since these factors vary idely. ithstand assembly stresses, shapes other

than circular, and stress concentrations must be determined by the manufacturer, In particular, 95 deg. =aterals, true P+s and crosses may re%uire additional reinforcement to compensate for inherent ea!nesses in these shapes. =ocal areas having less than minimum that " all thic!ness ill be acceptable provided

144

a.

the area of subminimum thic!ness can be enclosed by a circle diameter is no greater than 0.85 dtm defined above and tm is the minimum tables listed in para :.0; and

hose

here d is the inside diameter as all thic!ness as sho n in the

b. c.

measured thic!ness is not less than 0.75 tm; and enclosure circles are separated from each other by an edge3to3edge distance of more than 0.75 ```` a dtm.

Facin2s Table 9 gives dimensions for facings other than ring *oint. Table 5 gives ith a 0.0:

dimensions for ring *oint facings. /igure 7 sho s application of facings. &lasses 050 and 800 fittings and companion flanges are regularly furnished in. raised face furnished hich is included in the minimum flange thic!ness &. &lasses hich is additional to the minimum flange hen re%uired for any class, shall

900, :00, K00, 0500 and 1500 fittings and companion flanges are regularly ith 0.15 in. raised face thic!ness &. Any other facing than the above, be furnished as follo s. ;o metal shall be cut from the minimum flange thic!ness specified herein. In the case of the 0.15 in. raised face, tongue or male face ,other than 0.0: in. raised face for &lasses 050 and 800., the minimum flange thic!ness & shall be first provided and then the raised face, tongue or male face shall be added thereto. 2ith ring *oint, groove, or female face, the minimum flange thic!ness shall be first provided and then sufficient metal added thereto so that the bottom of the ring *oint groove, or the contact face of the groove or female face is in the same place as the flange edge of a full thic!ness flange. Flan2e Facin2 FinisE

145

The finish of contact faces of pipe flanges and connecting end flanges of fittings shall be *udged by visual comparison finishes re%uired are given belo . Flan2e %acin2s 6ither a serrated concentric or serrated spiral finish having a resultant surface finish from 015 uin. To 150 uin. Average roughness shall be furnished. The cutting tool employed should have an appro#imate 0.0: in. or larger radius, and there should be from 95 grooves-in. through 55 grooves-in. Flan2e Facin2 FinisE I64e#%ections Imperfections in the flange facing finish shall not e#ceed the dimensions sho n in Table 8. Ad*acent imperfections shall be separated by a distance of at least four times the ma#imum radial pro*ection. A radial pro*ection shall be measured by the difference bet een an outer radius and an inner radius encompassing the imperfection here the radii are struc! from the centerline of the bore. Imperfections less than half the depth of the serrations shall not be considered cause for re*ection. Protrusions above the serrations are not permitted. S4ot Facin2 All cast and forged flanges and flanged fittings shall have bearing surfaces for bolting hich shall be parallel to the flange face from ithin 0 deg. Any bac! facing or spot facing re%uired to accomplish parallelism shall not reduce the flange thic!ness & belo the dimensions given in Tables K, 00, 01, 08, 05, 0:, 0J, 0K, 10, 11, 19, 15, 17, and 1J. Any spot facing or bac! facing shall be in accordance ith 5(( (P3K. ith $a standards , see A(56 79:.0 . and The not by instruments having stylus tracers and electronic amplification.

146

'.

TEST
Flan2ed Fittin2 T#ainin2 6ach flanged fitting shall be given a hydrostatic shell test as specified belo " Flan2e Testin2 /langes are not re%uired to be hydrostatically tested. Hyd#ostatic SEell Test The hydrostatic shell test for flanged fittings shall be no less than 0.5 times the 000o/ rating rounded off to the ne#t higher 15 psi increment. The test duration shall be minimum of one min for fittings ;P( 1 and smaller, 1 min for fitting ;P( 1 < 3;P( J, and 8 min for fittings ;P( 00 and larger. ;o visible lea!age is permitted through the pressure boundary all.

LI-ITIN1
1AS>ET I-ENSIONS

I-ENSIONS OF 1AS>ETS

The actual dimensions of a gas!et must be established by the user. $eference to a dimensional standard for gas!ets, such as A(56 70:.10, is recommended.

147

=imiting gas!et dimensions are given in Tables 60, 61, and 68. These dimensions represent appro#imately the ma#imum combinations of idths and diameters of the different types of gas!ets covered hich meet rating re%uirements. Bas!ets are divided into three groups based on their gas!et loading factors as sho n in the A(56 7oiler and Pressure Iessel &ode, (ection IIII, 4ivision 0, Pressure Iessels. Bas!et contact idths for the three groups are as follo s " Broup ;o. I Broup ;o. II Broup ;o. III (lip3on flange raised face idth =arge tongue idth (mall tongue idth minus 0.08 in., but not less than 0.0J in.

