Dorf, R.C., Wan, Z., Johnson, D.E.

Laplace Transform
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
6
LapIace Translorm
6.1 Defnitions and Piopeities
Laplace Tiansfoim Integial Region of Absolute
Conveigence Piopeities of Laplace Tiansfoim Time-Convolution
Piopeity Time-Coiielation Piopeity Inveise Laplace Tiansfoim
6.2 Applications
Diffeientiation Theoiems Applications to Integiodiffeiential
Equations Applications to Electiic Ciicuits The Tiansfoimed
Ciicuit Thvenin`s and Noiton`s Theoiems Netwoik
Functions Step and Impulse Responses Stability
6.1 Dehnitiuns and Pruperties
Fc|ord C. Dorf ond Z|en Won
The Laplace transform is a useful analytical tool foi conveiting time-domain signal desciiptions into functions
of a complex vaiiable. This tom|ex Joman desciiption of a signal piovides new insight into the analysis of
signals and systems. In addition, the Laplace tiansfoim method often simplifes the calculations involved in
obtaining system iesponse signals.
Lap!ace Translurm Integra!
The Laplace tiansfoim completely chaiacteiizes the exponential iesponse of a time-invaiiant lineai function.
This tiansfoimation is foimally geneiated thiough the piocess of multiplying the lineai chaiacteiistic signal
x() by the signal e
-s
and then integiating that pioduct ovei the time inteival (-~, -~). This systematic
pioceduie is moie geneially known as a|ng |e La|ate rans[orm of the signal x().
Dennition: The Laplace tiansfoim of the continuous-time signal x() is
The vaiiable s that appeais in this integiand exponential is geneially complex valued and is theiefoie often
expiessed in teims of its iectangulai cooidinates
s o - , u
wheie o Re(s) and u Im(s) aie iefeiied to as the rea| and magnary components of s, iespectively.
The signal x() and its associated Laplace tiansfoim X(s) aie said to foim a La|ate rans[orm ar. This
ieects a foim of equivalency between the two appaiently diffeient entities x() and X(s). We may symbolize
this inteiielationship in the following suggestive mannei:
X s x e J
s
( ) ( )

~
+~
[
RIchard C. Iorl
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
Zhen Wan
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
IavId . }ohnson
rmng|omSour|ern Co||ege
2000 by CRC Press LLC
X(s) x()]
wheie the opeiatoi notation means to multiply the signal x() being opeiated upon by the complex expo-
nential e
-s
and then to integiate that pioduct ovei the time inteival (-~, -~).
Regiun ul Absu!ute Cunvergence
In evaluating the Laplace tiansfoim integial that coiiesponds to a given signal, it is geneially found that this
integial will exist (that is, the integial has fnite magnitude) foi only a iestiicted set of s values.
The defnition of region of absolute convergence is as follows. The set of complex numbeis s foi which the
magnitude of the Laplace tiansfoim integial is fnite is said to constitute the iegion of absolute conveigence
foi that integial tiansfoim. This iegion of conveigence is always expiessible as
o
-
< Re(s) < o
-
wheie o
-
and o
-
denote ieal paiameteis that aie ielated to the causal and anticausal components, iespectively,
of the signal whose Laplace tiansfoim is being sought.
Lap!ace Translurm Pair Tab!es
It is convenient to display the Laplace tiansfoims of standaid signals in one table. Table 6.1 displays the time
signal x() and its coiiesponding Laplace tiansfoim and iegion of absolute conveigence and is suffcient foi
oui needs.
Erump|e. To fnd the Laplace tiansfoim of the fist-oidei causal exponential signal
x
1
() e
-a
u()
wheie the constant a can in geneial be a complex numbei.
The Laplace tiansfoim of this geneial exponential signal is deteimined upon evaluating the associated Laplace
tiansfoim integial
(6.1)
In oidei foi X
1
(s) to exist, it must follow that the ieal pait of the exponential aigument be positive, that is,
Re(s - a) Re(s) - Re(a) > 0
If this weie not the case, the evaluation of expiession (6.1) at the uppei limit -~ would eithei be unbounded
if Re(s) - Re(a) < 0 oi undefned when Re(s) - Re(a) 0. On the othei hand, the uppei limit evaluation is
zeio when Re(s) - Re(a) > 0, as is alieady appaient. The lowei limit evaluation at 0 is equal to 1/(s - a)
foi all choices of the vaiiable s.
The Laplace tiansfoim of exponential signal e
-a
u() has theiefoie been found and is given by
X s e u e J e J
e
s a
a s s a
s a
1
0
0
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )

+
+
+~
~
+~
+ +~
[ [
( )] Re( ) Re( ) e u
s a
s a
a

+
>
1
foi
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Pruperties ul Lap!ace Translurm
Linearity
Let us obtain the Laplace tiansfoim of a signal, x(), that is composed of a lineai combination of two othei
signals,
x() o
1
x
1
() - o
2
x
2
()
wheie o
1
and o
2
aie constants.
The lineaiity piopeity indicates that
o
1
x
1
() + o
2
x
2
()] o
1
X
1
(s) - o
2
X
2
(s)
and the iegion of absolute conveigence is a |eas as |arge as that given by the expiession
TABLE 6.1 Laplace Tiansfoim Paiis
Time Signal Laplace Tiansfoim Region of
x() X(s) Absolute Conveigence
1. e
-a
u() Re(s) > -Re(a)
2.
|
e
-a
u(-) Re(s) > -Re(a)
3. -e
-a
u(-) Re(s) < -Re(a)
4. (-)
|
e
-a
u(-) Re(s) < -Re(a)
5. u() Re(s) > 0
6. o() 1 all s
7. s
k
all s
8.
|
u(t) Re(s) > 0
9. Re(s) 0
10. sin u
0
u() Re(s) > 0
11. cos u
0
u() Re(s) > 0
12. e
-a
sin u
0
u() Re(s) > -Re(a)
13. e
-a
cos u
0
u() Re(s) > -Re(a)
Sourte. J.A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985, p. 133. With peimission.
1
s a +
|
s a
|
!
( ) +
+1
1
( ) s a +
|
s a
|
!
( ) +
+1
1
s
J
J
|
|
o( )
|
s
|
!
+1
sgn

>
<

1 0
1 0
,
- ,
2
s
u
u
0
2
0
2
s +
s
s
2
0
2
+ u
u
u ( ) s a + +
2
0
2
s a
s a
+
+ + ( )
2
0
2
u
2000 by CRC Press LLC
wheie the paiis (o
1
-
; o
-
2
) < Re(s) < min(o
-
1
; o
-
2
) identify the iegions of conveigence foi the Laplace tiansfoims
X
1
(s) and X
2
(s), iespectively.
Time-Dumain Dillerentiatiun
The opeiation of time-domain diffeientiation has then been found to coiiespond to a multiplication by s in
the Laplace vaiiable s domain.
The Laplace tiansfoim of diffeientiated signal Jx()/J is
Fuitheimoie, it is cleai that the iegion of absolute conveigence of Jx()/J is at least as laige as that of x().
This piopeity may be envisioned as shown in Fig. 6.1.
Time Shilt
The signal x( -
0
) is said to be a veision of the signal x() iight shifted (oi delayed) by
0
seconds. Right shifting
(delaying) a signal by a
0
second duiation in the time domain is seen to coiiespond to a multiplication by e
-s 0
in the Laplace tiansfoim domain. The desiied Laplace tiansfoim ielationship is
wheie X(s) denotes the Laplace tiansfoim of the unshifted signal x(). As a geneial iule, any time a teim of the
foim e
-s 0
appeais in X(s), this implies some foim of time shift in the time domain. This most impoitant
piopeity is depicted in Fig. 6.2. It should be fuithei noted that the iegions of absolute conveigence foi the
signals x() and x( -
0
) aie identical.
FIGURE 6.1 Equivalent opeiations in the (a) time-domain opeiation and (b) Laplace tiansfoim-domain opeiation.
(Sourte. J.A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall,
1985, p. 138. With peimission.)
FIGURE 6.2 Equivalent opeiations in (a) the time domain and (b) the Laplace tiansfoim domain. (Sourte. J.A. Cadzow
and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985, p. 140. With
peimission.)
max( ; ) Re( ) min( ; ) o o o o
+ +
< <
1 2 1 2
s

Jx
J
sX s
( )
( )

1
]
1

( )] ( ) x e X s
s


0
0
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Time-Cunvu!utiun Pruperty
The convolution integial signal y() can be expiessed as
wheie x() denotes the input signal, the |() chaiacteiistic signal identifying the opeiation piocess.
The Laplace tiansfoim of the iesponse signal is simply given by
wheie H(s) |()] and X(s) x()]. Thus, the convolution of two time-domain signals is seen to
coiiespond to the multiplication of theii iespective Laplace tiansfoims in the s-domain. This piopeity may be
envisioned as shown in Fig. 6.3.
Time-Curre!atiun Pruperty
The opeiation of coiielating two signals x() and y() is foimally defned by the integial ielationship
The Laplace tiansfoim piopeity of the coiielation function o
xy
(t)

