Glossary of grammatical terminology

to accompany the KS3 Grammar site at http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/dick/tta/KS3.htm

Introduction
This glossary includes: 1. the terms and definitions in the glossary of the Framework for the National Literacy Strategy which are relevant to grammar; some terms that are embedded within definitions in the NLS glossary are also given se arate entries to make them easier to find! but otherwise the NLS glossary entries are unchanged. ". some additional terms from the glossary in the Framework for #odern Foreign Languages at $S%; where NLS entries have been e& anded in the #FL glossary! these e& ansions are included here! %. "' e&tra terms needed for the $S% grammar material; these e&tra terms are all marked ()new*( in the list in the bottom window. +ll the individual terms and definitions are linked! where ossible! to units in the $S% material; ,ust click the head-word if it is underlined! and you will go straight to the relevant art of the material. To move round the glossary! click on any underlined term in either window. .ou can drag the border between the windows u or down with your mouse. Like the rest of this $S% material! rimary responsi ility lies with /ichard 0udson but a number of colleagues from linguistics and the world of education have hel ed.

reviation Co. (Company) approx. (approximately) PR (public relations) PTO (Please turn over)

+n abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or grou of words. For e&am le:

Some common abbreviations are of Latin terms: etc (et cetera = and so on) eg (exempli gratia = for example) N (nota bene = note especially) ie (id est = t!at is) Names of organisations are often abbreviated using the initial letters of each word. For e&am le: t!e "# ("uropean #nion) t!e N$% (National $ealt! %ervice) & ' (&nternational usiness 'ac!ines) Some such abbreviations 1for e&am le! N(TO! )&)( and #N"%CO2 are acronyms. Some words are abbreviated so that only a art of the original word is used. 3&am les are: p!one (telep!one)

fridge (refrigerator) bus (omnibus) exam (examination). a stract noun +bstract nouns refer to ideas and other kinds of abstractions! e.g. !our* name* end* !ope* success. 4n academic writing abstract nouns are common and are often used instead of verbs - for e&am le! t!eir arrival is a useful alternative to t!ey arrived. accent Features of ronunciation which vary according to the s eaker(s regional and social origin. +ll oral language! including standard 3nglish! is s oken with an accent. The term accent refers to ronunciation only. 4n #FL an accent can also be a diacritic mark used above some vowels to denote sound or s elling changes. Technically 5accent6 refers only to the three marks known as grave! acute and circumfle&! as with 7! 8 and 9. See also dialect

acronym +n acronym is an a reviation which is made u of the initial letters of a grou of words! and is ronounced as a single word. For e&am le: lase r (ids R( ' (lig!t amplification by t!e stimulated emission of radiation) ((c+uired immune deficiency syndrome) (Random (ccess 'emory)

+cronyms are to be contrasted with abbreviations in which the se arate letters are ronounced: #%( 1 ronounced as :-S-+2 PO, 1;-<-=2 "'& 13-#-42 active and passive !see also here" #any verbs can be active or assive. For e&am le! bite: T!e dog bit en. 1active2 en -as bitten by t!e dog. 1 assive2 4n the active sentence! the sub,ect (t!e dog) erforms the action. 4n the assive sentence! the sub,ect ( en) is on the receiving end of the action. The two sentences give similar information! but there is a difference in focus. The first is about what the dog did; the second is about what ha ened to >en.

+ll assive forms are made u of the verb be ? ast participle: active %omebody sa- you. ,e must find t!em. & !ave repaired it.

assive

.ou -ere seen. T!ey must be found. &t !as been repaired.

4n a assive sentence! the (doer( 1or agent2 may be identified using by ...: en -as bitten by t!e dog. >ut very often! in assive sentences! the agent is unknown or insignificant! and therefore not identified: T!e computer !as been repaired. ;assive forms are common in im ersonal! formal styles. For e&am le: &t -as agreed t!at ... 1com are ,e agreed t!at ...2. (pplication forms may be obtained from t!e address belo-. 4n other 3uro ean languages the assive is used less often than in 3nglish! at least in s oken and@or informal language. The indefinite ronouns on and man are used in French and Aerman res ectively much more often than the 3nglish one 1much as 3nglish uses 5they6ve moved the sign6 rather than 5the sign has been moved62. ad#ectival See hrase. ad#ective +n ad,ective is a word that describes somebody or something. Old! -!ite! busy! careful and !orrible are all ad,ectives. +d,ectives either come before a noun! or after verbs such as be! get! seem! loo/ 1linking verbs2: a busy day nice s!oes &0m busy t!ose s!oes loo/ nice

+d,ectives 1and adverbs2 can have com arative and su erlative forms. The com arative form is ad,ective ? 1er 1for one-syllable ad,ectives! and some two-syllable2 or more ? ad,ective 1for ad,ectives of two or more syllables2: old 1 older !ot 1 !otter easy 1 easier dangerous 1 more dangerous

The corres onding su erlative forms are 1est or most ...: small 1 smallest big 1 biggest funny 1 funniest important 1 most important 4n other languages ad,ectives are commonly inflected to agree with nouns. This may a ly wherever the ad,ective is laced! but in Aerman an ad,ective used redicatively 1following verbs such as sein* -erden* ausse!en2 is not inflected. The osition of ad,ectives in other languages may differ from the attern in 3nglish: they may recede or follow the noun. +s a rule! however! the 3nglish rinci le e&em lified in the hrase a little green car 1as o osed to a green little car2 a lies in other languages too. adver +dverbs give e&tra meaning to a verb! an ad,ective! another adverb or a whole sentence: & really en2oyed t!e party. %!e0s really nice. $e -or/s really slo-ly. Really* !e s!ould do better. 1adverb ? verb2 1adverb ? ad,ective2 1adverb ? adverb2 1adverb ? sentence2

#any adverbs are formed by adding 1ly to an ad,ective! for e&am le +uic/ly! dangerously! nicely! but there are many adverbs which do not end in 1ly. Note too that some 1ly words are ad,ectives! not adverbs 1eg lovely! silly! friendly2. 4n many cases! adverbs tell us: how 1manner2 where 1 lace2 when 1time2 how often 1freBuency2 <ther adverbs show degree of intensity: very slo-(ly) fairly dangerous(ly) really good3-ell the attitude of the s eaker to what he or she is saying: per!aps obviously fortunately connections in meaning between sentences 1see connective2: !o-ever furt!ermore finally +n adver ial phrase is a grou of words that functions in the same way as a single adverb. For e&am le: by car! to sc!ool! last -ee/! t!ree times a day! first of all! of course4 T!ey left yesterday. 1adverb2 T!ey left a fe- days ago. 1adverbial hrase2 Similarly! an adver ial clause functions in the same way as an adverb. For e&am le: &t -as raining yesterday. 1adverb2 &t -as raining -!en -e -ent out. 1adverbial clause2.

<ther languages form adverbs in different ways. 4n French the suffi& -ment is added to the feminine ad,ective form 1though there are numerous e&ce tions2; in Aerman the ad,ective is used in its basic form with no suffi&.

adver ial +n adverbial is a clause element that functions like an adverb! so it is an adverbial hrase or an adverbial clause. For e&am le! these underlined elements are all adverbials: +t first! 4 really en,oyed it because it was my kind of music. adver ial clause/phrase See su ordinate clause! phrase. affi$ + morpheme which is not in itself a word! but is attached to a word. +n affi& can be a prefi$ 1intolerant! disli/e2 or a suffi$ 1/indness! playing2.

agreement 1or concord2 4n some cases the form of a verb changes according to its sub,ect 1so the verb and sub,ect (agree(2. This ha ens with the verb be4 & am3!e is3t!ey are & -as3you -ere and the third erson singular 1!e3s!e3it2 of the resent tense: & li/e3s!e li/es & don0t3!e doesn0t Note that singular collective nouns 1eg team* family* government2 can take a singular or lural verb form. For e&am le: T!e team (= it) is playing -ell. T!e team (= t!ey) are playing -ell. There are a few cases where a determiner must agree with a noun according to whether it is singular or lural. For e&am le: t!is !ouse t!ese !ouses muc! traffic many cars +greement in some other languages is a much more significant feature than in 3nglish! a lying not only to verbs C and with a wider range of endings C but also to ad,ectives and articles as a function of gender and case. am iguity a hrase or statement which has more than one ossible inter retation. This sometimes arises from unclear grammatical relationshi s. For e&am le! in the hrase: 0police s!ot man -it! /nife0* it is not s ecified whether the man had the knife or the olice used the knife to shoot the man.