Bas!ets of Broup ;o. Ia have inside diameters e%ual to the outside diameter of the corresponding pipe, hich follo s the principle established in A(56 70:.10. In order to avoid poc!eting of fluid handled, Broup ;o. I gas!ets may be e#tended to the inside diameter of valves, pipe, or the bore of integral, diameter of the raised face. Bas!ets of Broups ;os. IIa and IIIa also have inside diameters e%ual to the outside diameter of the corresponding pipe. It may be desirable under some conditions to ma!e the inside diameter of these gas!ets e%ual to the inside diameter of valves, pipe, or the bore of integral, elding nec!, or soc!et eld type flanges, and this is permissible provided the gas!et contact idth does not e#ceed than sho n. This provision affects elding nec!, or soc!et eld type flanges. Broup ;o. Ia gas!ets have outside contact diameters e%ual to the outside

gas!et sho n in /igs. 69, 65, 6J and 6K and re%uires a reduction in gas!et outside diameters as ell as inside diameters. Additional provisions for varying gas!et idths in contact ith raised face are covered in para 68,b.. Broup ;os. IIb and IIIb have outside contact diameters e%ual to the outside diameter of the raised face.

148

The outside diameter of gas!ets or centering rings e#tending beyond the raised face is e%ual to the bolt circle minus one bolt diameter. This type gas!et is designed to be aligned by the flange bolts. Broup ;os. IIa and IIIa gas!ets are designed for those users ho prefer that narro

gas!ets be located close to the bore, thereby !eeping the pressure area to a minimum and giving ma#imum fle#ibility to the flanged *oint. (ee para 68,f.. Broup ;os. IIb and IIIb gas!ets are to be located at the outside of the raised face for ease in aligning the gas!ets ithout a centering ring. TOLERANCES Bas!et contact idths for Broup ;os. II and III shall not e#ceed specified contact idth

by more than 00Q.

STU 8 OF AS-E SECTION I/

;?EL IN1 @UALIFICATIONS<

&hap. 0

Introduction to elding %ualifications

&hap. 1

6stablishing 2P(
149

&hap. 8

PN$s and 2PNs and Acceptance (tandards

&hap. 9

A ;ote on &onsumables

&hap. 5

Buidelines for revie of 2P(, PN$

CEa4 .

Road 6a4 %o# #e"ie$ o% ?PS=P@R

!. INTRO UCTION TO ?EL IN1 @UALIFICATIONS.

LA elding procedure is the detailed methods and practices involved in the production of a eld mentM. The ritten elding procedure, re%uired by codes, comprises the step3by3step

directions for ma!ing a specific eld and proof that the eld is acceptable. &odes also re%uire proof that and ability to follo the elders and elds, elding operators have the necessary s!ill elders and elder

elding procedure successfully. This re%uires that

elding operators ma!e specific

hich are then tested to prove that the

can produce the eld %uality re%uired.

150

(ection I> of the A(56 7oiler and Pressure Iessel &ode covers 2elders, 7ra)ers, and 2elding and 7ra)ing @peratorsM.

elding and bra)ing

%ualifications. It is entitled MNualification (tandard for 2elding and 7ra)ing Procedures,

This code ma!es the follo ing statement concerning responsibility " L6ach manufacturer or contractor is responsible for the the tests re%uired to %ualify the elding done by his organi)ation and shall conduct elding procedures he uses and the performance

%ualifications. These records shall be certified by the manufacturer or contractor and shall be accessible to the authori)ed inspector.M The A(56 code calls the elding procedure a Welding rocedure Specification ,2P(..

This document provides in detail the re%uired conditions for specific applications to assure repeatability by properly trained. 2elders and elding operators. A 2P( is a ritten elding procedure prepared to The A(56

provide direction for ma!ing production provides a sample form, information. The 2P( provides directions to the ith the code re%uirements. process.

elds to code re%uirements.

hich may be used or modified provided that it covers all

elder or

elding operator to assure compliance elding

The complete 2P( describes all of the essential,

nonessential, and supplementary essential , hen re%uired. variables for each ,PN$.. A PN$ is a record of the all conditions that ere used the tested specimens. elding data used to

The 2P( should reference the supporting procedure %ualification record eld the test coupons. It sho s hen elding the rest coupons and the actual results of elding process used to elding of test

The completed PN$ should record all essential and

supplementary essential , hen re%uired. variables for each coupons need not be recorded.

eld the test coupon. ;onessential or other variables used during the

The PN$ should be certified accurate by the manufacturer or contractor.

