THE EFFECT OF SILICA FUME ON THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AS DEFINED IN CONCRETE SOCIETY REPORT 74, CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Des King, United Kingdom

37th Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE & STRUCTURES: 29 - 31 August 2012, Singapore

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37 Conference on

th

ur &orld in Concrete ' Structures 29-31 August 2012, Singapore

#() )**)C# * S!+!CA *U,) - #() ./ .)/#!)S * C -C/)#) AS 0)*!-)0 !- C -C/)#) S C!)#1 /). /# 72, C),)-#!#! US ,A#)/!A+S
0es King (on3 *!C#, 0ip ,, Chartered ,C!,, 0,S Consultant, United Kingdom

Ke45ords"

Silica fume, CS#/72, properties of concrete, effects, cementitious materials, high performance concrete3

A%stract3 #he ne5 Concrete Societ4 .u%lication, Cementitious ,aterials, CS#/72, co$ers the effects of cementitious materials - %last furnace slag 6778S9, fl4 ash 6*A9, limestone fines and silica fume 6microsilica9 on the properties of concrete3 #his paper focuses on the effects of silica fume on all the main properties of concrete in the fresh and hardened state as defined in the pu%lication3
13 !-#/ 0UC#! -

Silica fume can %e used either as a densified or undensified po5der, a slurr4, as a com%ination at the concrete mi:er, or part of a factor4-%lended cement3 #he /eport pro$ides detailed information and references for further reading, on the effect of these materials on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete3 7enerall4, the comparisons are made against a concrete made 5ith 100; C), ! 6.ortland cement93 #he follo5ing terms are used 5ith specific meanings" %lending" mi:ing together cementitious components either at the concrete mi:er or in the cement factor4 6including inter-grinding9" composite cement" a %inder 5here the cementitious components are %lended in a cement factor4 6including inter-grinding9 com%ination" a %inder 5here the cementitious components are %lended at the concrete mi:er strength class" characteristic compressi$e strength of test cu%es at 2<-da4s 5=c" 5ater=cementitious ratio

#he paper pro$ides detailed information and references for further reading, on the effect of silica fume 6S*9 on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete3 7enerall4, the comparisons are made against a concrete made 5ith 100; .C 6C),1 .ortland cement93 #he paper contains e:tracts from the ne5 UK Concrete Societ4 /eport -o3 72 6CS#/729, Cementitious ,aterials of 5hich the author 5as a mem%er of the 5or>ing part43 23 ./ 0UC#! #he ra5 materials for the production of silica fume are %4-products from the production of silicon metal, and these %4-products are further processed to produce cementitious materials for use in concrete3

0es King

.roduction of silica fume Silica fume is a %4-product of the manufacture of silicon metal and ferro-silicon allo4s3 #he process in$ol$es the reduction of high purit4 ?uart@ 6Si 29 in electric arc furnaces at temperatures in e:cess of 2,000AC3 Silica fume is a $er4 fine po5der consisting mainl4 of spherical particles or microspheres of 2 mean diameter a%out 031B microns, 5ith a $er4 high specific surface area 61B,000C2B,000 m =>g93 )ach microsphere is on a$erage 100 times smaller than an a$erage cement grain3 At a t4pical dosage of 10; %4 mass of cement, there 5ill %e B0,000C100,000 silica fume particles per cement grain3

33 C(),!CA+ A-0 .(1S!CA+ ./ .)/#!)S !ndicati$e $alues for the chemical and ph4sical properties of silica fume compared 5ith other cementitious materials are gi$en in #a%le 13 #a%le 1" #4pical properties3 *ineness 6m =>g9 8ul> densit46>g=m 9 Specific gra$it4 ,ain elements Silicon 6; as Si 29 Aluminium 6; as Al2 39 !ron 6; as *e2 39 Calcium 6; as Ca 9 ,agnesium 6; as ,g 9 Sodium 6; as -a2 9 .otassium 6; as K2 9 #itanium 6; as #i 29 Chloride 6; as Cl9 +oss on ignition 6;9 Sulfate 6; as S 29 *ree calcium o:ide 6;9
3 2

*l4 ash 2B0 1300 232 3< to BB 20 to 20 F to 1F 13< to 10 130 to 33B 03< to 13< 233 to 23B 039 to 131 E0301 3 to 20 0322 to 330 E031 to 130