>oth inter retations are ossible! although only one is logical. 4n oetry! ambiguity may e&tend meanings beyond the literal. The sentence: 0,al/ing dogs can be fun0 has two ossible inter retations: 0it is fun to ta/e dogs for -al/s0 or 0dogs -!ic! go -al/ing are fun0. +mbiguity is often a source of humour. +mbiguity may be accidental or deliberate.

analogy ;erce tion of similarity between two things; relating something known to something new; in s elling! using known s ellings to s ell unknown words: nig!t1/nig!t1rig!t1sig!t1lig!t1frig!t5 in reading! using knowledge of words to attem t reviously unseen words. 3m hasis on analogy encourages learners to generalise e&isting knowledge to new situations. 4n their learning of grammar! u ils often a ly affi$es incorrectly by analogy: goed* comed* mouses. +nalogy may also be used in literature to draw a arallel between two situations! for e&am le using animal behaviour to draw attention to human behaviour.

anaphora% anaphoric +na hora 1Areek: 5referring back62 is the relationshi between one word 1such as a ronoun2 and another word or hrase! normally before it! to which it refers back. 3.g. in The children went to bed early because they were tired! the relationshi between t!ey and t!e c!ildren is ana hora - t!ey refers ana horically to t!e c!ildren. antonym + word with a meaning o osite to another: !ot 1 cold* lig!t 1 dar/* lig!t 1 !eavy. + word may have more than one word as an antonym: cold 1 !ot3-arm5 big 1 small3tiny3little3titc!y.

apostrophe !&" +n a ostro he is a unctuation mark used to indicate either omitted letters or ossession. omitted letters =e use an a ostro he for the omitted letter1s2 when a verb is contracted 1D shortened2. For e&am le: &0m (& am) t!ey0ve (t!ey !ave) -ould0ve (-ould !ave) 4n contracted negative forms! not is contracted to n0t and ,oined to the verb: isn0t! didn0t! couldn0t etc.

4n formal written style! it is more usual to use the full form. There are a few other cases where an a ostro he is used to indicate letters that are in some sense (omitted( in words other than verbs! eg let0s 1D let us2! o0cloc/ 1D of t!e cloc/2. Note the difference between its 1D (belonging to it(2 and it0s 1D (it is( or (it has(2: T!e company is to close one of its factories. 1no a ostro he2 T!e factory employs 677 people. &t0s (= it is) t!e largest factory in t!e to-n. 1a ostro he necessary2 possession =e use an a ostro he ? s for the ossessive form : my mot!er0s car 8oe and )iona0s !ouse t!e cat0s tail 8ames0s ambition a -ee/0s !oliday =ith a lural ( ossessor( already ending in s 1eg parents2! an a ostro he is added to the end of the word: my parents0 car t!e girls0 toilets >ut irregular lurals 1eg men* c!ildren2 take an a ostro he ? s4 c!ildren0s clot!es The regular lural form 11s2 is often confused with ossessive 10s: & boug!t some apples. 1not apple0s) Note that the ossessive words yours! !is! !ers! ours! t!eirs! and its are not written with an a ostro he. + ostro he use in other languages mainly indicates omitted letters though the details of a lication may vary.

apposition 4n my brother Eohn! the e& ressions my brot!er and 8o!n are (in a osition( because they are combined to form a single hrase! and they both refer to the same erson but su ly different information about him: that he is my brother and that he is Eohn. Similarly! in the fact that it works! the clause t!at it -or/s is in a osition to the noun hrase t!e fact because both refer to the same idea. article (* an and t!e are articles. ( 1an before a vowel sound2 is the indefinite article; t!e is the definite article. +rticles are a ty e of determiner.

audience the eo le addressed by a te&t. The term refers to listeners! readers of books! film@TF audiences and users of information technology. au$iliary ver s These are verbs that are used together with other verbs. For e&am le: -e are going 9ucy !as arrived can you play 4n these sentences! going! arrived and play are the main verbs. (re! !as and can are au&iliary verbs! and add e&tra meaning to the main verb. The most common au&iliary verbs are be! !ave and do 1all of which can also be main verbs2. e is used in continuous forms 1be ? 1ing2 and in assive forms: ,e are going a-ay. ,as t!e car damaged: $ave is used in erfect verb forms: 9ucy !as arrived. & !aven0t finis!ed. ;o is used to make Buestions and negatives in the sim le resent and ast tenses: ;o you /no- t!e ans-er: & didn0t see anybody. #ore than one au&iliary verb can be used together. For e&am le: & !ave been -aiting for ages. 1!ave and been are au&iliary verbs2 The remaining au&iliary verbs are modal ver s! eg can* -ill. ackshift 4f a ast-tense verb such as said or t!oug!t is used with a noun clause whose verb would otherwise be resent tense! this tense may be 5backshifted6 into the ast: 4 thought today was Tuesday! re orting the thought 5Today is Tuesday6.

ridging >ridging is an indirect ty e of ana hora which allows us to use one erson or thing as a 5bridge6 to another; for e&am le! having started to talk about a book we can refer to its author sim ly as 5the author6! as though the author had already been introduced directly.

case a That as ect of a noun or ronoun which relates to its function in a sentence. The standard relationshi is: G. sub,ect D nominative H. direct ob,ect D accusative '. indirect ob,ect D dative

I.

ossessive case D genitive.

4n most 3uro ean languages nouns no longer have many different forms to reflect cases. 4n Aerman 1which has four cases2 the various determiners 1articles! etc.2 have a number of endings which indicate case! and endings are in some instances a lied to the noun itself 1e.g. the dative lural always ends in -en2. 4n 3nglish the genitive ersists in the ossessive form marked with the -6s or -s6 1Eohn6s coat; my sisters6 books2. 4n many languages! ronouns still have forms that reflect a case as ect: !e3!im3!im5 il3le3lui5 er3i!n3i!m all indicate nominative@accusative@dative res ectively. b 4n relation to single letters or characters in written language: u case D non-ca ital letters. clause + clause is a grou of words that e& resses an event 1s!e dran/ some -ater2 or a situation 1s!e -as t!irsty3s!e -anted a drin/2. 4t usually contains a su #ect 1s!e in the e&am les2 and ver 1dran/3-as3-anted2. Note how a clause differs from a phrase: a big dog a big dog c!ased me 1a hrase - this refers to (a big dog( but doesn(t say what the dog did or what ha ened to it2 1a clause - the dog did something2 er case D ca ital letters! lower