This

certification is the manufacturer+s or contractor+s verification that the information is a true 151

record the variables that

ere used during the

elding of the .... coupon and that the The manufacturer or

test results are in compliance

..... (ection I> of the code.

contractor cannot subcontract this certification function. There are three types of variables for variablesM are those in the for eld *oint or elding procedure specifications 2P(. L6ssential

hich change is considered to affect mechanical properties of

eldment. L(upplementary essential variablesM are re%uired for metals

hich notch toughness tests are re%uired. L;onessential variablesM are those in

hich a change may be made in the 2P( ithout re3%ualifications. The variables for each procedures. ?eldin2 P#ocedu#e S4eci%ication " To help e#plain the elding procedure specification ,2P(. an e#ample is sho n. In elding elding P30 grade steel pipe in the hori)ontal elding process is listed in detail in (ection I>. /or this reason it hen riting, testing, or certifying the elding

is necessary to refer to the code

this e#ample, the A7& Pressure Iessel &ompany is using the gas metal arc process, semi automatically applied for fi#ed and vertical positions. 6ach entry ill be e#plained briefly. Joints 3 The *oint design is a single TI T groove space is needed, use a third sheet. The if bac!ing is used, it must be described. ith a :0 to 70 0 included angle.

It is

recommended that a s!etch be dra n on the form in the area under details. If more elding parameters are placed in the table provided. 7ac!ing is not used, and bac!ing materials need not be described. 'o ever,

Base -etals 3

152

To reduce the number of 2P( re%uired, P numbers are assigned to base metals depending on characteristics such as composition, properties. Broups procedure %ualifications eldability, and mechanical ithin P number are assigned for ferrous metals for the purpose of here notch toughness re%uirements are specified. The same

P numbers group the different base metals having comparable characteristics. The P numbers and groupings of most of the different steels are given in the (ection I>. 7ase metal classifications and groupings in A2( 71.0 are slightly different. If a P number is not available for the material involved, its A(T5 specification number may be used. If an A(T5 specification number is not available, the chemical analysis and mechanical properties can be used. ?nder base metals the thic!ness range must be sho n, and if it is in pipe, the pipe diameter range must be sho n. Fille# -etals 3 6lectrodes and elding rods are grouped according to their usability characteristics, elders to ma!e satisfactory elds ith a given filler

hich determines the ability of the given / numbers,

metal. This grouping is made to reduce the number of 2P(s needed. The groups are hich relate to the composition and usability. This is filled in on the form. This bloc! also re%uires A(56 specification number and the A2( classification number of the filler metal used. The A(56 specification numbers are the same as the A2( specification number ith

the addition of the letters (/. These data are given in A(56 (ection I> and in the A2( 71.0 document. The A2( classification number for the filler metal specification is also given on the label on the filler metal bo#. The A number is the classification of metal analysis. /or e#ample, A30 has a mild steel classification system is given in both specifications. The si)e of the filler metal, hich is its diameter, must be sho n as ell as deposited eld metal deposit. eld This

eld metal thic!ness range for groove or filler elds. In the case of submerged arc, the

153

consumable insert analysis should be sho n. @ther information relating to filler metals not mentioned above should be given, hen available. Position 3 The elding position of the groove or fillet eld must be described according to A2( hether progression

terminology. If vertical

elding is involved, it should be mentioned

is up ard ,uphill. or do n ard ,do nhill.. P#eEeat 3 A minimum temperature shall be given as should be recorded. Post$eld Heat T#eat6ent 3 If a post eld rite in LnoneM. 1as 3 This shielding gas should be identified, and if it is a mi#ture, should be described. The shielding gas flo rate should be recorded. If bac!ing gas or trailing shield gas is used, the gas composition should be given and flo rate recorded. Elect#ical CEa#acte#istics 3 The elding current should be sho n as alternating ,ac. or direct current ,dc.. If direct heat treatment is used, it must be described. This includes the ell as the ma#imum interpass temperature.

Preheat maintenance temperature should be given. 2here applicable, special heating

temperature range and the time at temperature. If there is not post eld heat treatment,

current is used, the polarity of the electrode should be reported. The amperes and

154

voltage range should be recorded for each electrode si)e, position, and thic!ness. This is also presented in a tubular form In the case of gas tungsten arc described. /or gas metal arc elding the tungsten electrode si)e and type should be elding the mode of metal transfer must be described.

The electrode ire feed speed range should be recorded. In the case of gas tungsten arc described. /or gas metal arc elding the tungsten electrode si)e and type should be elding the mode of metal transfer must be described.

The electrode ire feed speed range should be recorded. TecEniGue 3 ?nder techni%ue, describe the should be used to ma!e eld as made ith stringer or eave beads. @scillation in the s!etch. @ften, elding and

eave beads. This should also sho

both techni%ues are used in the same inside diameter should be recorded. bet een passes must be recorded. ma#imum dimension. It should be stated necessary to indicate

eld. /or the gas3shielded process the no))le The method of cleaning before If bac! gouging is employed, it should be

described. The contact tip3to3 or! distance should be described as a minimum3to3

hether multiple or single3pass techni%ue is used.