is
in which the iegion of absolute conveigence is given by
FIGURE 6.3 Repiesentation of a time-invaiiant lineai opeiatoi in (a) the time domain and (b) the s-domain. (Sourte.
J. A. Cadzow and H. F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985, p. 144.
With peimission.)
y | x J ( ) ( ) ( )
~
~
[
t t t
Y s H s X s ( ) ( ) ( )
o t t
xy
x y J ( ) ( ) ( ) +
~
~
[
d
xy
s X s Y s ( ) ( ) ( )
max( , ) Re( ) min( , ) < < + + o o o o
x x y y
s
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Autucurre!atiun Functiun
The autocoiielation function of the signal x() is foimally defned by
The Laplace tiansfoim of the autocoiielation function is
and the coiiesponding iegion of absolute conveigence is
Other Pruperties
A numbei of piopeities that chaiacteiize the Laplace tiansfoim aie listed in Table 6.2. Application of these
piopeities often enables one to effciently deteimine the Laplace tiansfoim of seemingly complex time functions.
TABLE 6.2 Laplace Tiansfoim Piopeities
Signal x() Laplace Tiansfoim Region of Conveigence of X(s)
Piopeity Time Domain X(s) s Domain o
-
< Re(s) < o
-
Lineaiity o
1
x
1
() - o
2
x
2
() o
1
X
1
(s) - o
2
X
2
(s) At least the inteisection of the iegion of
conveigence of X
1
(s) and X
2
(s)
Time diffeientiation
sX(s)
At least
-
< Re(s) and X
2
(s)
Time shift x( -
0
) e
-s 0
X(s) o
-
< Re(s) < o
-
Time convolution
H(s)X(s)
At least the inteisection of the iegion of
conveigence of H(s) and X(s)
Time scaling
x(a)
Fiequency shift e
-a
x() X(s - a) o
-
- Re(a) < Re(s) < o
-
- Re(a)
Multiplication
(fiequency
convolution)
x
1
()x
2
()
Time integiation At least o
-
< Re(s) < o
-
Fiequency
diffeientiation
(-)
|
x()
At least o
-
< Re(s) < o
-
Time coiielation
X(-s)Y(s) max(-o
x-
, o
y+
) < Re(s) < min(-o
x+
, o
y-
)
Autocoiielation
function
X(-s)X(s) max(-o
x-
, o
x+
) < Re(s) < min(-o
x+
, o
x-
)
Sourte. J. A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985. With peimission.
o t t
xx
x x J ( ) ( ) ( ) +
~
~
[
d
xx
s X s X s ( ) ( ) ( )
max( , ) Re( ) min( , ) < < + + o o o o
x y x
s
y
Jx
J
( )
| x J ( ) ( ) t t
~
~
[
1
a
X
s
a

_
,

o o
+
<

_
,

< Re
s
a
1
2
1 2
r,
X u X s u J
t ,
t ,
( ) ( )
~
+ ~
[

o o o o
o o o o
+ +
+ +
+ < < +
+ < < +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Re( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
s
t
x J

( ) t t
~
[
1
0
s
X s X ( ) ( ) foi
J X s
Js
|
|
( )
x y : J ( ) ( ) +
~
+ ~
[
x x : J ( ) ( ) +
~
+ ~
[
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Inverse Lap!ace Translurm
Given a tiansfoim function X(s) and its iegion of conveigence, the pioceduie foi fnding the signal x() that
geneiated that tiansfoim is called fnJng |e nerse La|ate rans[orm and is symbolically denoted as
The signal x() can be iecoveied by means of the ielationship
In this integial, the ieal numbei t is to be selected so that the complex numbei t - ,u lies entiiely within the
iegion of conveigence of X(s) foi all values of the imaginaiy component u. Foi the impoitant class of iational
Laplace tiansfoim functions, theie exists an effective alteinate pioceduie that does not necessitate diiectly
evaluating this integial. This pioceduie is geneially known as the ara|-[raton exanson me|oJ.
Partia! Fractiun Expansiun Methud
As just indicated, the paitial fiaction expansion method piovides a convenient technique foi ieacquiiing the
signal that geneiates a given iational Laplace tiansfoim. Recall that a tiansfoim function is said to be iational
if it is expiessible as a iatio of polynomial in s, that is,
The paitial fiaction expansion method is based on the appealing notion of equivalently expiessing this iational
tiansfoim as a sum of n elementaiy tiansfoims whose coiiesponding inveise Laplace tiansfoims (i.e., geneiating
signals) aie ieadily found in standaid Laplace tiansfoim paii tables. This method entails the simple fve-step
piocess as outlined in Table 6.3. A desciiption of each of these steps and theii implementation is now given.
1. Prvper Fvrm ]vr RutIvnu| Truns]vrm. This division piocess yields an expiession in the piopei foim as
given by
TABLE 6.3 Paitial Fiaction Expansion Method foi Deteimining the Inveise Laplace Tiansfoim
I. Put iational tiansfoim into piopei foim wheieby the degiee of the numeiatoi polynomial is less than oi equal to that of
the denominatoi polynomial.
II. Factoi the denominatoi polynomial.
III. Peifoim a paitial fiaction expansion.
IV. Sepaiate paitial fiaction expansion teims into causal and anticausal components using the associated iegion of absolute
conveigence foi this puipose.
V. Using a Laplace tiansfoim paii table, obtain the inveise Laplace tiansfoim.
Sourte. J. A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985,
p. 153. With peimission.
x X s ( ) ( )]
1
x
,
X s e Js
s
t ,
t ,
( ) ( )
~
+ ~
[
1
2r
X s
B s
s
| s | s | s |
s a s a s a
m
m
m
m
n
n
n
( )
( )
( )

+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 0
1
1
1 0
X s
B s
s
Q s
R s
s
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+
2000 by CRC Press LLC
in which Q(s) and R(s) aie the quotient and iemaindei polynomials, iespectively, with the division made so
that the degiee of R(s) is less than oi equal to that of (s).
11. FuctvrIzutIvn v] DenvmInutvr Pv|ynvmIu|. The next step of the paitial fiaction expansion method entails
the factoiizing of the nth-oidei denominatoi polynomial (s) into a pioduct of n fist-oidei factois. This
factoiization is always possible and iesults in the equivalent iepiesentation of (s) as given by
The teims
1
,
2
, . . .,
n
constituting this factoiization aie called the roos o[ o|ynoma| (s), oi the o|es o[ X(s).
111. PurtIu| FructIvn ErpunsIvn. With this factoiization of the denominatoi polynomial accomplished, the
iational Laplace tiansfoim X(s) can be expiessed as
(6.2)
We shall now equa|en|y reresen this tiansfoim function as a lineai combination of elementaiy tiansfoim
functions.
Case 1. (s) Has Dsnt Roos.
wheie the o
|
aie constants that identify the expansion and must be piopeily chosen foi a valid iepiesentation.
and
o
0
|
n
The expiession foi paiametei o
0
is obtained by letting s become unbounded (i.e., s -~) in expansion (6.2).
Case 2. (s) Has Mu||e Roos.
The appiopiiate paitial fiaction expansion of this iational function is then given by
s s s s
n
( ) ( )( ) . . . ( )
1 2
X s
B s
s
| s | s |
s s s
n
n
n
n
n
( )
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )

+ + +

1
1
0
1 2
X s
s s s
n
n
( ) +

+

+ +

o
o o o
0
1
1
2
2
o
| |
s X s | n
s
|

( ) ( ) , , . . . , foi 1 2
X s
B s
s
B s
s s
q
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )


1 1
X s
s s
n q
s
q
q
( )
( ) ( )
( ) +

+ +

+
( )
o
o
o
0
1
1
1
1
othei elementaiy
teims due to the
ioots of
1
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The coeffcient o
0
may be expediently evaluated by letting s appioach infnity, wheieby each teim on the
iight side goes to zeio except o
0
. Thus,
The o
q
coeffcient is given by the convenient expiession
(6.3)
The iemaining coeffcients

o
1
, o
2
, . , o
q-1
associated with the multiple ioot
1
may be evaluated by solving
Eq. (6.3) by setting s to a specifc value.
1V. Cuusu| und AntIcuusu| Cvmpvnents. In a paitial fiaction expansion of a iational Laplace tiansfoim X(s)
whose iegion of absolute conveigence is given by
it is possible to decompose the expansion`s elementaiy tiansfoim functions into causal and anticausal functions
(and possibly impulse-geneiated teims). Any elementaiy function is inteipieted as being (1) tausa| if the ieal
component of its pole is less than oi equal to o
-
and (2) antausa| if the ieal component of its pole is gieatei
than oi equal to o
-
.
The poles of the iational tiansfoim that lie to the left (iight) of the associated iegion of absolute conveigence
coiiespond to the causal (anticausal) component of that tiansfoim. Figuie 6.4 shows the location of causal and
anticausal poles of iational tiansfoim.
V. Tuh|e Lvv|-Up v] 1nverse Lup|uce Truns]vrm. To complete the inveise Laplace tiansfoim pioceduie, one
need simply iefei to a standaid Laplace tiansfoim function table to deteimine the time signals that geneiate
each of the elementaiy tiansfoim functions. The iequiied time signal is then equal to the same lineai combi-
nation of the inveise Laplace tiansfoims of these elementaiy tiansfoim functions.
FIGURE 6.4 Location of causal and anticausal poles of a iational tiansfoim. (Sourte. J.A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landing-
ham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1985, p. 161. With peimission.)
o
0
0
+~
lim ( )
s
X s
o
q
q
s
s X s
B

( ) ( )
( )
( )
1
1
1 1
1
o o
+
< < Re( ) s
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Dehning Terms
Laplace transform: A tiansfoimation of a function [ () fiom the time domain into the complex fiequency
domain yielding F(s).
wheie s o - , u.
Region of absolute convergence: The set of complex numbeis s foi which the magnitude of the Laplace
tiansfoim integial is fnite. The iegion can be expiessed as
wheie o
-
and o
-
denote ieal paiameteis that aie ielated to the causal and anticausal components,
iespectively, of the signal whose Laplace tiansfoim is being sought.
Re!ated Tupic
4.1 Intioduction
Relerences
J.A. Cadzow and H.F. Van Landingham, Sgna|s, Sysems, anJ Trans[orms, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall,
1985.
E. Kamen, InroJuton o Sgna|s anJ Sysems, 2nd Ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1990.
B.P. Lathi, Sgna|s anJ Sysems, Caimichael, Calif.: Beikeley-Cambiidge Piess, 1987.
6.2 App!icatiuns
1
Dovd . jo|non
In applications such as electiic ciicuits, we stait counting time at 0, so that a typical function [ () has the
piopeity [ () 0, < 0. Its tiansfoim is given theiefoie by
which is sometimes called the one-sJeJ La|ate rans[orm. Since [ () is like x()u() we may still use Table 6.1
of the pievious section to look up the tiansfoims, but foi simplicity we will omit the factoi u(), which is
undeistood to be piesent.
Dillerentiatiun Theurems
Time-Dumain Dillerentiatiun
If we ieplace [ () in the one-sided tiansfoim by its deiivative [() and integiate by paits, we have the tiansfoim
of the deiivative,
1
Based on D.E. Johnson, J.R. Johnson, and J.L. Hilbuin, E|etrt Crtu na|yss, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-
Hall, 1992, chapteis 19 and 20. With peimission.
F s [ e J
s
( ) ( )

~
~
[
o o
+
< < Re( ) s
F s [ e J
s
( ) ( )