778S 3B0 to BB0 1200 239 30 to 20 B to 20 E2 3B to 20 B to 1< E1 E1 E2 E 031 E3 E 23B E1

Silica fume 1B,000 to 3B,000 13B0-1B10 232 D <B E2 E1 E1 E1 E1 E1 E 033 E2 E 033 E1

0es King

Cementitious .roperties #he materials differ in their chemical reacti$it43 778S is a latent h4draulic %inder, i3e3 5hen mi:ed 5ith 5ater, it slo5l4 sets and hardens3 &ith 778S alone, the rate of hardening is relati$el4 slo5 and for normal concrete applications, 778S needs to %e acti$ated %4 com%ining it 5ith C), !3 *l4 ash and silica fume are po@@olanas, i3e3 the4 do not react 5ith 5ater alone %ut do react chemicall4 5ith the calcium h4dro:ide produced %4 the h4dration of C), ! to form calcium silicate h4drates 6C-S-(9 5hich %ind the concrete together3 +imestone is chemicall4, relati$el4 inert %ut limestone fines, %ecause of their fine particle si@e, can contri%ute to5ards strength %4 a ph4sical, $oid-filling mechanism3 #here is e$idence that fine calcium car%onates act as nucleation sites, accelerating the h4dration of C), !, impro$ing earl4 strength de$elopment3 Silica fume is a highl4 reacti$e po@@olana that con$erts all or most of the li%erated calcium h4dro:ide to C-S-( As a result of their chemical reacti$it4 and also fineness, the materials differ in the proportion of the cementitious content at 5hich the4 can %e used, 5ith indicati$e proportions %eing" 778S t4picall4 B0; %ut can %e up to 70; or more fl4 ash t4picall4 30; %ut can %e up to B0; or more limestone fines t4picall4 1B; %ut can %e up to 20; or more silica fume t4picall4 E<; %ut can %e up to 123B; or more 23 US) !- C -C/)#) Silica fume can either %e added separatel4 at the concrete mi:er, 5here the4 are referred to as GadditionsH or else %e incorporated into a factor4-produced composite cement3 #he follo5ing sections descri%e the 5a4 in 5hich Standards deal 5ith these t5o alternati$e approaches and the relati$e merits and practicalities3 #he )uropean standard for cements 8S )- 197-1 co$ers a 5ide range of cements other than C), !3 #hese include" I C), !!-S .ortland-slag cement 6F-3B; %lastfurnace slag9 I C), !!-0 .ortland- silica fume cement 6F-10; silica fume9 I C), !!-J .ortland-fl4 ash cement 6F-3B; fl4 ash9 I C), !!-+6++9 .ortland-limestone cement 6F-3B; limestone9 I C), !!! 8lastfurnace cement 63F-9B; %lastfurnace slag9 I C), !J .o@@olanic cement 611-BB; po@@olan 6including fl4 ash9 8S )- 132F3, Silica fume for concrete )ach of these standards has t5o parts" - .art 1" 0efinitions, specifications and conformit4 criteria - .art 2" Conformit4 e$aluation &ithin 8S )- 20F-1, additions ma4 %e used under the >-$alue concept, 5ith the term 5ater=cement ratio %eing replaced %4 5ater=6cement K 6> L addition99 ratio3 Specific >-$alues are allocated for silica fume to 8S )- 132F3 and for fl4 ash to 8S )- 2B0-13 (o5e$er the >-$alue approach is rarel4 6if e$er9 used in the UK3 Silica fume concrete is normall4 designed for high dura%ilit4 or strength characteristics and the 8S <B00 recommended limiting $alues for cement content and 5=c, are generall4 satisfied, e$en 5ithout ta>ing the silica fume into account3 #a%le 2 summari@es the 5a4s in 5hich additions ma4 %e used according to 8S )- 20FC1 and 8S <B003 #a%le 2" #he use of additions in concrete3 Addition *l4 ash 778S Silica fume Standard for addition 8S )- 2B0 8S )- 1B1F7 8S )- 132F3 Suita%ilit4 for use in concrete is confirmed %4 8S )- 20F-1, clause B313F 8S <B00-2, clause 232 8S )- 20F-1, clause B313F /ules for counting to5ards the cementitious content, are in 8S )- 20F-1, clause B323B3232 or 8S <B00-2, clause 232 8S <B00-2, clause 232 8S )- 20F-1, clause B323B3233