It is also

hether a single electrode or multiple electrodes are used. It is hether a single electrode or multiple electrodes are used. ith ma!ing the eld should be mentioned.

also necessary to indicate

The travel speed range should be described. Peening, if used, must be described, and any other pertinent information concerned /or e#ample, pulsing, if employed, ould need to be described.

P#ocedu#e @uali%ication 3

155

$ecord to support the and certify the

elding procedure specification ,2P(., it is necessary to test elds described in the 2P(,

eld results. This is done by ma!ing the

machining them, and testing the specimen in accordance ith the code. This is done by the procedure %ualification record ,PN$. defined as a document providing the actual elding variables used to produce an acceptable test conducted on the eld for the purpose of %ualifying a ,2P(.. It must reference a specific 2P(. An e#ample of a procedure %ualification record is sho n in /igures , coupons made in accordance ith 2P(. 5any of the data re%uired by the PN$ are the same as the information on the referenced 2P(. In fact, the data on the front sheets are almost identical. The bac! ,sheet 1 of 1. of the PN$ is straight for ard and is a record of the mechanical test, the tensile test, the guided bend test, the toughness test test hen used. A toughness test, either impact or drop eight, is not re%uired by (ection I> of the The e#ample hen re%uired, and the filler eld hich are similar eld the eld, and the results of tests elding procedure specification

to A(56 N239J8. This sample PN$ is a record of actual conditions used to

code. These tests may be re%uired by other sections of the code and must be made according to other provisions of the code or an A(T5 specification. sho s typical data that ould be entered. If the test data meet the re%uirements of the code, the form is then signed by the manufacturer+s representative, certifying that the statements in the record are correct and that the test elds ere prepared, elded, and tested in accordance ith re%uirements of (ection I> of the A(56 code. The test record of the PN$ %ualifies the 2P( and fulfills the re%uirements for the code. All changes to a PN$ re%uire recertification by the manufacturer or contractor. It is necessary to have specific 2P(s and PN$s to cover all the eld processes,

combination of elding processes, different P groupings of base materials and so on, to 156

comply

ith the variables involved. 6very process and base metal used in production

of the product must be covered by a 2P(, hich must be %ualified by a PN$. Reco#d o% ?elde# @uali%ication Tests 3 2ith the 2P( and PN$ documents in order, it is then necessary to test the elders and elding operators for the or! to be done. 6ach elder and elding operator involved in manufacturing or installing the products covered by the A(56 7oiler and Pressure Iessel &ode must be %ualified. The elder ho prepares the procedure %ualification record ,PN$. specimens that pass code re%uirements is personally %ualified variables. All other tests, ma!e elders and ithin his or her performance %ualification elding elder or elding operator to hich is elding operators are %ualified by specific ill cover

hich are designed to determine the ability of the elds re%uired by the 2P( that

or!. An e#ample of the L$ecord of

2elder or 2elding @perator Nualification TestsM is sho n by /igure 1037, similar to A(56 N239J9. The record of each elder or

elding operator performance %ualification tests should include elder and elding operator should be or! of that

the essential variables, the type of test and test results, and the ranges %ualified, for elder and elding operator. 6ach assigned an identifying number, letter, or symbol. It is used to identify the person. The tests assigned are in accordance

ith the code and the mechanical tests

should meet the re%uirements applicable by the code. $adiographic e#amination may be substituted for mechanical tests accept for B5A2 using short3circuiting metal transfer. The radiographic techni%ue and acceptance criteria should be in accordance ith the code. In general, are also %ualified for filler accordance elders ho meet the code re%uirements for groove elder %ualified to eld in accordance elds elds, but not vice versa. A elding process, eld in ith other

ith one %ualified 2P( is also %ualified to

%ualified 2P(s using the same variables according to the code..

ithin the limits of the essential

157

If a elder has not elded for a period of three months or more, his or her %ualifications shall be e#pired. If there is reason to %uestion the various other conditions relative to elder+s ability to ma!e elds that meet the specifications, his or her %ualification shall be considered e#pired. There are elder %ualifications listed in the code. The code must be consulted for this information.