+ sentence is made u of one or more clauses: &t -as raining. &t -as raining and -e -ere cold. &t -as raining -!en -e -ent out. + main clause is com lete on its own and can form a com lete sentence 1eg &t -as raining -!en -e -ent out.2. + subordinate clause 1-!en -e -ent out2 is art of the main clause and cannot e&ist on its own. 4n the following e&am les! the subordinate clauses are underlined: .ou0ll !urt yourself if you0re not careful. (lt!oug! it -as cold* t!e -eat!er -as pleasant enoug!. ,!ere are t!e biscuits (t!at) & boug!t t!is morning: 8o!n* -!o -as very angry* began s!outing. ,!at you said -as not true. +lthough most clauses reBuire a sub,ect and verb! some subordinate clauses do not. 4n many such cases! the verb be can be understood. For e&am le: T!e -eat!er* alt!oug! rat!er cold* -as pleasant enoug!. (= alt!oug! it -as rat!er cold) ,!en in Rome* do as t!e Romans do. (= -!en you are in Rome) <lad to be !ome* <eorge sat do-n in !is favourite armc!air. (= !e -as glad to be !ome) Jlause use in other languages! notably Aerman! may involve issues of word order and

unctuation. See also su ordinate clause.

clause element The arts of a clause are often called its 5elements6. The main clause elements are the verb chain! the sub,ect! ob,ect and com lement! and adverbials. cognate Technically means 5from the same root or origin6. 4n #FL! the term is commonly used to denote words which are identical with or very close to their 3nglish eBuivalent in s elling and meaning: important in 3nglish and French; !ouse and $aus in 3nglish and Aerman. =ords may be technically cognates but their use or meaning may have diverged from 3nglish over time 1e.g. 3nglish and Aerman so2. coherence and cohesion +n effective te&t needs to be coherent and cohesive. The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and consistency of a te&t. The ideas e& ressed should be relevant to one another so that the reader can follow the meaning. The term cohesion refers to the grammatical features in a te&t which enable the arts to fit together. <ne way of creating cohesion is the use of connectives: & sat do-n and turned on t!e television. 8ust t!en* & !eard a strange noise. The hrase 02ust t!en0 relates these events in time. Johesion is also achieved by the use of words 1such as pronouns2 that refer back to other arts of the te&t. 4n these e&am les! such words are underlined: T!ere -as a man -aiting at t!e door. & !ad never seen !im before. ,e !aven0t got a car. ,e used to !ave one* but -e sold it. & -onder -!et!er %ara! -ill pass !er driving test. & !ope s!e does. 1D 4 ho e Sarah asses her driving test2 collo'uial >elonging to conversation@language used in familiar! informal conte&ts. Jontrasted with formal or literary language.

colon !:" + colon is a unctuation mark used to introduce a list or a following e&am le 1as in this glossary2. 4t may also be used before a second clause that e& ands or illustrates the first: $e -as very cold4 t!e temperature -as belo- =ero. comma !%" + comma is a unctuation mark used to hel the reader by se arating arts of a sentence. 4t

sometimes corres onds to a ause in s eech. 4n articular we use commas: to se arate items in a list 1but not usually before and2: 'y favourite sports are football* tennis* s-imming and gymnastics. & got !ome* !ad a bat! and -ent to bed. to mark off e&tra information: 8ill* my boss* is >6 years old. after a subordinate clause which begins a sentence: (lt!oug! it -as cold* -e didn0t -ear our coats. with many connecting adver s 1eg !o-ever! on t!e ot!er !and! any-ay! for example2: (ny-ay* in t!e end & decided not to go. 4n some languages the comma lays a grammatical role! for e&am le in clause demarcation in Aerman. comma splice + comma s lice is a combination of two 1or more2 clauses that are linked solely by a comma e.g. T!is sentence is +uite s!ort* it only contains ten -ords. + comma s lice can generally be im roved either by adding and 1or a subordinating con,unction2! or by changing the comma into a semi-colon or full sto . complement 4n the sentences 9isa is a fast runner or 9isa is very fit* 09isa0 is the su #ect and 0is0 is the ver . Neither sentence has an o #ect. The rest of the sentence 1a fast runner3very fit) is called a com lement. + com lement usually tells you something about the sub,ect of the sentence 1es ecially after the verb be but also after other linking verbs such as seem* loo/* get* become). 4n the e&am les the com lement is underlined: T!ese apples are delicious. .ou don0t loo/ very -ell. + com lement can also refer to the ob,ect of a sentence. For e&am le: & found t!e boo/ very interesting. 1very interesting refers to t!e boo/! which is the ob,ect of found2 comple$ sentence compound sentence compound word a word made u of two other words: football* !eadrest* broomstic/. Jom ound words in other languages may be formed with hy hens 1as in French2 or based on some variant of the 3nglish attern 1as in Aerman2.

concord Same as agreement.

conditional + conditional sentence is one in which one thing de ends u on another. Jonditional sentences often contain the con#unction if: &0ll !elp you if & can. &f t!e -eat!er0s bad* -e mig!t not go out. <ther con,unctions used in conditionals are unless! providing! provided and as long as. + conditional sentence can refer to an imaginary situation. For e&am le: & -ould !elp you if & could. 1but in fact 4 can(t2 ,!at -ould you do if you -ere in my position: &f t!e -eat!er !ad been better* -e could !ave gone to t!e beac!. The term (conditional( is sometimes used to refer to the form -ould ? verb: -ould go! -ould !elp etc. See also au$iliary ver con#unction + word used to link clauses within a sentence. For e&am le! in the following sentences! but and if are con,unctions: &t -as raining but it -asn0t cold. ,e -on0t go out if t!e -eat!er0s bad. There are two kinds of con,unction: a. Jo-ordinating con,unctions 1and! but! or and so2. These ,oin 1and are laced between2 two clauses of eBual weight. ;o you -ant to go no- or s!all -e -ait a bit longer: (nd! but and or are also used to ,oin words or hrases within a clause. b. Subordinating con,unctions 1eg -!en! -!ile! before! after! since! until! if! because! alt!oug!! t!at2. These go at the beginning of a subordinate clause: ,e -ere !ungry because -e !adn0t eaten all day. (lt!oug! -e0d !ad plenty to eat* -e -ere still !ungry. ,e -ere !ungry -!en -e got !ome. See also clause% connective connective + connective is a word or hrase that links clauses or sentences. Jonnectives can be con,unctions 1eg but! -!en! because2 or connecting adverbs 1eg !o-ever! t!en! t!erefore2. Jonnecting adverbs 1and adverbial hrases and clauses2 maintain the cohesion of a te&t in several basic ways! including:

addition o osition

indicating time (ommas are often used to mark off connecting adverbs or adverbial hrases or clauses: )irst of all* & -ant to say ? & didn0t t!in/ muc! of t!e film. $elen* on t!e ot!er !and* en2oyed it. Jonnecting adverbs and con,unctions function differently. Jon,unctions 1like but and alt!oug!2 ,oin clauses within a sentence. Jonnecting adverbs 1like !o-ever2 connect ideas but the clauses remain se arate sentences: & -as angry but & didn0t say anyt!ing. 1but is a con,unction - one sentence2 (lt!oug! & -as angry* & didn0t say anyt!ing. 1alt!oug! is a con,unction - one sentence2 & -as angry. $o-ever* & didn0t say anyt!ing. 1!o-ever is an adverb - two sentences2 Jonnectives hel foreign language learners to follow the flow of a te&t they read or hear and to link sentences together when assembling te&t themselves. <ther words such as relative ronouns can also act in the same way as other connectives. contraction See apostrophe

co)ordinating con#unction See co)ordination% con#unction co)ordination Jo-ordination is a grammatical attern in which two or more elements are combined on eBual terms - e.g. 'ary and 8o!n; before five o@cloc/ or after eig!t o@cloc/; T!e sun -as s!ining and t!e birds -ere singing.

dash !*" + dash is a unctuation mark used es ecially in informal writing 1such as letters to friends! ostcards or notes2. Kashes may be used to re lace other unctuation marks 1colons! semi) colons! commas2 or brackets: &t -as a great day out everybody en2oyed it. declarative #ost sentences or clauses are declarative! in contrast with interrogative! im erative and e&clamative sentences. Keclarative clauses have a sub,ect followed by a ast-tense or resent-

tense verb.