0es King

Current a$aila%ilit4 and use for silica fume 7lo%al consumption of silica fume e:ceeds 1 million tonnes per annum3 Silica fume is generall4 dar> gre4 to %lac> or off-5hite in colour and can %e supplied as a densified po5der or slurr4 depending on the application and the a$aila%le handling facilities3 *or use in the UK, it is normall4 supplied as slurr4, consisting of B0; po5der and B0; 5ater3 !n po5der form silica fume is a$aila%le in %ul>, large %ags and small %ags3 !f re?uired in %ags, these can %e tailored to suit the customersH needs for handling and %atch 5eight per cu%ic metre of concrete3 ther applications include fi%re cement, g4psum cement, refractor4 mortars and casta%les and in the use of specialised ultra high strength precast 2 sections 5here strengths of o$er 200 -=mm can %e designed3 B3 C ,.A#!8!+!#1 &!#( A0,!M#U/)S 7enerall4 chemical admi:tures can %e used 5ith silica fume in the same 5a4 as for con$entional concretes3 Silica fume is normall4 used 5ith a super-plasticiser3 As is the case for .C cements the performance of admi:tures ma4 depend upon the properties of the indi$idual source of the cementitious material and tests should %e carried out to esta%lish the appropriate dosage le$els3 #o ma:imise the full strength producing potential of silica fume in concrete it is recommended that it should al5a4s %e used 5ith a dispersant admi:ture such as high range 5ater reducing agent 6(/&/A93 #he dosage 5ill depend on the amount of silica fume and the t4pe of admi:ture usedN see Oahren3 #he dosage of air-entraining admi:ture to produce a re?uired $olume of air in concrete usuall4 increases 5ith the amount of silica fume3 #he amount of silica fume and the t4pe of mi:ing 5ere found to ha$e no significant influence on the de$elopment and sta%ilit4 of the air-$oid s4stem, see .igeon et al3 F3 &A#)/ 0),A-0 Silica fume can %e e:pected to produce an increased 5ater demand, 5hich is normall4 countered %4 the use of admi:tures3 #he 5ater demand of concrete containing silica fume increases 5ith increasing amounts of silica fume, see Carette and ,alhotra and Scali et al3 #his increase is caused primaril4 %4 the high surface area of the silica fume3 #o achie$e a ma:imum impro$ement in strength and dura%ilit4, silica-fume concrete should contain a highrange 5ater reducing admi:ture3 F3 & /KA8!+!#1=C -S!S#)-C) *resh concrete containing silica fume is more cohesi$e and less prone to segregation than concrete 5ithout silica fume3 ):perience has sho5n that it is necessar4 to increase the initial slump of concrete 5ith silica fume %4 appro:imatel4 B0mm a%o$e that re?uired for con$entional C), ! concrete to maintain the same apparent 5or>a%ilit4, see Oahren3 Silica fume addition has %een used to assist in pumping long distances, especiall4 $erticall43 Concrete 5as pumped in a single operation to a height of F01 metres *ig3 23 Casting of precast concrete units for the sea at the 8urP Khalifa proPect in 0u%aiN so far defences at Cle$ele4s, UK using a proprietar4 concre containing silica fume3 the 5orldHs tallest %uilding3

73 S)##!-7 #!,) Unli>e other SC,Hs such as slag and fl4 ash, silica fume does not significantl4 affect setting time3 <3 8+))0!-7 After concrete has %een placed there is a tendenc4 for the solids 6aggregates and cementitious9 to settle and displace the 5ater, 5hich is pushed up5ards3 !f the process is e:cessi$e, the 5ater appears as a la4er on the surface3 #he tendenc4 of a concrete to %leed is affected %4 the constituents and their proportions, particularl4 the grading of the fine aggregate, the 5ater content and an4 admi:tures3 ):cessi$e %leeding can produce a la4er of 5ea> laitance on the top of the concrete and ma4 result in plastic settlement crac>s %ut %leeding can also %e %eneficial in a$oiding plastic shrin>age crac>s, 5hich can form on concrete placed on hot or 5ind4 da4s, 5here the rate of e$aporation of moisture from the surface e:ceeds the rate of %leeding, see Concrete Societ4 7ood Concrete 7uide <3 Concrete containing silica fume sho5s significantl4 reduced %leeding3 As silica fume dosage is increased, %leeding 5ill %e reduced3 #his effect is caused primaril4 %4 the high surface area of the silica fume to %e 5ettedN there is $er4 little free 5ater left in the mi:ture for %leeding, see 7rut@ec>, /o4 and &olfe-Confer3 Oahren points out that %ecause of the reduced %leeding, care should %e ta>en to pre$ent earl4 moisture loss from freshl4 placed silica-fume concrete, particularl4 under conditions that promote rapid surface dr4ing3 93 ()A# * (10/A#! -