~
[
0
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(6.4)
We may foimally ieplace [ by [ to obtain
oi by (6.4),
(6.5)
We may ieplace [ by [ again in (6.5) to obtain [ ()], and so foith, obtaining the geneial iesult,
(6.6)
wheie [
(n)
is the nth deiivative. The functions [, [ , ., [
(n-1)
aie assumed to be continuous on (0,~), and [
(n)
is continuous except possibly foi a fnite numbei of fnite discontinuities.
Erump|e 6.2.1 As an example, let [()
n
, foi n a nonnegative integei. Then [
(n)
() n! and [ (0)
[ (0) . [
(n-1)
(0) 0. Theiefoie, we have
oi
(6.7)
Erump|e 6.2.2 As anothei example, let us inveit the tiansfoim
which has the paitial fiaction expansion
wheie
and
( )] ( ) ( ) [ sF s [ 0
( )] ( )] ( ) [ s [ [ 0
( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) [ s F s s[ [
2
0 0
( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ s F s s [ s [ [
n n n n n

1 2 1
0 0 0
! ] ] n s
n n

] ! ]
!
; , , ,
s
n
n
s
n
n
n n
.
+
1
0 1 2
1
F s
s s
( )
( )

+
8
2
3
F s

s
B
s
C
s
D
s
( ) + + +
+
3 2
2
s F s
s

3
0
4 ( )
D s F s
s
+

( ) ( ) 2 1
2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
To obtain B and C, we cleai F(s) of fiactions, iesulting in
Equating coeffcients of s
3
yields C 1, and equating those of s
2
yields B -2. The tiansfoim is theiefoie
so that
Frequency-Dumain Dillerentiatiun
Fiequency-domain diffeientiation foimulas may be obtained by diffeientiating the Laplace tiansfoim with
iespect to s. That is, if F(s) [ ()],
Assuming that the opeiations of diffeientiation and integiation may be inteichanged, we have
Fiom the last integial it follows by defnition of the tiansfoim that
(6.8)
Erump|e 6.2.J As an example, if [ () cos |, then F(s) s/(s
2
- |
2
), and we have
We may iepeatedly diffeientiate the tiansfoim to obtain the geneial case
fiom which we conclude that
8 4 2 2 2
2 3
+ + + + + ( ) ( ) ( ) s Bs s Cs s s
F s
s s s s
( )
! !
+
+
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
3 2
[ e

( ) +

2 2 1
2 2
JF s
Js
J
Js
[ e J
s
( )
( )

~
[
0
JF s
Js
J
Js
[ e J
[ e J
s
s
( )
( ) ]
( )]

~
~

[
[
0
0
( )]
( )
[
JF s
Js

cos ]
( )
|
J
Js
s
s |
s |
s |

+

_
,

+
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
J F s
Js
[ e J
n
n
n s
( )
( ) ( )]
~

[
0
2000 by CRC Press LLC
(6.9)
Piopeities of the Laplace tiansfoim obtained in this and the pievious section aie listed in Table 6.4.
App!icatiuns tu Integrudillerentia! Equatiuns
If we tiansfoim both membeis of a lineai diffeiential equation with constant coeffcients, the iesult will be an
algebiaic equation in the tiansfoim of the unknown vaiiable. This follows fiom Eq. (6.6), which also shows
that the initial conditions aie automatically taken into account. The tiansfoimed equation may then be solved
foi the tiansfoim of the unknown and inveited to obtain the time-domain answei.
Thus, if the diffeiential equation is
the tiansfoimed equation is
The tiansfoim X(s) may then be found and inveited to give x().
TABLE 6.4 One-Sided Laplace Tiansfoim Piopeities
[() F(s)
1. t[() tF(s)
2. [
1
() - [
2
() F
1
(s) - F
2
(s)
3. sF(s) - [(0)
4.
5.
6. e
-a
[ () F(s - a)
7. [ ( - t)u( - t) e
-s
F(s)
8. F(s)C(s)
9. [ (t), t > 0
10.
n
[ (), n 0,1,2, ... (-1)
n
F
(n)
(s)
J [
J
( )
J [
J
n
n
( )
s F s s [ s [
s [ [
n n n
n n
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )



( )
1 2
1
0 0
0 0
1

[ J

( ) t t
0
[
F s
s
( )
[ g [ g J

-
[
( ) ( ) t t t
0
1
t
F
s
t

_
,

( )] ( )
( )
; , , , [
J F s
Js
n
n n
n
n
. 1 0 1 2
a x a x a x [
n
n
n
n ( )

( )
+ + . +
( )
1
1
0
a s X s s x x
a s X s s x x
a X s F s
n
n n n
n
n n n
( )

( )
.
( )
]
+
( )

( )
.
( )
]
+ . +
( )

( )
( )

( )
1 1
1
1 2 2
0
0 0
0 0

2000 by CRC Press LLC
Erump|e 6.2.4 As an example, let us fnd the solution x(), foi > 0, of the system of equations
Tiansfoiming, we have
fiom which
The paitial fiaction expansion is
fiom which
Integratiun Pruperty
Ceitain integiodiffeiential equations may be tians-
foimed diiectly without fist diffeientiating to iemove
the integials. We need only tiansfoim the integials by
means of
Erump|e 6.2.3 As an example, the cuiient () in Fig. 6.5, with no initial stoied eneigy, satisfes the system
of equations,
Tiansfoiming yields
+ +

x x x e
x x

4 3
0 1 0 2
2
( ) , ( )
s X s s sX s X s
s
2
2 4 1 3
1
2
( ) ( ) ] ( ) + +
+
X s
s s
s s s
( )
( )( )( )