derivational morphology Kerivational mor hology turns a sim ler word into a more com le& one by adding refi&es or suffi&es; e.g. it turns tidy into untidy or untidy into untidiness. 1Jontrast inflectional mor hology! which distinguishes different forms of the same word; e.g. dog and dogs.2 determiner Keterminers include many of the most freBuent 3nglish words! eg t!e! a! my! t!is. Keterminers are used with nouns 1t!is boo/! my best friend! a ne- car2 and they limit 1ie determine2 the reference of the noun in some way. Keterminers include: articles demonstratives some Buestion words a@an! t!e t!is@t!at! t!ese@t!ose -!ic! 1-!ic! car:2! -!at 1-!at si=e:2! -!ose 1-!ose coat:2

=hen these words are used as determiners! they are followed by a noun 1though not necessarily immediately2: t!is boo/ is yours some ne- !ouses -!ic! colour do you prefer: #any determiners can also be used as pronouns. These include the demonstratives! Buestion words! numbers and most of the Buantifiers. =hen used as ronouns! these words are not followed by a noun - their reference includes the noun: t!is is yours 1D this book! this money! etc2 &0ve got some -!ic! do you prefer: diacritic + diacritic mark is a oint! sign or mark above! below or attached to a letter to show a change of sound or 1sometimes2 a change in s elling that has taken lace over time: L M 8 N O P Q R. dialect + dialect is a variety of a language used in a articular area and which is distinguished by certain features of grammar or vocabulary. 3&am les of such features in some 3nglish dialects are: non-standard sub,ect ? verb atterns! eg & /no-s* you -as* !e li/e ast tense forms! eg & done* & seen various individual words and e& ressions! eg o-t3no-t for anyt!ing3not!ing See also dou le negative% standard +nglish

direct speech and indirect speech There are two ways of re orting what somebody says! direct s eech and indirect s eech. 4n direct s eech! we use the s eaker(s original words 1as in a s eech bubble2. 4n te&t! s eech marks 10?0 or A?A C also called inverted commas or Buotes2 mark the beginning and end of direct s eech: $elen said* 0&0m going !ome0. 0,!at do you -ant:0 & as/ed. 4n indirect 1or re orted2 s eech! we re ort what was said but do not use the e&act words of the original s eaker. Ty ically we change ronouns and verb tenses! and s eech marks are not used: $elen said (t!at) s!e -as going !ome. & as/ed t!em -!at t!ey -anted. dou le negative 4n non-standard 3nglish! a double negative may be used. For e&am le: ,e didn0t see nobody. & never too/ not!ing. Such double negatives are not acce table in standard +nglish. The eBuivalent standard forms would be: ,e didn0t see anybody. & didn0t ta/e anyt!ing. elision The omission of a syllable or vowel at the beginning or end of a word! es ecially when a word ending with a vowel is followed by one beginning with a vowel. For e&am le: 8@ai5 l@animal 1French2; !ab@ ic! 1Aerman2 3lision may be carried over into formal written language! as in the French e&am les above. ellipsis 3lli sis is the omission of words in order to avoid re etition. For e&am le: & don0t t!in/ it -ill rain but it mig!t. 1D it might rain2 0,!ere -ere you born:0 0 radford.0 1D 4 was born in >radford2 +n elli sis is also the term used for three dots (?) which show that something has been omitted or is incom lete. e$clamation +n e&clamation is an utterance e& ressing emotion 1,oy! wonder! anger! sur rise! etc2 and is usually followed in writing by an e$clamation mark !,". 3&clamations can be inter#ections: O! dearB <ood griefB O-B Some e&clamations begin with -!at or !o-4

,!at a beautiful dayB $o- stupid (!e is)B ,!at a +uiet little girl. 3&clamations like these are a s ecial ty e of sentence 1(e&clamative(2 and may have no verb. e$clamation mark !," +n e&clamation mark is used at the end of a sentence 1which may be e&clamative! im erative or declarative2 or an inter,ection to indicate strong emotion: ,!at a pityB <et outB &t0s a goalB O! dearB e$clamative See sentence

finite ver 4f a verb has a tense 1 ast or resent2! it is finite 1(limited( in terms of time2. This allows it to be used as the only verb in a sentence! unlike non-finite verbs. For e&am le! -al/s is finite! e.g. 0e walks to school.2 but -al/ing is non-finite! so it cannot be the only verb! e.g. 0e walking to school. 4m erative verbs are also finite! e.g. =alk to schoolS. =hether a verb is finite or non-finite de ends on a combination of its inflection and the surrounding words! so -al/ may be either finite e.g. 4 walk to school. or non-finite e.g. 4 will walk to school. front)shifting Front-shifting shifts a hrase out of its normal osition so that it stands instead at the front of the clause that contains it. For e&am le! starting with the basic sentence 4 only know the other u ils by sight. front-shifting could move t!e ot!er pupils to give The other u ils 4 only know by sight. Front-shifting has a subtle but im ortant effect on the balance of the sentence.

function 4n #FL terms! the nature of a sentence or utterance in relation to its purpose: Buestion! statement! reBuest! invitation! descri tion! etc. 4n the Framework! the term also refers to the role fulfilled by a noun! etc. in a sentence 1e.g. sub,ect! direct ob,ect2. gender 4n the grammatical sense! gender is an as ect of nouns. 4t features to different e&tents and in different ways in different languages. 4n 3nglish gender normally a lies only in the case of those nouns which refer literally to a masculine or feminine erson or animal. There may be se arate words 1man3-oman* boy3girl* uncle3aunt2 or one of a number of mainly feminine suffi$es may be used 1actor3actress* !ero3!eroine5 -ido-3-ido-er2. Some nouns referring to inanimate ob,ects or conce ts are traditionally feminine! for e&am le shi s! nations and countries. 4n the other main 3uro ean languages gender is a central feature of nouns. 3very noun! not only those referring to living things! has a gender which must be known if the noun is to be used accurately. #ost languages have two genders C masculine and feminine; Aerman additionally has neuter. + noun may be of a certain gender for a number of reasons. 4t may indicate the actual gender! as in 3nglish! though this is not an absolute. :sually the reason is etymological and relates to the noun6s origins in Latin! Areek! +nglo-Sa&on or other defunct language. This link gives rise to common atterns of s elling! so that the gender of a noun can in many cases be identified by its ending. For e&am le! in French: T. feminine endings U. -itC citC vCritC 1V. 1eur pudeur rigeur 11. 1tion section rCgulation 1". masculine endings 1%. -eau c!apeau 1G. 1ment arrondissement Such atterns are useful short-cuts to learning genders but as a rule the gender must sim ly be learned with the noun! usually by learning an article with it. #any determiners have different forms for each gender 1French le3la; Aerman der3die3das2. The determiner both indicates and reflects the gender of the noun. <ther words must also agree with or match the noun gender: de ending on the language! these may include pronouns! ad#ectives! participles! relative pronouns. There may also be article@ re osition contractions: French du! Aerman =um. The situations in which agreement is necessary vary from language to language. Aender is a fundamental as ect of most languages and is one of the earliest conce ts which u ils need to identify and understand if later oints of language are to make sense and be ra idly mastered. genre This term refers to different ty es of writing! each with its own s ecific characteristics which relate to origin 1legend@folk tale2 or reader interest area - the ty es of books individuals articularly choose to read: adventure! romance! science fiction.