158

). ESTABLISHIN1 ?PS

A(56 (ection I> relates to %ualification of

elders,

elding operators, bra)ers and

bra)ing operators and the procedures that they employ in elding and bra)ing. It is divided into parts, part N2 gives re%uirements for re%uirements for bra)ing. /or the purpose of this course N2. ?PS B P@R The purpose of elding procedure specification ,2P(. and procedure %ualification records ,PN$. is to determine that the eldment proposed for construction is capable of providing the re%uired properties for its intended application. 2P( is intended to provide direction for the the 2P(. It is presumed that elder or elding operator performing the elding procedure elder and lists the variables, both hen using elding and part N7 contains e shall deal only ith part

essential and non essential and the acceptable ranges of these variables

%ualification test is s!illed

or!man so that

elding procedure %ualification test

establishes the properties of eldment and not the s!ill of the elder. The purpose of performance %ualification is to determine if the elder is able to deposit

sound metal or the elding operator is able to operate elding e%uipment properly. Part N2 is divided into 9 articles. Article I Article II 3 3 2elding general re%uirements 2elding procedure %ualifications

159

Article III Article II

3 3

2elding performance %ualifications 2elding data elds in plates,

7efore e proceed let us first understand various test position in groove In general, 0B or 0/ is called flat positions 1B or 1/ is called hori)ontal and circumferential 8B or 8/ is called vertical position G 9B or 9/ is called overhead position Position 5B is only in 8B G 9B. Position :B is also for the pipes circumferential seam is positions. ,$efer /ig. 9:0.0. is the diagram defining the position for groove elded elds in pipes. It is a position elded

groove elds in pipes and fillet eld in plates etc. ,$ef. /igure 9:0.8, 9 G 5.

hen pipe a#is is held hori)ontal ay it is combination of 0B,

and circumferential seam is

ithout rotating. In a

hen pipe a#is is at 95 deg. to hori)ontal plate and ithout rotating the pipe. It is combination of all

elds depending on

the inclination of the a#is of the eld and the angle of rotation of the face of the eld. There is similar ,$efer fig. 9:0.1. giving position for fillet elds. ,$efer fig. 950.0. gives the thic!ness limits and the type and number of the test specimen re%uired for procedure %ualification of groove and ,$efer fig. 9:8.0. a,b,c,d,e,f sho s the method of the ta!ing the test specimen. In case of that eld bet een dissimilar materials here it is difficult to carry out bending so

eld is at the center of conve# position, transverse bends are replaced by

longitudinal bends and the fig. loo! li!e ,$efer fig. 9:8.0 c. ,$efer fig. 950.8 G 950.9. Bive the test re%uired to fillet test and ,fig9:1.9. a,d , it is similar e#cept that instead of bend there is macro e#amination of 1 sections of D section.. 160

,$efer fig. 951.0. gives performance %ualification limits and type and number of the test specimen re%uired table ,fig. gives the diameter limits. It is more different processes. ,$efer fig. 9:1.9 7 G &. gives the re%uirements for performance %ualification of fillet elds. ,$efer fig. 9:0.K. gives performance %ualification position and diameter limits. ?eldin2 0a#iables " Article ,II. gives data about various types of various elding variables. It also gives tables for elding processes sho ing essential variables, supplementary essential orth noting that one, t o or elders can be %ualified on *ust one test coupon. 6ach may be using even

variables and non essential variables for procedures %ualification; and essential variables for performance %ualification. 6ssential variables for procedure are those elding variables hose change ill affect

the mechanical properties ,other than notch3toughness. of the P3number, filler metal, electrode type, preheat post heat etc.. (upplementary essential variables for procedure are those procedure are those properties of P2'T. ;on essential variables for performance are those affect the mechanical properties of or cleaning etc.. 6ssential variables for performance are those elding variables hose change eldment ,e#. ?phill or do n hill vertical

eldment ,e#. &hange in

elding variables for

ill after the notch toughness elding, heat input, preheat or

elding variables

hich

ill not

eldment ,e#. Ooint design, method of bac! gauging

elding variables

hich

ill affect the

ability of elder to deposit sound eld ,e.g. position, deletion of bac!ing /3number etc. 161

&hange in process is essential variable for procedure as ell as performance. 7efore e proceed let us first understand the term P3number A3number and /3number. All those materials are divided into various P3numbers depending on their nominal composition and further divided into groups depending on their nominal composition and further divided into groups depending on the type of refinement - min. specified ?T( etc. N23911 gives the full details. Plain carbon steels, &3(i, &r35n G &35n3(i are grouped as P30 materials and austenitic stainless steel as P3J material. /errous various A3numbers based on their elding electrodes and their A2( classification 981. ;o let us have loo! on some essential variables tables. elding consumable are classified under eld metal chemical composition ,table 991. and all

elding rods are grouped in different /3number depending on hich is based on type of flu# and chemical composition ,table

N2 158 2P(3 (5A2 N2 858 2PN3 (5A2 The follo ing tables are to be referred fre%uently for hence one has to understand them ,ho Re%e# AS-E Section I/. 0. 1. 8. 9. 5. :. $efer /ig. N2 9:0.8 $efer /ig. N2 9:0.9 $efer /ig. N2 9:0.5 $efer fig. N2 9:1.1 ,a, b, c, d G e. $efer fig. N2 9:8.0 3 3 3 3 3 Broove 2elds in Test Position /illet elds in Plates Test Positions. /illet 2elds in Pipe Test Positions 5ethod of Ta!ing out the Test (pecimen ,Performance Nualification 5ethod of Ta!ing out the Test (pecimen 162 or!ing ith A(56 (ection I> and

to. in right conte#t.