Silica fume has effecti$el4 a similar heat of h4dration to C), !3 A reduction in the earl4 age temperature rise can reduce the ris> of earl4-age thermal crac>ing and detailed guidance is pro$ided in C!/!A /eport CFF0, )arl4-age thermal crac> control in concrete3 (o5e$er a slo5er release of heat can reduce the initial rate of strength gain3 #his ma4 necessitate longer periods %efore stri>ing form5or> and=or remo$al of props especiall4 5hen casting thin, e:posed sections in 5inter conditions in cooler climates3 C!/!A /eport CFF0 suggests that silica fume should %e considered e?ui$alent to C), ! in regard to heat generation3 !t also points out that silica fume, 5hen used 5ith a high range 5ater reducing admi:ture, can achie$e e?ui$alent strength 5ith a reduced %inder content 6su%Pect to an4 minimum limit on %inder content9 and there%4 lo5er heat output3 .ap5orth et al calculated theoreticall4 the temperature rise for silica fume concrete and concluded that %4 reducing the total %inder content of the mi:, it can reduce the temperature rise3 #he4 then compare predicted temperature rises 5ith those measured in practical situations3 A solution to pro$iding high earl4 strength couple 5ith lo5 heat 5as demonstrated in massi$e silica fume concrete pours at the (anford -uclear )ncapsulation facilit4 in the USA3 103 S)-S!#!J!#1 # CU/!-7

Concrete stiffens and hardens through the h4dration reaction %et5een cement and 5ater3 Strength and microstructure, 5hich depend on the degree of h4dration, can %e ad$ersel4 affected if concrete is allo5ed to dr4 out at earl4 ages and h4dration is prematurel4 arrested3 #he la4er close to the surface seems to %e the most sensiti$e, as e$idenced %4 the large effect of curing on a%rasion-resistance3 At greater depth, in the region approaching the le$el of the reinforcing steel, the effect of curing appears to %e less critical, see C!/!A /eport CB303 &ith silica fume, the concrete ma4 contain $er4 little free 5ater and 5ith significantl4 reduced %leed there needs to %e e:tra emphasis on curing so that the surface la4er retains the 5ater needed for de$elopment of the properties of the concrete3 #o o%tain the full %enefits of silica fume concrete, proper curing procedures must %e follo5ed3 8ecause concrete containing silica fume sho5s significantl4 reduced %leed 6as dosage is increased9 there is $er4 little free 5ater left in the mi:ture for %leeding, see 7rut@ec>, /o4 and &olfe-Confer3 #his e:tra emphasis on curing helps to retain the 5ater needed for de$elopment of the desired properties of the concrete3 ):perience sho5s that under conditions of fast e$aporation 65ind and sun9, curing measures must %e ta>en immediatel4 after placing the concrete3

113 )**)C#

- C -C/)#) S#/)-7#(

Strength 0e$elopment *igure 1, sho5s indicati$e strength de$elopment, at a fi:ed 5=c ratio, 5here concretes containing fl4 ash, limestone fines or high-replacement 778S generall4 ha$e lo5er 2<-da4 strength than C), ! 5hilst silica fume can gi$e increased 2<-da4 strength3 *igure 3 sho5s indicati$e longer-term strength de$elopment, 5here for concretes re?uired to achie$e a specified 2<-da4 strength, those containing 778S, fl4 ash and silica fume generall4 sho5 increased ultimate strengths3

1B0;

C ,./)SS!J) S#/)-7#(

100;

B0;