Te&ts with these s ecific features - often related to story elements! atterns of language! structure! vocabulary - may be described as belonging to a articular genre. These attributes are useful in discussing te&t and in su orting develo ment of writing skills. Te&ts may o erate at different levels! and so re resent more than one genre; some will be combinations! for e&am le historical romance. gerund + gerund is a verb which ends in -ing and which is used like a noun; e.g. 3ating sweets is not allowed. Aerunds are also called (verbal nouns(. gist The main substance of a written or s oken te&t or argument; the main oint of information in a written or s oken statement. glossary ;art of a te&t! often an a endi&! which defines terms the writer@editor considers may be unfamiliar to the intended audience. 4n #FL a glossary is a word list s ecific to a single te&t or unit of work C technically with definitions given in the target language. grammar The conventions which govern the relationshi s between words in any language. 4ncludes the study of word order and changes in words: use of inflections! etc. Study of grammar is im ortant! as it enhances both reading and writing skills; it su orts effective communication.

grammatical oundary + grammatical boundary is the edge of a grammatical unit 1a sentence! clause or hrase2 which! in writing! may be indicated by a unctuation mark such as a comma! full sto ! colon! semi) colon or dash. grapheme =ritten re resentation of a sound; may consist of one or more letters; for e&am le the honeme s can be re resented by the gra hemes s* se* c* sc and ce as in sun* mouse* city* science.

head The head of a hrase is the word around which the whole hrase is built and which decides the hrase6s general meaning and grammatical characteristics. For e&am le! in young geogra hy teacher the head is teac!er because the hrase means a kind of teacher and is used like a noun.

historic present + historic resent is a resent-tense verb used to refer to an event in the ast! usually to make the narrative more vivid. 1%o & say to !im* ...2 homograph =ords which have the same s elling as another! but different meaning4 t!e calf -as eating3my calf -as ac!ing5 t!e Nort! Pole3totem pole5 !e is a Pole. ;ronunciation may be different4 a lead pencil3t!e dog0s lead5 furniture polis!3Polis! people. + homonym.

homonym =ords which have the same s elling or ronunciation as another! but different meaning or origin. #ay be a homograph or homophone.

homophone =ords which have the same sound as another but different meaning or different s elling: read3reed5 pair3pear5 rig!t3-rite3rite. + homonym.

hyphen !)" + hy hen is sometimes used to ,oin the two arts of a com ound noun! as in golf1ball and proof1 read. >ut it is much more usual for such com ounds to be written as single words 1eg football* !eadac!e* bedroom2 or as se arate words without a hy hen 1golf ball* stomac! ac!e* dining room* city centre2. 0owever! hy hens are used in the following cases: a. in com ound ad,ectives and longer hrases used as modifiers before nouns: a foul1smelling substance a -ell1/no-n painter a <erman1"nglis! dictionary a one1in1a1million c!ance a state1of1t!e1art computer a ten1year1old girl b. in many com ound nouns where the second art is a short word like in* off* up or by: a brea/1in a -rite1off a mix1up a passer1by c. in many words beginning with the refi&es co1* non1 and ex14 co1operate non1existent ex1!usband

0y hens are also used to divide words at the end of a line of rint. idiom +n idiom is an e& ression which is not meant literally and whose meaning cannot be deduced from knowledge of the individual words. For e&am le: .ou loo/ a bit under t!e -eat!er t!is morning. (re you all rig!t: Try and /eep to t!e point of t!e discussion. .ou0re al-ays introducing red !errings. .ou and & !ave t!e same problems 1 -e0re in t!e same boat. T!at name rings a bell. &0ve !eard it before some-!ere. imperative +n im erative sentence or clause has an im erative verb form 1i.e. ,ust the bare verb! e.g. come* be2 and usually has a hidden sub,ect you: e.g. Come !ereB Please be my friendB indirect speech See direct speech

infinitive The infinitive is the base form of the verb without any additional endings. For e&am le! play is an infinitive form 1as o osed to playing! played or plays2. The infinitive is used with many au$iliary ver s: & -ill play !e s!ould play do you play: The infinitive is often used with to 1to play! to eat etc2: & oug!t to play & -ant to play &0m going to play it -ould be nice to play The sim le resent tense 1& play* t!ey play etc2 has the same form as the infinitive! e&ce t for the third person singular 1!e@s!e@it plays2. inflection 4nflection is a change to the ending of a word to indicate tense! number or other grammatical features. For e&am le: -al/ - -al/s@-al/ed@-al/ing s!oe - s!oes old - older@oldest The e&tent to which inflection features in different languages varies considerably. 3nglish has relatively few inflected forms com ared with other 3uro ean languages.

See also suffi$. inter#ection +n inter,ection is a word like Ouc!B! O!B or ;amnB e& ressing an emotion such as ain! sur rise! anger! etc. +n inter,ection is followed by an e$clamation mark !,". See also e$clamation interrogative. +n interrogative sentence or clause is one that would normally be used to ask a Buestion - e.g. $ave you finis!ed: ,!at !appened: 4nterrogative clauses are usually signalled by a sub,ect which follows an au&iliary verb and@or by an interrogative ronoun. intonation 4ntonation is the way in which changes in the musical itch of the voice are used to structure s eech and to contribute to meaning. +mong other functions! intonation may distinguish Buestions from statements 1as in (SureW( (SureS(2! or indicate contrastive and emotive stress 1as in (4 said t-o! not three(! or (4 ,ust !ate that advertisementS(2. intransitive. +n intransitive verb is one that has no ob,ect.

le$ical pattern + le&ical attern is a regular relationshi between words which is found in a large number of word families - e.g. the relationshi between an ad,ective and a noun which consists of the ad,ective followed by 1ness: good 1 goodness* c!ildis! 1 c!ildis!ness* le$ical relationship + le&ical relationshi is a connection between the meanings of two words in a te&t which hel s the te&t to hold together. /elevant connections include 1rough2 synonymy 1e.g. -oman 1 person* -in 1 victory2 and connections in a field of meaning 1e.g. plane 1 pilot2. logogram + symbol or character which re resents a mor heme or word. + logogra hic system contrasts with an al habetic- honetic system! such as 3nglish! in which symbols relate to sounds rather than meaning. There are a number of logograms which would be instantly recognisable to those using al habetic systems! for e&am le D* E* F.

main clause + main clause is one which is a com lete sentence 1e&ce t for any other clauses with which it may be co-ordinated2. For e&am le! the following e&am le contains two main clauses se arated by the co-ordinating con,unction but: 0e said that he had missed the bus! but 4 knew that he was lying. + main clause may contain any number of subordinate clauses 1such as the noun clauses in the e&am les above2. main ver +ny verb which is not an au&iliary verb is a main verb. metalanguage The language we use when talking about language itself. 4t includes words like sentence* noun* paragrap!* preposition. Those who understand these conce ts are able to talk about language Buite recisely; thus! acBuisition of metalanguage is seen as a crucial ste in develo ing awareness of and roficiency in communication! articularly written language. modal ver The modal verbs are: can3could -ill3-ould s!all3s!ould may3mig!t must3oug!t These au$iliary ver s are used to e& ress such ideas as ossibility! willingness! rediction! s eculation! deduction and necessity. They are all followed by the infinitive! and oug!t is followed by to ? infinitive: & can !elp you. ,e mig!t go out tonig!t. .ou oug!t to eat somet!ing. %tep!anie -ill be !ere soon. & -ouldn0t do t!at if & -ere you. & must go no-. These verbs can occur with other au&iliary verbs 1be and !ave2: &0ll be leaving at GG.H7. .ou s!ould !ave as/ed me. T!ey must !ave been -or/ing. 4n this conte&t !ave is unstressed and therefore identical in s eech to unstressed of; this is why the miss elling of for standard !ave or 0ve is not uncommon. modify% modifier