,a, b, c, d,e G f. 7. J. K. 00. $efer Table N2 950 $efer Table N2 951 $efer Table N2 9:0.K $efer Table N2 9:0.0 3 3 3 3

Nualification. Procedure Nualification Thic!ness =imits and Test (pecimens. Performance Nualification and Test (pecimens. Performance Nualification Position and diameter limits. Test Oig dimensions

Acceptance &riteria Procedure Nualification 0. 1. 8. 9. 5. N2 058 Tension Test N2 0:8 7end Test N2 0J8 5icro 6#amination Procedure (pecimens N2 0J9 5icro 6#amination Performance (pecimens N2 0K0 $adiographic 6#amination

8. A&&6PTA;&6 (TA;4A$4(.

2elding Procedure Nualification " The purpose of procedure %ualification testing is to demonstrate that the materials and methods prescribed in a *oint mechanical properties re%uirements. There are four steps in the %ualification of elding procedure " b b b b Preparation and elding of suitable samples Testing of representative specimens 6valuation of overall preparation, elding, testing and end results. Approval ,if the result are favorable. procedure specification that meet the ill in fact produce and eld application specification

163

Preparation of Procedure Nualification (ample *oints Test assemblies usually have a representative *oint in the middle. The si)e, type, and thic!ness are related to the type and thic!ness of material to be The materials used as ell as the elded in production and the number, type, and si)e o specimens to be removed for testing. elding details are governed by the particular elding procedure specifications that are to be %ualified. 6valuation of Test $esults " The test results for a procedure %ualification sample preparation, results elding and testing, should no eld, ith the records of *oint hether the test details be made available for revie . These

ill be analy)ed by the responsible parties to determine

and results meet the re%uirements of the applicable specifications. Approval @f Nualification Tests and Procedure (pecifications " As a rule, the inspection agency or customer must approve the procedure %ualification tests, the test results, and elding is done. the procedure specifications before any production

Nualification is accomplished available to sho itness the that the *oints

hen the re%uired tests have been completed and ere indeed satisfactory. As an inspector, you should ill gain ill be helpful in later inspections of

approval has been obtained. 'o ever, authentic documentary evidence must be elding and testing of all specimens, if possible, because you

factual !no ledge of procedure details that production elds. At

any time, an A(56 Authori)ed Inspector can call ith the data presented.

for re3%ualification of a

procedure if he is not satisfied

&ode Nualification $e%uirements " A2( (tructural 2elding &ode, in paragraph 5.5 sets forth the re%uirements for %ualifying those elding procedures hich do not meet the pre%ualified status of 164

paragraph 5.0 of that code, or %ualify a

hich must be %ualified for other reasons, such as

contract re%uirements. The type and number of specimens that must be tested to elding procedure are given in paragraph 5.00. The test results re%uired are given in paragraph 5.01. A(56 7oiler and Pressure Iessel &ode " The A(56 7oiler and Pressure Iessel &ode is authoritative about elding procedures. (ection I> is the basic document. It is titled 2elding and 7ra)ing Nualifications. All sections of the A(56 &ode re%uire %ualified cin accordance ith (ection I>c in re%uirements of each specific section. A(56 (ection III on ;uclear &omponents for Po er 158K.1, states. cThe Plants, paragraph ;73 ith ;73 elding procedures to be to supplemental addition

elding procedure ... shall be %ualified in accordance

9000 and (ection I> of this &odec. Paragraph ;&3158K.1 refers to ;&39000 and (ection I>. (imilarly, ;B3158K.1 refers to ;B39000 and I>. A(56 (ection IIII, 4ivision I, on Pressure Iessels, paragraph ?2 1J, %ualification of elding procedures in accordance 1J re%uires bra)ing procedures to be similarly %ualified. @ther procedures in A(56 (ection III, such as ;7398:0 on (pecially 4esigned (eals, are no e#ception. c6ach 5anufacturer or Installer shall prepare a procedure specification. The procedure shall be %ualified as a ne completely re3%ualified Paragraph ;7398J0.1 on the re%uirements for procedure and shall be are changed.c states. cThe hen any of the essential variables listed belo hard surfacing re%uires the

ith (ection I>. Paragraph ?7

procedure shall be %ualified as a ne

procedure and shall be completely re3%ualified

hen any of the changes listed in ;7398J1 are made.c The A(56 &ode is ell summari)ed in a series of identical paragraphs ;739810,