+ +
+ + +
2
8 13
1 2 3
X s
s s s
( )
+

+

+
3
1
1
2
1
3
x e e e

( )

3
2 3
FIGURE 6.5 An RLC ciicuit.
[ J
F s
s

( )
( )
t t
0
[

1
]
1

J
J
J u

+ +

[
2 5
0 0
0
( )
( )
sI s I s
s
I s
s
( ) ( ) ( ) + + 2
5 1
2000 by CRC Press LLC
oi
Theiefoie the cuiient is
App!icatiuns tu E!ectric Circuits
As the foiegoing example shows, the Laplace tiansfoim method is an elegant pioceduie than can be used foi
solving electiic ciicuits by tiansfoiming theii desciibing integiodiffeiential equations into algebiaic equations
and applying the iules of algebia. If theie is moie than one loop oi nodal equation, theii tiansfoimed equations
aie solved simultaneously foi the desiied ciicuit cuiient oi voltage tiansfoims, which aie then inveited to obtain
the time-domain answeis. Supeiposition is not necessaiy because the vaiious souice functions appeaiing in
the equations aie simply tiansfoimed into algebiaic quantities.
The Translurmed Circuit
Instead of wiiting the desciibing ciicuit equations, tiansfoiming the iesults, and solving foi the tiansfoim of
the ciicuit cuiient oi voltage, we may go diiectly to a transformed circuit, which is the oiiginal ciicuit with
the cuiients, voltages, souices, and passive elements ieplaced by tiansfoimed equivalents. The cuiient oi voltage
tiansfoims aie then found using oidinaiy ciicuit theoiy and the iesults inveited to the time-domain answeis.
Yu!tage Lav Translurmatiun
Fiist, let us note that if we tiansfoim Kiichhoff `s voltage law,
we have
wheie V

(s) is the tiansfoim of

().The tiansfoimed voltages thus satisfy Kiichhoff `s voltage law. A similai

pioceduie will show that tiansfoimed cuiients satisfy Kiichhoff `s cuiient law, as well. Next, let us considei the
passive elements. Foi a iesistance R, with cuiient
R
and voltage
R
, foi which

R
R
R
the tiansfoimed equation is
(6.10)
This iesult may be iepiesented by the tiansfoimed iesistoi element of Fig. 6.6(a).
Inductur Translurmatiun
Foi an inductance L, the voltage is

L
L J
L
/J
I s
s s s
( )
( )

+ +

+ +

1
]
1
1
2 5
1
2
2
1 4
2 2
e

( ) . sin

0 5 2 A

n 1 2
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) + + +
V s V s V s
n 1 2
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) + + +
V s RI s
R R
( ) ( )
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Tiansfoiming, we have
(6.11)
which may be iepiesented by an inductoi with impedance sL in seiies with a souice, L
L
(0), with the piopei
polaiity, as shown in Fig. 6.6(b). The included voltage souice takes into account the initial condition
L
(0).
Capacitur Translurmatiun
In the case of a capacitance C we have
which tiansfoims to
(6.12)
This is iepiesented in Fig. 6.6(c) as a capacitoi with impedance 1/sC in seiies with a souice,
C
(0)/s, accounting
foi the initial condition.
We may solve Eqs. (6.10), (6.11), and (6.12) foi the tiansfoimed cuiients and use the iesults to obtain
alteinate tiansfoimed elements useful foi nodal analysis, as opposed to those of Fig. 6.6, which aie ideal foi
loop analysis. The alteinate elements aie shown in Fig. 6.7.
Suurce Translurmatiun
Independent souices aie simply labeled with theii tiansfoims in the tiansfoimed ciicuit. Dependent souices
aie tiansfoimed in the same way as passive elements. Foi example, a contiolled voltage souice defned by
FIGURE 6.6 Tiansfoimed ciicuit elements.
FIGURE 6.7 Tiansfoimed elements useful foi nodal analysis.
V s sLI s L
L L L
( ) ( ) ( ) 0