4n the hrase big books about grammar! big modifies boo/s by changing its meaning from (books( to (big books(; and similarly about grammar modifies boo/s by changing its meaning to 5books about grammar6. 4nside a hrase! the word which acts as the hrase6s head is modified by the other arts of the hrase. These other arts are called its modifiers because they modify its meaning by making it more recise. morpheme The smallest unit of meaning. + word may consist of one mor heme (!ouse)* two mor hemes (!ouse3s5 !ous3ing) or three or more mor hemes (!ouse3/eep3ing5 un3!appi3ness). -ffi$es are mor hemes. morphology #or hology is the art of grammar which focuses on the atterns found within words 1e.g. the fact that boo/s contains the suffi& 1s2! in contrast with synta$! which focuses on the atterns that we make by com ining words. non)finite. +ny verb in 3nglish is classified as either finite or non-finite. 4n 3nglish there are three kinds of non-finite verb: the infinitive 1be! see* -al/2! the resent artici le 1being* seeing* -al/ing2 and the ast artici le 1been* seen* -al/ed2. noun + noun is a word that denotes somebody or something. 4n the sentence 'y younger sister -on some money in a competition* 0sister0* 0money0 and 0competition0 are nouns. #any nouns 1countable nouns2 can be singular 1only one2 or plural 1more than one2. For e&am le sister@sisters! problem@problems! party@parties. <ther nouns 1mass nouns2 do not normally occur in the lural. For e&am le: butter* cotton! electricity* money! !appiness. + collective noun is a word that refers to a grou . For e&am le! cro-d* floc/* team. +lthough these are singular in form! we often think of them as lural in meaning and use them with a lural verb. For e&am le! if we say T!e team !ave -on all t!eir games so far! we think of 0t!e team0 as 0t!ey0 1rather than 0it0). .roper nouns are the names of eo le! laces! organisations! etc. These normally begin with a ca ital letter: (manda! irming!am! 'icrosoft! &slam! November. /oun phrase is a wider term than (noun(. 4t can refer to a single noun (money)! a ronoun (it) or a grou of words that functions in the same way as a noun in a sentence! for e&am le: a lot of money my younger sister a ne- car t!e best team in t!e -orld Similarly! a noun clause functions in the same way as a noun. For e&am le: T!e story -as not true. 1noun2 ,!at you said -as not true. 1noun clause2

See also phrase. /oun phrase% noun clause See noun! phrase% clause o #ect see su #ect and o #ect

onomatopoeia =ords which echo sounds associated with their meaning: clang* !iss* cras!* cuc/oo.

paragraph + section of a iece of writing. + new aragra h marks a change of focus! a change of time! a change of lace or a change of s eaker in a assage of dialogue. + new aragra h begins on a new line! usually with a one-line ga se arating it from the revious aragra h. Some writers also indent the first line of a new aragra h. ;aragra hing hel s writers to organise their thoughts! and hel s readers to follow the story line! argument or dialogue.

parenthesis + arenthesis is a word or hrase inserted into a sentence to e& lain or elaborate. 4t may be laced in brackets or between dashes or commas: %am and "mma (!is oldest c!ildren) are coming to visit !im next -ee/end. 'argaret is generally !appy I s!e sings in t!e morningsB I but responsibility -eig!s !er do-n. %ara! is* & believe* our best student. The term arentheses can also refer to the brackets themselves.

part of speech +n unsatisfactory traditional name for word classes. participle Ferbs have a resent artici le and a ast artici le. present participle The resent artici le ends in 1ing 1-or/ing! reading! going etc2. +lthough it is called ( resent(! it is used in all continuous forms: s!e is going! s!e -as going! s!e -ill be going*

s!e -ould !ave been going* etc. The 1ing ending is also used for a verb functioning as a noun. For e&am le: & en2oy reading! Reading is important. 1(Reading0 is used as a noun in these e&am les.2 This 1ing form is sometimes called a verbal noun or a gerund. 4n most other 3uro ean languages the resent artici le is not used nearly as much as in 3nglish because there is usually no continuous form of tenses. past participle The ast artici le often ends in 1ed 1-or/ed! played2 but many common verbs are irregular and have other endings! eg 1t 1/ept2! 1n 1flo-n2! and 1en 1stolen2. ;ast artici les are used: a. after !ave to make erfect forms: &0ve -or/ed! !e !as fallen! -e s!ould !ave gone b. after be 1is@-as etc2 to make assive forms: & -as as/ed! t!ey are /ept! it !as been stolen 0ere too! the name is misleading! because assive forms need not refer to the ast: ( toast -ill be drun/. ;artici les 1 resent and ast2 are sometimes used as ad,ectives: t!e falling leaves! stolen goods. They can also be used to introduce subordinate clauses! for e&am le: eing a student! Tom doesn0t !ave muc! money. ,ritten in GJ>H! t!e boo/ !as been translated into t-enty1five languages. ;artici les in other languages may be used less freBuently than in 3nglish and may be sub,ect to s ecific rules: agreement in French! word order in Aerman. See also active and passive! tense.

passive. See active and passive. past participle. See participle. person 4n grammar! a distinction is made between first! second and third erson. <ne uses the first erson when referring to oneself 1&@-e2; the second erson when referring to one(s listener or reader 1you2; and the third erson when referring to somebody or something else 1!e3s!e3it3t!ey3my friend3t!e boo/s etc2. 4n some cases the form of the verb changes according to erson: &3-e3you3t!ey /no&3-e3you3t!ey !ave -e3you3t!ey -ere !e3s!e /no-s !e3s!e3it !as &3!e3s!e3it -as

See also agreement.

phoneme + honeme is the smallest contrastive unit of sound in a word. There are a ro&imately GG honemes in 3nglish 1the number varies de ending on the accent2. + honeme may have variant ronunciations in different ositions; for e&am le! the first and last sounds in the word (little( are variants of the honeme @l@. + honeme may be re resented by one! two! three or four letters. The following words end in the same honeme 1with the corres onding letters underlined2: too s!oe t!roug! phrase + hrase is a grou of words that act as one unit. So dog is a word! but t!e dog! a big dog or t!at dog over t!ere are all hrases. Strictly s eaking! a hrase can also consist of ,ust one word. For e&am le! in the sentence ;ogs are nice! 0dogs0 and 0nice0 are both one-word hrases. + hrase can function as a noun! an ad,ective or an adverb: a noun phrase an ad#ectival phrase an adver ial phrase a big dog my last !oliday (s!e0s not) as old as you (&0m) really !ungry (t!ey left) five minutes ago 1s!e -al/s2 very slo-ly

4f a hrase begins with a preposition 1like in a !urry! along t!e lane2! it can be called a prepositional phrase. + re ositional hrase can be ad,ectival or adverbial in meaning: ad#ectival adver ial (&0m) in a !urry* (t!e man) -it! long !air (t!ey left) on Tuesday* (s!e lives) along t!e lane

plural See singular and plural.

predicate The redicate is that art of a sentence which is not the sub,ect but which gives information about the sub,ect. So! in the sentence Clare -ent to sc!ool! 0Clare0 is the sub,ect and 0-ent to sc!ool0 is the redicate.