;&39810 and so forth3entitled cProcedure (pecifications and Nualifications.c

165

6ach manufacturer and-or Installer is responsible for the Article and by (ection I> of this &ode. &hanges in a Nualified Procedure " If a fabricator ho has %ualified a

elding done

by his

organi)ation and shall establish the procedure and conduct the tests re%uired by this

elding procedure desires at some later date to

ma!e a change in that procedure, it may be necessary to conduct additional %ualifying tests. $e3%ualification is necessary hen any one of the essential variables listed in the governing standard or code is changed. /or e#ample, one such variable is the heat treatment that follo s treatment has a profound effect on most addition to a elding procedure hen not called for elding. 'eat

elds. Its omission , hen called for. or its ould be a change in an important

essential variable, re%uiring re%ualification of the procedure. ;ote " The most important factors are usually classed as essential variables; if changed, re3%ualification is necessary. 5uch the same situation e#ists in connection elder and elding operator %ualifications. The variables that are most fre%uently ith

considered essential and generally re%uire re3%ualification are sho n in the follo ing pages. $emember, reference should al ays be made to the governing code or specification %ualification. WWWWWWWWW to determine hether the magnitude of a given change re%uires re3

166

9. 26=4I;B &@;(?5A7=6(
A 7rief Introduction " AS-E Section II Pa#t LCM covers classification and properties of consumables for elding and bra)ing comprising of 2elding $ods, 6lectrodes and /iller metals. These consumables are grouped into a number of sub3sections, in other ords, (pecifications, referred to as SFA Nu6be#. 6ach (/A ;o. covers consumables of overall similar characteristics, grouped together for compatibility ith same group of parent metals. /or e#ample, electrodes for carbon steel are grouped in (/A 5.0 Pe#iodical Assess6entF A44#o"als B Ce#ti%ication " 6ach (/A specification stipulates re%uirements for chemical composition limits, manufacturing methods, re%uired tests G test methods, acceptance criteria, classification, mar!ing, pac!aging, intended use of the consumables, and rules for periodical assessment, approvals and certification So6e Co66on S4eci%ications (ome of the commonly used SFA Nos. are listed belo complete list refer to (ection II3&. SFA &.! &overed carbon steel arc elding electrodes SFA &.+ &overed corrosion resisting chromium and chromium3nic!el electrodes SFA &.& =o Alloy steel covered arc elding electrodes SFA &.: &orrosion resisting chromium and chromium nic!el steel bare filler ire SFA &.!' &arbon steel electrodes and flu#es for submerged arc elding , (A2 . ; the list is not e#haustive. /or a

167

SFA &.!9 &arbon steel filler metals for gas shielded arc elding ,BTA2 - B5A2 . SFA &.)( &arbon steel electrodes for flu#3cored arc elding , /&A2 . SFA &.), =o SFA &.)9 =o SFA &.): =o Alloy steel electrodes G flu#es for (A2 alloy steel filler metals for gas shielded arc elding ,BTA2 - B5A2 . Alloy steel electrodes for /lu#3cored arc elding , /&A2 .

A?S Classi%ication o% Consu6ables " American ?elding Society has evolved a system of identifying classes of consumables in an alfa3numeric code, of hich is commonly referred to as A?S class. An e#planation for typical four common e#amples" hat this classification signifies is given belo

!. &lassification of covered 6lectrodes for (5A2 ,(hielded 5etal Arc 3 also !no n as 5anual 5etal Arc." A?S * E * // * 88 * 1 6 Z..&oated electrode >>Z.. 5inimum tensile strength in !si PPZZ&oating Type G chemistry BZZ Alloy addition, if any e.g. A2( 63700J or, A2( 6 J00J 71

). &lassification of BTA2 - B5A2 - PA2 7are 2ire $od A?S * ER * // *S * 88 6$Z.. 7are $od - electrode >>Z.. 5inimum tensile strength in !si (ZZ.(olid PPZZ(pecific chemical composition e.g. A2( 6$3703(3B1