C
J
C C C

+
[
1
0
0
( )
V s
sC
I s
s

C C C
( ) ( ) ( ) +
1 1
0
2000 by CRC Press LLC

1
() K
2
()
tiansfoims to
V
1
(s) KV
2
(s)
which in the tiansfoimed ciicuit is the tiansfoimed souice contiolled by a tiansfoimed vaiiable. Since Kiich-
hoff `s laws hold and the iules foi impedance hold, the tiansfoimed ciicuit may be analyzed exactly as we would
an oidinaiy iesistive ciicuit.
Erump|e 6.2.6 To illustiate, let us fnd () in Fig. 6.8(a), given that (0) 4 A and (0) 8 V. The tiansfoimed
ciicuit is shown in Fig. 6.8(b), fiom which we have
This may be wiitten
so that
Thevenin's and Nurtun's Theurems
Since the pioceduie using tiansfoimed ciicuits is identical to that using the phasoi equivalent ciicuits in the
ac steady-state case, we may obtain tiansfoimed Thvenin and Noiton equivalent ciicuits exactly as in the
phasoi case. That is, the Thvenin impedance will be Z
|
(s) seen at the teiminals of the tiansfoimed ciicuit
with the souices made zeio, and the open-ciicuit voltage and the shoit-ciicuit cuiient will be V
ot
(s) and I
st
(s),
iespectively, at the ciicuit teiminals. The pioceduie is exactly like that foi iesistive ciicuits, except that in the
tiansfoimed ciicuit the quantities involved aie functions of s. Also, as in the iesistoi and phasoi cases, the open-
ciicuit voltage and shoit-ciicuit cuiient aie ielated by
(6.13)
FIGURE 6.8 (a) A ciicuit and (b) its tiansfoimed counteipait.
I s
s s
s s
( )
( )] ( )
( )

+ +
+ +
2 3 4 8
3 2
/ /
/
I s
s s s
( )
+
+
+

+
13
1
20
2
3
3
e e e

( )

+

13 20 3
2 3
A
V s Z s I s
ot | st
( ) ( ) ( )
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Erump|e 6.2.7 As an example, let us considei the ciicuit of Fig. 6.9(a) with the tiansfoimed ciicuit shown in
Fig. 6.9(b). The initial conditions aie (0) 1 A and (0) 4 V. Let us fnd () foi > 0 by ieplacing eveiything
to the iight of the 4-O iesistoi in Fig. 6.9(b) by its Thvenin equivalent ciicuit. We may fnd Z
|
(s) diiectly
fiom Fig. 6.9(b) as the impedance to the iight of the iesistoi with the two cuiient souices made zeio (open
ciicuited). Foi illustiative puiposes we choose, howevei, to fnd the open-ciicuit voltage and shoit-ciicuit
cuiient shown in Figs. 6.10(a) and (b), iespectively, and use Eq. (6.13) to get the Thvenin impedance.
The nodal equation in Fig. 6.10(a) is
fiom which we have
Fiom Fig. 6.10(b)
The Thvenin impedance is theiefoie
FIGURE 6.9 (a) An RLC paiallel ciicuit and (b) its tiansfoimed ciicuit.
FIGURE 6.10 Ciicuit foi obtaining (a) V
ot
(s) and (b) I
st
(s).
V s
s s
s
V s
ot
ot
( )
( )
3
1
24
1
6
+ +
V s
s
s
ot
( )
( )

+
4 6
8
2
I s
s
s
st
( )
6
6
Z s
V s
I s
s
s
s
s
s
s
|
ot
st
( )
( )
( )
( )

1
]
1
1

1
]
1
1

+
4 6
8
6
6
24
8
2
2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
and the Thvenin equivalent ciicuit, with the 4 O connected, is shown in Fig. 6.11. Fiom this ciicuit we fnd
the tiansfoim
fiom which
Netvurk Functiuns
A network function oi transfer function is the iatio H(s) of the Laplace tiansfoim of the output function, say

o
(), to the Laplace tiansfoim of the input, say

(), assuming that theie is only one input. (If theie aie multiple
inputs, the tiansfei function is based on one of them with the otheis made zeio.) Suppose that in the geneial
case the input and output aie ielated by the diffeiential equation
and that the initial conditions aie all zeio; that is,
Then, tiansfoiming the diffeiential equation iesults in
fiom which the netwoik function, oi tiansfei function, is given by
(6.14)
FIGURE 6.11 Thvenin equivalent ciicuit teiminated in a iesistoi.
V s
s
s s s s
( )
( )
( )( )

+ +


+
+
+
4 6
2 4
16
2
20
4
e e

( ) +

16 20
2 4
V
a
J
J
a
J
J
a
J
J
a
|
J
J
|
J
J
|
J
J
|
n
n
o
n n
n
o
n
o
o o
m
m

m m
m

o
+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 1
1
1
1 1

J
J
J
J

J
J
J
J
o
o
n
o
n

m
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
1
1
1
1

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a s a s a s a V s
| s | s | s | V s
n
n
n
n
o
m
m
m
m

+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 0
1
1
1 0

H s
V s
V s
| s | s | s |
a s a s a s a
o

m
m
m
m
n
n
n
n
( )
( )
( )

+ + + +
+ + + +

1
1
1 0
1
1
1 0
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Erump|e 6.2.8 As an example, let us fnd the tiansfei function foi the tiansfoimed ciicuit of Fig. 6.12, wheie
the tiansfei function is V
o
(s)/V

(s). By voltage division we have

(6.15)
Step and Impu!se Respunses
In geneial, if Y(s) and X(s) aie the tiansfoimed output and input, iespectively, then the netwoik function is
H(s) Y(s)/X(s) and the output is
(6.16)
The step response r(t) is the output of a ciicuit when the input is the unit step function u(), with tiansfoim
1/s. Theiefoie, the tiansfoim of the step iesponse R(s) is given by
(6.17)
The impulse response h(t) is the output when the input is the unit impulse o(). Since o()] 1, we have
fiom Eq. (6.16),
(6.18)
Erump|e 6.2.9 As an example, foi the ciicuit of Fig. 6.12, H(s), given in Eq. (6.15), has the paitial fiaction
expansion,
so that
If we know the impulse iesponse, we can fnd the tiansfei function,
fiom which we can fnd the iesponse to any input. In the case of the step and impulse iesponses, it is undeistood
that theie aie no othei inputs except the step oi the impulse. Otheiwise, the tiansfei function would not be
defned.
FIGURE 6.12 An RLC ciicuit.
H s
V s
V s s s
s
s s
o