prefi$ + refi& is a morpheme which can be added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. For e&am le: inedible disappear supermar/et unintentional preposition + re osition is a word like at! over! by and -it!. 4t is usually followed by a noun phrase. 4n the e&am les! the re osition and the following noun hrase are underlined: ,e got !ome at midnig!t. ;id you come !ere by car: (re you coming -it! me: T!ey 2umped over a fence. ,!at0s t!e name of t!is street: & fell asleep during t!e film. ;re ositions often indicate time (at midnig!t3during t!e film3on )riday)* osition (at t!e station3in a field) or direction (to t!e station3over a fence). There are many other meanings! including ossession 1of t!is street2! means 1by car2 and accom animent 1-it! me2. 4n Buestions and a few other structures! re ositions often occur at the end of the clause: ,!o did you go out -it!: ,e !aven0t got enoug! money to live on. & found t!e boo/ & -as loo/ing for. 4n formal style! the re osition can go before -!om or -!ic! 1-it! -!om! about -!ic! etc2: ,it! -!om do you -is! to spea/: #any re ositions 1eg on! over! up2 can also be used as adver s 1without a following noun or ronoun2: ,e got on t!e bus. 1 re osition - followed by a noun hrase2 T!e bus stopped and -e got on. 1adverb - no following noun or ronoun2 4n other languages re osition use may be linked to gender as ects 1French du* de la2 and@or case 1Aerman mit dem3mit der5 =um3=ur2. prepositional phrase + re ositional hrase is a hrase built round a re osition! e.g. with a short tail! after midnight. preposition stranding 4n 3nglish 1though not in most other languages2 we often 5strand6 a re osition by shifting its ob,ect to an earlier osition. This is common in passives: +ctive: They walked on this car et.

;assive:

This car et was walked on. Keclarative: /elative: They mended it with glue. The glue which they mended it with was very strong.

4t is also common in interrogative and relative clauses: 4nterrogative: =hat did they mend it withW

pronoun There are several kinds of ronoun! including: ersonal ronouns &3me! you! !e@!im! s!e@!er! -e@us! t!ey@t!em! it & li/e !im. T!ey don0t -ant it. ossessive ronouns mine! yours! !is! !ers! ours! t!eirs! its &s t!is boo/ yours or mine: refle&ive ronouns myself! !erself! t!emselves etc & !urt myself. "n2oy yourselvesB indefinite ronouns someone! anyt!ing! nobody! everyt!ing etc %omeone -ants to see you about somet!ing. interrogative ronouns -!o@-!om! -!ose! -!ic!! -!at ,!o did t!at: ,!at !appened: relative ronouns -!o@-!om! -!ose! -!ic!! t!at T!e person -!o did t!at ? T!e t!ing t!at annoyed me -as ? #any determiners can also be used as ronouns! including t!is@t!at@t!ese@t!ose and the Buantifiers 1some! muc! etc2. For e&am le: T!ese are mine. ,ould you li/e some: ;ronouns often (re lace( a noun or noun hrase and enable us to avoid re etition: & sa- your fat!er but & didn0t spea/ to !im. 1D your father2 0,e0re going a-ay for t!e -ee/end.0 0O!* are you: T!at0s nice.0 1D the fact you(re going away2 punctuation ;unctuation is a way of marking te&t to hel readers( understanding. The most commonly used marks in 3nglish are: apostrophe! colon! comma! dash! ellipsis! e$clamation mark! full sto ! hyphen! semi)colon and speech marks 1inverted commas2.

'uestion mark !0" + Buestion mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence 1eg ,!o -as t!at:) or one whose function is a Buestion 1eg .ou0re leaving already:)

refer =e can use the verb to refer in two ways. 1. =e can say that a noun or ronoun refers to the person or thing that it 5 icks out6; for e&am le! the noun %!a/espeare refers to the erson =illiam Shakes eare! and my teac!er refers to the s eaker6s teacher. This is a link between a word and something outside language. Technically this kind of referring is called (reference(. ". =e can say that a ronoun refers! or refers ack! to an earlier noun! meaning that it refers 1in the first sense2 to the same erson or thing as that noun - in traditional terminology! it (stands for( that noun. For e&am le! we may say that !e refers back to 8o!n in 8o!n said !e -as tired. Technically this kind of referring is called (anaphora(. reference + word6s reference is the erson or thing to which it refers. For e&am le! the reference of %!a/espeare is the writer Shakes eare. reference chain + reference chain is a seBuence of words scattered through a te&t which all have the same reference - i.e. they refer to the same erson or thing - e.g. a little boy ... !e ... !e ... t!e boy ... relative adver The words -!en and -!ere can be used! like relative ronouns! to introduce a relative clause! e.g. t!e time -!en dynosaurs ruled t!e "art!! t!e to-n -!ere & live >ut they are also like the adverbs t!en and t!ere. relative clause + relative clause is one that defines or gives information about somebody or something. /elative clauses ty ically begin with relative ronouns (-!o3-!om3-!ose3-!ic!3t!at)4 ;o you /no- t!e people -!o live in t!e !ouse on t!e corner: 1defines 0t!e people0) T!e biscuits (t!at) Tom boug!t t!is morning !ave all gone. 1defines 0t!e biscuits0) Our !otel* -!ic! -as only t-o minutes from t!e beac!* -as very nice. 1gives more information about the hotel2 4n other languages the form of the relative ronoun may be defined by agreement with the noun to which it refers! as well as by its function in the relative clause.

relative pronoun + ronoun that is used to introduce a relative clause. The most common relative ronoun is t!at 1a pronoun t!at is used ...2! but the remainder all derive from Buestion words: -!o* -!ic! and -!ose. See also relative adverb. root word + word to which prefi$es and suffi$es may be added to make other words; for e&am le in unclear* clearly* cleared* the root word is clear.

semantic% semantics Semantic facts are facts about meaning! and semantics is the study of meaning. semi)colon !1" + semi-colon can be used to se arate two main clauses in a sentence: & li/ed t!e boo/5 it -as a pleasure to read. This could also be written as two se arate sentences: & li/ed t!e boo/. &t -as a pleasure to read. 0owever! where the two clauses are closely related in meaning 1as in the above e&am le2! a writer may refer to use a semi-colon rather than two se arate sentences. Semi-colons can also be used to se arate items in a list if these items consist of longer hrases. For e&am le: & need large* 2uicy tomatoes5 !alf a pound of unsalted butter5 a /ilo of fres! pasta* preferably tagliatelle5 and a 2ar of blac/ olives. 4n a sim le list! commas are used.

sentence + sentence can be simple! compound or comple$. + simple sentence consists of one clause: &t -as late. + compound sentence has two or more clauses ,oined by and! or! but or so. The clauses are of eBual weight 1they are both main clauses2: &t -as late but & -asn0t tired. + comple$ sentence consists of a main clause which itself includes one or more subordinate clauses: (lt!oug! it -as late* & -asn0t tired. 1subordinate clause beginning with alt!oug! underlined2 Sim le sentences can also be grou ed as follows according to their structure:

declarative 1for statements! suggestions! etc2: T!e class yelled in triump!. 'aybe -e could eat after-ards. interrogative 1for Buestions! reBuests! etc2: &s your sister !ere: Could you s!o- me !o-: imperative 1for commands! instructions! etc2: $old t!isB Ta/e t!e second left. e$clamative 1for e&clamations2: $o- peaceful s!e loo/s. ,!at a pityB 4n writing! we mark sentences by using a ca ital letter at the beginning! and a full sto 1or Buestion mark or e&clamation mark2 at the end. se'uence of tense rule. See backshift. singular and plural Singular forms are used to refer to one thing! erson etc. For e&am le: tree! student! party. #any nouns 1counta le nouns2 can be singular 1only one2 or plural 1more than one2. The lural is usually marked by the ending 1s4 trees! students! parties. Some lural forms are irregular. For e&am le: c!ildren! teet!! mice. <ther nouns 1mass nouns2 do not normally occur in the lural. For e&am le: butter! cotton! electricity! money! !appiness. 2er s! pronouns! and determiners sometimes have different singular and lural forms: $e -as late. ,!ere is t!e /ey: $ave you seen it: ;o you li/e t!is !at: T!ey -ere late. ,!ere are t!e /eys: $ave you seen t!emW ;o you li/e t!ese s!oes:

Note that t!ey3t!em3t!eir 1 lural words2 are sometimes used to refer back to singular words that don(t designate a s ecific erson! such as anyone or somebody. 4n such cases! t!ey usually means (he or she(: &f anyone -ants to as/ a +uestion* t!ey can as/ me later. 1D he or she can ask me2 ;id everybody do t!eir !ome-or/: ,or/ -it! a partner. (s/ t!em t!eir name. See also agreement! pronoun

speech% speech marks

See direct speech and indirect speech.

spelling log + ersonal! ongoing record of words which are being learnt. ;u ils would decide! with the teacher(s guidance! words to be learnt. These words would be ke t in a folder so the u il can work on them during the week with a artner or teacher! or at home. <nce learnt! the words can be added to the u il(s record.

standard +nglish Standard 3nglish is the variety of 3nglish used in ublic communication! articularly in writing. 4t is the form taught in schools and used by educated s eakers. 4t is not limited to a articular region and can be s oken with any accent. There are differences in vocabulary and grammar between standard 3nglish and other varieties. For e&am le! -e -ere robbed and loo/ at t!ose trees are standard 3nglish; -e -as robbed and loo/ at t!em trees are non-standard. To communicate effectively in a range of situations - written and oral - it is necessary to be able to use standard 3nglish! and to recognise when it is a ro riate to use it in reference to any other variety. Note that standard >ritish 3nglish is not the only standard variety; other 3nglish-s eaking countries! such as the :nited States and +ustralia! have their own standard forms. See also agreement! dialect! dou le negative

su #ect and o #ect 4n the sentence 8o!n /ic/ed t!e ball* the sub,ect is 08o!n0! and the ob,ect is 0t!e ball0. The sub,ect is the erson or thing about which something is said. 4n sentences with a sub,ect and an ob,ect! the sub,ect ty ically carries out an action! while the ob,ect is the erson or thing affected by the action. 4n declarative sentences 1statements2! the sub,ect normally goes before the verb; the ob,ect goes after the verb. Some verbs 1eg give! s!o-! buy2 can have two ob,ects! indirect and direct. For e&am le: %!e gave t!e man some money. 0ere! 0some money0 is the direct ob,ect 1D what she gave2. 0T!e man0 is the indirect ob,ect 1D the erson who receives the direct ob,ect2. =hen a verb has an ob,ect! it is transitive! eg find a 2ob! li/e c!ocolate! lay t!e table. 4f it has no ob,ect! it is intransitive 1eg go! tal/! lie2. 4n different languages! ob,ects may be indicated by word order! the use of a re osition! or a case indicator. See also active and passive% complement su ordination Subordination is the relation between a subordinate clause and the main clause containing it.

su ordinate clause + subordinate clause is one that is art of a larger clause - e.g. the underlined below! which illustrate the three main kinds of subordinate clause: adverbial clause noun clause relative clause 4 stayed inside because it was raining. 4 saw that it was raining. +t the time that it was raining 4 was indoors.

su ordinating con#unction 4n the subordinate clause if it rains! the word if is a subordinating con,unction. This means that it is a s ecial word whose only function is to signal the start of the subordinate clause and the way in which it relates to the rest of the sentence. suffi$ + suffi& is a morpheme which is added to the end of a word. There are two main categories: 1H. +n inflectional suffi& changes the tense or grammatical status of a word! eg from resent to ast (-or/ed) or from singular to lural (accidents). 1'. + derivational suffi& changes the word class! eg from verb to noun (-or/er) or from noun to ad,ective (accidental). sylla le 3ach beat in a word is a syllable. =ords with only one beat (cat* frig!t* 2ail) are called monosylla ic; words with more than one beat (super* co-ard* superficiality) are polysylla ic.

synonym =ords which have the same meaning as another word! or very similar: -et3damp. +voids overuse of any word; adds variety.

synta$ Synta& is the study of sentence structure! ie how words are used together in a sentence.

tag 'uestion + tag Buestion is a very small Buestion such as isn0t it: or did !e: which is attached to the end of a sentence. 4t consists of nothing but an au&iliary verb followed by its sub,ect which is co ied from the main sentence! and it asks for confirmation - e.g. didn@t t!ey: in The teachers won the match! didn6t theyW tense + tense is a verb form that most often indicates time. 3nglish verbs have two basic tenses! resent and ast! and each of these can be sim le or continuous. For e&am le: present & play 1sim le2 & am playing 1continuous2 past & played 1sim le2 & -as playing 1continuous2

+dditionally! all these forms can be perfect 1with !ave2: present perfect & !ave played 1 erfect2 & !ave been playing 1 erfect continuous2 past perfect & !ad played 1 erfect2 & !ad been playing 1 erfect continuous2

3nglish has no s ecific future tense. Future time can be e& ressed in a number of ways using -ill or resent tenses. For e&am le: 8o!n -ill arrive tomorro-. 8o!n -ill be arriving tomorro-. 8o!n is going to arrive tomorro-. 8o!n is arriving tomorro-. 8o!n arrives tomorro-. 4n other languages the future and other tenses may be indicated by au&iliary verbs 1Aerman2 or by inflection 1French2. te$t Language organised to communicate. 4ncludes written! s oken and electronic forms. transitive + transitive verb is one that has an ob,ect. ver + verb is a word that e& resses an action! a ha ening! a rocess or a state. 4t can be thought of as a (doing( or (being( word. 4n the sentence 'ar/ is tired and -ants to go to bed! 0is0! 0-ants0 and 0go0 are verbs. Sometimes two or more words make u a verb chain! such as are going* didn0t -ant! !as been -aiting. #ost verbs 1e&ce t modal verbs! such as can or -ill2 have four or five different forms. For e&am le:

ase form or infinitiv e

3 -s

3 -ing simple !present participle" past

past participle

-aits -ait ma/e ma/e s

-aiting ma/ing

waited made

+ verb can be present or past: & -ait@s!e -aits 1 resent2 & -aited@s!e -aited 1 ast2 #ost verbs can occur in sim le or continuous forms 1be ? 1ing2: & ma/e 1sim le resent2@&0m ma/ing 1 resent continuous2 s!e drove 1sim le ast2@s!e -as driving 1 ast continuous2 + verb can also be perfect 1with !ave2: & !ave made@& !ave been ma/ing 1 resent erfect2 !e !ad driven@!e !ad been driving 1 ast erfect2 4f a verb is regular! the sim le ast and the ast artici le are the same! and end in 1ed. For e&am le: -anted played ans-ered Ferbs that do not follow this attern are irregular. For e&am le: ma/e@made catc!@caug!t see@sa-@seen come@came@come See also active and passive! au$iliary ver s! infinitive% modal ver s% participle% person! tense ver al noun Same as gerund. ver chain + verb chain consists of one or more au$iliary verb closely followed by a main ver : !as gone is reading -ill !ave come + verb chain may be u to five verbs long! e.g.

must !ave been being intervie-ed and modifies the meaning of the full verb by su lying information about tense and voice and the kind of meaning that is e& ressed by modal verbs.

voice Foice is the contrast between active and passive.

word class The main word classes are ver ! noun! ad#ective! adver ! pronoun! determiner! preposition and con#unction. These are all dealt with se arately in this glossary. Note that a word can belong to more than one class. For e&am le: play fit verb 1& play2 or noun 1a play2 noun 1a fit2! verb 1t!ey fit2 or ad,ective 1&0m fit2 determiner 1t!at boo/2 ronoun 1-!o did t!at:2 or con,unction 1!e said t!at !e ?2

t!at

4urther reading
The Linguistics +ssociation maintains a age of suggestions for further reading.