C), ! <; S* B0; 778S 1B; +* 30; *A 70; 778S

0; 0 7 12 21 2< 3B 22 29 BF F3 70 77 <2 91

0A1S

*igure 33 !ndicati$e Strength 0e$elopment 6at fi:ed 5=c and relati$e to the 2<-da4 strength of C), !9 -otes" 13 #he relati$e strengths are indicati$e and 5ill $ar4 significantl4, 5ith mi: design and materials 23 At fi:ed 5=c, the 5or>a%ilit4=consistence 5ill $ar4, according to the 5ater-demand 33 #his graph is deri$ed from e:perience and data contri%uted %4 the authors of CS#/72 Concrete made 5ith silica fume follo5s the con$entional relationship %et5een compressi$e strength and 5=c %ut strength is increased at a gi$en 5=c ratio 5hen silica fume is used3 (igh earl4 2 compressi$e strength 6in e:cess of 2B-=mm at 22 hours9 can %e achie$ed3 &ith proper concrete design, $er4 high 2<-da4 strengths can %e produced, using normal read4-mi:ed concrete plants and in 2 the USA and Asia 100C130-=mm concretes are used in tall %uildings3 Cementitious contents are 3 generall4 D 200 >g=m and 5=c in the range 0330 to 03203 An e:ample in South )ast Asia is the ne5 79 floor )ast !sland Centre in (ong Kong 5here the $olume of concrete 5as reduced %4 1B; through the use of 7rade 100 ,.a self-compacting concrete3 -ot onl4 5ere there significant sustaina%ilit4 %enefits %ut also the client %enefited commerciall4 through the additional floor space opened up for rental in this e:pensi$e part of (ong Kong3

*ig 23 ne !sland )ast #o5er in (ong Kong under construction3 C100 silica fume concrete in the columns and core 5alls means onl4 < columns are re?uired on each floor3

*ig B3 #he 8urP Khalifa in 0u%ai is currentl4 the tallest %uilding in the 5orld 5here the silica fume concrete contri%uted to record pumping heights of o$er F00m in a single operation

123 S#/!K!-7 #!,)S #he initial strength gain of concrete 5ith cementitious materials such as slag and fl4 as is li>el4 to %e slo5er than C), ! concrete, particularl4 5ith higher percentages and this can sometimes re?uire form5or> stri>ing times to %e e:tended, especiall4 at lo5er temperatures3 *actors that need to %e ta>en into account %efore remo$ing form5or> are" - the temperature of surface concrete should not fall %elo5 free@ing until it has de$eloped a strength of B ,.a - the concrete needs to ha$e de$eloped sufficient strength to resist mechanical damage during form5or> remo$al3 - *or soffit form5or>, sufficient strength is re?uired for the concrete to %e self-supporting3 7eneral guidance on stri>ing of sla% soffits and %ac>propping can %e found in the Construct G7uide to flat sla% false5or> and form5or>Q 6C -S#/UC#93 ):perience indicates that the time of stri>ing form5or> is not significantl4 affected %4 the use of silica fume %4 itself3

C), ! 30; *A
100; Strength as ; of that achie$ed at 2<-da4s

<; S* B0; 778S

1B; +* 70; 778S

0; 1 da4 3 da4s 7 da4s 2< da4s

*ig F3 !ndicati$e earl4 strengths sho5n as percentage of 2<-da4 strength -otes" 13 #he relati$e strengths are indicati$e and 5ill $ar4 significantl4, 5ith mi: design and materials 23 #he earl4-strengths are relati$e to 2<-da4 strength 33 #he cementitious content re?uired to achie$e a specified 2<-da4 strength 5ill not %e the same for the different com%inations 23 #his graph is deri$ed from e:perience and data contri%uted %4 the authors of this CS#/ 72 ):perience indicates that the time of stri>ing form5or> is not significantl4 affected %4 the use of silica fume %4 itself3 133 #)-S!+) S#/)-7#( #he tensile 6fle:ural9 strength of concrete increases 5ith compressi$e strength, 5ith the tensile strength %eing t4picall4 onl4 a%out 10; of the compressi$e strength3 Compared 5ith C), ! concrete the ratio of tensile strength tends to %e slightl4 lo5er for silica fume concrete3 As the compressi$e strength of silica fume concrete increase, the tensile strength also increases, %ut at a graduall4 decreasing ratio, see 7oldman3 (ooton reports that the splitting-tensile strengths as a percentage of compressi$e strength of 10; silica fume concrete 65=c R 033B9 ranged from <3B; to <39; at ages of 2< to 1<2 da4s, 5hereas similar concrete 5ithout silica fume ranged from 932; to 1037;3 123 )**)C# - C -C/)#) 0U/A8!+!#1