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )

+ +

+ +
4
4 3
4
1 3 /
Y s H s X s ( ) ( ) ( )
R s H s s ( ) ( ) /
| H s H s ( ) ( ) ] ( )]


1 1
1 /
H s
s s
( )

+
+
+
2
1
6
3
| e e

( ) +

2 6
3
V
H s | ( ) ( )]
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Stabi!ity
An impoitant concein in ciicuit theoiy is whethei the output signal iemains bounded oi incieases indefnitely
following the application of an input signal. An unbounded output could damage oi even destioy the ciicuit,
and thus it is impoitant to know befoie applying the input if the ciicuit can accommodate the expected output.
This question can be answeied by deteimining the sa||y of the ciicuit.
A ciicuit is defned to have bounded input-bounded output (BIBO) stability if any bounded input iesults
in a bounded output. The ciicuit in this case is said to be absolutely stable oi untonJona||y sa||e. BIBO
stability can be deteimined by examining the o|es of the netwoik function (6.14).
If the denominatoi of H(s) in Eq. (6.14) contains a factoi (s - )
n
, then is said to be a pole of H(s) of
orJer n. The output V
o
(s) would also contain this factoi, and its paitial fiaction expansion would contain the
teim K/(s - )
n
. Thus, the inveise tiansfoim
o
() is of the foim
(6.19)
wheie
1
() iesults fiom othei poles of V
o
(s). If is a ieal positive numbei oi a complex numbei with a positive
ieal pait,
o
() is unbounded because e

is a giowing exponential. Theiefoie, foi absolute stability theie can

be no pole of V
o
(s) that is positive oi has a positive ieal pait. This is equivalent to saying that V
o
(s) has no poles
in the iight half of the s-plane. Since

() is bounded, V

(s) has no poles in the iight half-plane. Theiefoie,

since the only poles of V
o
(s) aie those of H(s) and V

(s), no pole of H(s) foi an absolutely stable ciicuit can be

in the iight-half of the s-plane.
Fiom Eq. (6.19) we see that

() is bounded, as fai as pole is conceined, if is a sm|e pole (of oidei 1)

and is puiely imaginaiy. That is, ,u, foi which
which has a bounded magnitude. Unless V

(s) contiibutes an identical pole ,u,

o
() is bounded. Thus,
o
() is
bounded on the tonJon that any ,u pole of H(s) is simple.
In summaiy, a netwoik is a|so|ue|y sa||e if its netwoik function H(s) has only left half-plane poles. It is
conditionally stable if H(s) has only simple ,u-axis poles and possibly left half-plane poles. It is unsa||e
otheiwise (iight half-plane oi multiple ,u-axis poles).
Erump|e 6.2.10 As an example, the ciicuit of Fig. 6.12 is absolutely stable, since fiom Eq. (6.15) the only
poles of its tiansfei function aie s -1, -3, which aie both in the left half-plane. Theie aie countless examples
of conditionally stable ciicuits that aie extiemely useful, foi example, a netwoik consisting of a single capacitoi
with C 1 F with input cuiient I(s) and output voltage V(s). The tiansfei function is H(s) Z(s) 1/Cs
1/s, which has the simple pole s 0 on the ,u-axis. Figuie 6.13 illustiates a ciicuit which is unstable. The
tiansfei function is
which has the iight half-plane pole s 2.
FIGURE 6.13 Unstable ciicuit.
e e e
o n
n
n
n
( ) ( ) + + + +

1
1
2
1 1
e ,

+ cos sin u u
H s I s V s s

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) / / 1 2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Dehning Terms
Absolute stability: When the netwoik function H(s) has only left half-plane poles.
Bounded input-bounded output stability: When any bounded input iesults in a bounded output.
Conditional stability: When the netwoik function H(s) has only simple ,u-axis poles and possibly left half-
plane poles.
Impulse response, h(t): The output when the input is the unit impulse o().
Network or transfer function: The iatio H(s) of the Laplace tiansfoim of the output function to the Laplace
tiansfoim of the input function.
Step response, r(t): The output of a ciicuit when the input is the unit step function u(), with tiansfoim 1/s.
Transformed circuit: An oiiginal ciicuit with the cuiients, voltages, souices, and passive elements ieplaced
by tiansfoimed equivalents.
Re!ated Tupics
3.1 Voltage and Cuiient Laws 3.3 Netwoik Theoiems 12.1 Intioduction
Relerences
R.C. Doif, InroJuton o E|etrt Crtus, 2nd ed., New Yoik: John Wiley, 1993.
J.D. Iiwin, Bast Engneerng Crtu na|yss, 3id ed., New Yoik: Macmillan, 1989.
D.E. Johnson, J.R. Johnson, J.L. Hilbuin, and P.D. Scott, E|etrt Crtu na|yss, 3id ed., Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1997.
J.W. Nilsson, E|etrt Crtus, 5th ed., Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996.