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,. &lassification of (A2 2ire and /lu# for &arbon (teel A?S * F * /// * E * 888 F............./lu# 0st /......Tensile strength in 00,000 psig 1nd /.......&ondition of 'eattreatment .. A....as elded P.... Post heat 8rd /........Impact strength E..............6lectrode ire 888..........&lassification of carbon steel ire, e.g. 6=J, 6501A, or 6'09. +. &lassification of (A2 2ire G /lu# for Alloy (teel A?S * F * /// * E C* 888 N* 7F............./lu# 0st /......Tensile strength in 00,000 psig 1nd /.......&ondition of 'eattreatment .. A....as elded P.... Post heat 8rd /........Impact strength E..............6lectrode ire C..............&omposite electrode 888..........&lassification of alloy steel ire N............../or special purpose 7-............&hemical composition of eld metal Classi%ication o% Pa#ent -ate#ials and ?eldin2 Consu6ables as 4e# AS-E Code Section I/ In developing A(56 (ection I>, each as revie ed significant effect upon elding process that as included in the (ection, hich have ith regard to those parameters, called 0ARIABLES ,

elding operations and fabricatords ability to %ualify 2elding

Procedures and 2eldersd performance. Iariables are categori)ed as 6ssential, ;on3 169

essential and (upplementary ,for assurance of notch toughness. variables in the case of lo temperature operation.

Essential 0a#iables are given in comprehensive details in the chapter called c2elding 4atac. &hange in an 6ssential Iariable of an established 2elding Procedure re%uires re3%ualification of a Procedure ith a ne set of 6ssential Iariables. 7roadly spea!ing, and for ease of remembering, follo ing main 6ssential Iariables should be considered in proposing any 2elding Procedure (pecification " i. ?eldin2 P#ocess, e.g. (5A2, BTA2, (A2 etc. ii. Pa#ent -ate#ial , material specifications categori)ed into P Nos. iii. -ate#ial TEicDness iv. ?eldin2 Consu6able, categori)ed into F No. B A No. v. -aintenance o% P#eEeatF Inte#4ass B Post Eeat vi. Post ?eld Heat T#eat6ent and finally, the supplementary essential re%uirement of, vii. I64act Testin2 to assure notch toughness properties. Assignment of P Nu6be#s To rationally reduce the number of 2elding Procedure re%uired to be %ualified, base materials have assigned P ;umbers, essentially based on comparable material characteristics, such as chemical composition, mechanical properties and ,$efer N23991. Assignment of F Nu6be#s " 6lectrodes and elding rods have been grouped into / elds, eldability.

;umbers , $efer N23981., essentially on the basis of their usability characteristics, hich fundamentally determine the ability of the 2elders to ma!e satisfactory ith a given filler metal. This grouping also reduces the number of and performances hich re%uired to be %ualified, here it can be logically done. Assignment of A Nu6be#s "2eld 5etal compositions have been classified and grouped into A ;umbers, essentially on the basis of their eldability characteristics, as reflected by the nominal chemical composition obtained from their actual eld metal analyses. &autionary ;ote elding procedures

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These assignments do not imply that base materials and filler materials be indiscriminately substituted for a base metal or a filler metal %ualification test, hich as used in the ithout consideration of compatibility , from the standpoint of

metallurgical properties, post eld heat treatment, design, mechanical properties and service re%uirements.

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..

1UI ELINES FOR RE0IE? OF ?PS=P@R .

An inspector has to revie

the 2P(, PN$ and 2PN documents to ensure that they

meet the A(56 sect I> re%uirements. A chec!list shall be used to verify that the 2P( is properly completed and is addressing all the re%uirements of A(56 (ect I> and construction code. It is also necessary to verify that PN$ has been completed to meet all the A(56 sect I> re%uirements ,including test results as per acceptance criteria. The important part here is also to verify that values of essential variables recorded on the PN$ properly support the specified range of 2P(

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&hec!list for $evie

of 2P( ,(5A2 Process.

$efer N2 150 for variables. ,(upplementary variables not needed. 0. (ee identification bloc! sho ing 2P( no.```````````, $ev`````````` and PN$ no.```````````. Also at the end the revie er shall give his comments. There is signature of the vie er at the end. 1. N2 901 gives *oint details. N2 908 is indicating 7ase metals for e#ample if a PN$ is having base metal th!. 15.9mm the 2P( supported by it can be from 9.Jmm to 5.Jmm. (o if these variables are ritten in N2 908.J properly in 2P( and PN$ column then the column at %ualification shall indicate @A hich confirms that the variable is ithin the re%uirements and addressed properly. 8. 9. 5. :. 7. J. K. 00. 00. 01. 08. 09. 05. 0:. N2 909 is for filler metals N2 905 is for positions. N2 90: is for preheat. N2 907 is for P2(T N2 90K is for electrical characteristics. N2 900 is for techni%ue. Additionally N2 900 says LA change in process is an essential variable.M This has to be verified here and documented. N2 101.1, 8,9 are mentioned for reminder to the verifier. This is reminder for N2 100.9 combination of processes. This is reminder for revie er for bend and tension test as per N2 950.0 This is reminder for N2 909.5. The basis for assigning A numbers. This is reminder for N2 0703 ;otch toughness H if re%uired by construction code. This is to remind if there are any contracts -company-other re%uirements to be addressed ,N2100.

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