.ermea%ilit4 Silica fume can produce $er4 large reductions in 5ater permea%ilit4 of up to one order magnitude or more, depending on the mi: design and dosage of silica fume3 #he reduction in the si@e of capillar4 pores increases the pro%a%ilit4 of transforming continuous pores into discontinuous ones, see .hilleo3 8ecause capillar4 porosit4 is related to permea%ilit4, see .o5ers et al S/ef3 <BT, the permea%ilit4 to li?uids and $apours is thus reduced %4 silica fume addition3 Silica fume can produce $er4 large reductions in 5ater permea%ilit4, up to an order of magnitude or more, see (ooton3 0ata for mortar and concrete sho5 a similar trend in that silica fume reduces permea%ilit4, see for e:ample Scheet@, 7rut@e> and Stric>ler, ,ehta and 7PUr$ and 0elage and Aitcin3 ,aage and ,aage and Selle$old reported a reduction in permea%ilit4 of a%out one order of magnitude for silica fume dosages of B; to 12;N the most impro$ement 5as 5ith the lo5est dose that 5as used 5ith the lo5est 5=c ratio3 ,easurement of the 5ater permea%ilit4 for ?ualit4 concrete

620-=mm 9 is often impossi%le %ecause of the measuring e?uipment limitations and lea>age around the permea%ilit4 cells, see for e:ample (ustad and +oland and (ooton3 )l-0ie% and (ooton 5ere -1F a%le to measure a 5ater permea%ilit4 of 139 L 10 m=s for a 0329 5=c concrete 5ith 7; silica fume plus 2B; 778S3 #he mechanism in$ol$ed is due primaril4 to the high po@@olanic reaction lin>ed 5ith impro$ement in the interfacial transition @one3 1B3 ./ #)C#! - # ),8)00)0 S#))+ 6CA/8 -A#! -9

Steel em%edded in concrete is protected against corrosion %4 the al>alinit4 of the cement paste3 0espite an4 reduction in calcium h4dro:ide, resulting from the incorporation of silica fume, the p( of the cement paste remains at an ade?uatel4 high le$el to protect steel3 Car%onation can reduce the al>alinit4 and protection to the steel3 Silica fume concrete tends to sho5 greater car%onation than C), ! mi:es of e?ui$alent 2< da4 strength3 *or detailed information on the effect of cementitious materials on the protection to em%edded steel against car%onation-induced corrosion, the reader should refer to Concrete Societ4 #/F1 V)nhancing reinforced concrete dura%ilit4W 3 *or silica fume, Jennesland and 7PUr$, *idPestol found a good correlation %et5een car%onation depth and 5=c3 84fors and S>Pols$old sho5ed that if mi:es 5ith the same 2<-da4 strength are compared, those containing silica fume car%onate more3 +ittle field data is a$aila%le for concrete containing silica fume %ut S>Pols$old has reported on cores drilled from structures and concludes that the mean car%onation depth in the silica fume concrete 5as apprecia%l4 greater than in the C), ! concrete3 #he $aria%ilit4 of depths of car%onation 5as also higher for the silica fume concretes3 1F3 ./ #)C#! - # ),8)00)0 S#))+ 6C(+ /!0)S9

!f chloride permeates the concrete to the depth of the reinforcement it can initiate corrosion of the steel3 Concrete made 5ith silica fume is generall4 su%stantiall4 more resistant to chloride diffusion than C), ! concrete and for reinforced concrete structures e:posed to chlorides, its use 5ill gi$e enhanced dura%ilit43 *or detailed information on the effect of cementitious materials on the protection to em%edded steel against chloride-induced corrosion, the reader should refer to Concrete Societ4 #/F1 V)nhancing reinforced concrete dura%ilit4W3 0et5iler, *apohunda and -atale used the AS#, C 1202 electricall4-accelerated test to compare the chloride-ion transport of concrete 5ith and 5ithout B; silica fume and cured at different temperatures to the same degree of h4dration and found that the silica-fume concrete performed %etter than the compara%le control concrete for an4 gi$en curing temperature3 (ooton et al found an increase in chloride penetration resistance for concrete containing 7; silica fume %4 AAS(# # 2B9, AS#, C 1202, and %ul> diffusion tests for %oth am%ient-temperature and 70AC curing3 ,c7rath and (ooton found %eneficial effects of silica fume on chloride diffusion coefficients3 &hiting and 0et5iler studied optimum silica-fume concrete mi:tures for %ridge dec>s3 #he4 found that the use of silica fume reduced the chloride diffusi$it4 %4 a factor of 3 or more compared 5ith similar concrete not containing silica fume3 !ncreased dosages of silica fume a%o$e F to <; %4 mass pro$ided little additional %enefit3 !n a field sur$e4 of %ridge dec> o$erla4s in !llinois, 0et5iler, KoPundic and *idPestol found that the depth of penetration of chlorides after eight 4ears of e:posure 5as considera%l4 less for a silica-fume concrete o$erla4 than for a dense concrete o$erla4 5ithout silica fume3 /esults for AS#, C 1202 testing 5ere consistent 5ith those determined in detailed chloride concentration profiles on companion cores3

*ig 73

resund 8ridge 1B; fl4 ash and B; S* for dura%ilit4 in a marine en$ironment

173 SU+*A#) /)S!S#A-C) Sulfate attac> of concrete occurs through %oth chemical and ph4sical processes3 #5o main reactions are in$ol$ed, these %eing the reaction of sulfate ions 5ith h4drated calcium aluminates forming ettringite, and the com%ination of sulfate ions 5ith free calcium h4dro:ide forming g4psum3 #he first reaction is of more practical significance3 Considera%le increases in $olume result from %oth reactions causing e:pansion and disruption of the hardened concrete3 ,ore recentl4, a second form of sulfate attac>, called thaumasite attac> has %een recognised as a pro%lem after the disco$er4 of its effects on the foundations of some motor5a4 %ridges in the UK3 #haumasite is a calcium silicate sulfo-car%onate h4drate, 5hich forms at temperatures %elo5 1BAC %4 a reaction %et5een cement paste h4drates, car%onate and sulfate ions3 !ts formation reduces the cement paste to a soft mulch3 Unfortunatel4, con$entional Sulfate /esisting .ortland Cement offers no protection against the #haumasite form of sulfate attac>3 778S, fl4 ash and silica fume can su%stantiall4 increase the resistance to %oth forms of sulfate attac> compared 5ith C), ! concrete3 0etailed recommendations for a$oiding sulfate attac> using 778S and fl4 ash can %e found in 8uilding /esearch )sta%lishment" Special 0igest 1"200B, Concrete in aggressi$e ground and the recommendations of this 0igest ha$e %een adopted %4 8S <B00"200F3 #hese documents do not pro$ide an4 guidance for utilising the increase in sulfate resistance from incorporating silica fume3 *or limestone fines concretes, the recommendations for limestone fines concretes are generall4 more onerous than for C), !3 Silica fume is $er4 effecti$e in reducing or pre$enting the attac> from sodium sulfate, see for e:ample Carlsson et al3, ,ather 6/ef, ,ehta, (ooton, Cohen and 8entur and Selle$old and -ilsen93 #he primar4 mechanism %4 5hich silica fume impro$es sodium sulfate resistance is %4 reduction of permea%ilit4, see Khatri, and it ma4 %e augmented %4 reduced calcium h4dro:ide contents due to po@@olanic reaction3 .erformance of silica-fume concrete e:posed to ammonium sulfate is mi:ed .opo$ic et al3 .erformance 5hen e:posed to magnesium sulfate is less than that of paste 5ithout silica fume Cohen and 8entur3 1<3 /)S!S#A-C) # AC!0S

All t4pes of cement are suscepti%le to attac> %4 acids and, in highl4 acid solutions 6e3g3 p( less than 33B9, dissolution of the cement matri: and su%se?uent loss of integrit4 of concrete 5ill occur3 Some moorland 5aters 5ith lo5 hardness, containing dissol$ed car%on dio:ide and 5ith p( $alues in the

range 2C7, ma4 also %e $er4 aggressi$e to concrete, particularl4 5ith continuousl4 flo5ing 5ater3 !n general, in such aggressi$e conditions, the ?ualit4 of the concrete has %een considered to %e of greater importance than the t4pe of cementitious material3 +uther suggests that silica fume 5ill increase the resistance of concrete to dilute acids and chemical attac> through reduced permea%ilit4 and through reduced content of calcium h4dro:ide, see3 Silicafume concrete is not completel4 imper$ious to all aggressi$e chemicals, especiall4 in the case of concentrated acid attac> on the surfaceN ho5e$er, research and field performance sho5 that at a lo5 5=c, silica-fume concrete can %e used effecti$el4 to pre$ent significant damage %4 man4 t4pes of chemical attac> including se5age and silica fume concrete has %een specified for use in se5er and outfall pipes in man4 countries, see for e:ample Shanghai !nstitute of 8uilding Science report3 193 */))X)-#(A& /)S!S#A-C) 6* / C +0 &)A#()/ C+!,A#)S9 Concrete, 5hich is saturated 5ith 5ater, can %e damaged %4 repeated c4cles of free@ing and tha5ing, and the use of de-icing salts greatl4 e:acer%ates the li>elihood of attac>3 Unfortunatel4, there is no relia%le la%orator4 test for esta%lishing free@e-tha5 resistance and concrete that is >no5n to ha$e relia%le free@e-tha5 resistance under real-life conditions, can often fail 5hen tested %4 currentl4 a$aila%le la%orator4 test methods, see ,uller3 *ree@e-tha5 damage usuall4 sho5s up as scaling of the surface, e:posing the underl4ing coarse aggregate3 Concretes that ma4 %e e:posed to free@ing and tha5ing 5hile saturated, need to %e suita%l4 proportioned and the concrete 5ell cured after placing see 7unter et al and +uther et al3 Air entrainment of the concrete 5ill significantl4 impro$e the resistance of concrete to free@e-tha5 damage3 Silica fume concrete should %e air entrained if e:posed to free@ing-and-tha5ing conditions3 -umerous in$estigators ha$e sho5n that it is possi%le to produce free@e tha5 resistant, air-entrained concrete containing silica fume 6see AYtcin and Je@inaN Caldarone et alN Cohen and le>N ,alhotraN Sone%i and Kha4at3 !n these studies satisfactor4 free@e tha5 dura%ilit4 factors 5ere o%tained at 5=c ratios up to 03F03 1amato et al and ,alhotra et al suggest that, for free@e tha5 resistance, the silica fume content should %e limited to a ma:imum of 1B;3 Saucier et al conclude that it is $ital to chec> admi:ture compati%ilit4 and to perform tests 5ith the actual materials to %e used in order to ensure that the air-entraining admi:ture is effecti$e and that a sta%le air-$oid s4stem can %e produced3 AC! 232/-200F concludes that the data for silica-fume concrete 5ithout entrained air is conflicting and recommends that silica fume concrete should %e air entrained 5here ade?uate resistance to free@ingand-tha5ing conditions is re?uired3 203 A+KA+!-S!+!CA /)AC#! Al>ali-silica reaction 6AS/9 is a reaction %et5een the h4dro:4l ions in the pore 5ater 5ithin concrete and certain forms of silica, 5hich occur as part of some aggregates3 #he product of the al>ali-silica reaction is a gel 5hich im%i%es pore fluid and e:pandsN in some instances this e:pansion induces internal stress in the concrete of such magnitude that e:tensi$e macro-crac>ing of the concrete occurs3 #he damage occurs in parts of the concrete structure e:posed to moisture3 Silica fume can reduce the ris> of damage due to AS/3 #he use of silica fume in sufficient ?uantit4 and properl4 dispersed in concrete, either on its o5n or in com%ination 5ith other po@@olans or 778S, can %e an effecti$e means of com%ating AS/, as e$idenced %4 decades of field e:perience in addition to la%orator4 tests3 7udmundsson and lafsson report the effect of silica fume on the e:pansion of materials from !celand, 5here the entire production of cement contains 7C10; silica fume in order to reduce the AS/ caused %4 a com%ination of highl4 reacti$e natural aggregates and the local high al>ali cement3 213 A8/AS! - /)S!S#A-C) -umerous factors influence the a%rasion resistance of floor sla%s, the most significant %eing curing, strength class and tro5elling intensit43 Curing appears to %e more important for a%rasion resistance than changes in constituent materials3 *or e:ample, the difference %et5een immediate e:posure and se$en da4s co$ered 5ith pol4thene can %e as much as an order of magnitude in terms of a%rasion resistance3 &hen a good standard of curing is applied, e3g3 5et curing for se$en da4s or the application of a 90; efficienc4 resin compound3 Silica fume can increase a%rasion resistance through increased strength3

Silica fume 5ill increase the a%rasion-erosion and a%rasion resistance of concrete through increased strength of the matri: and the impro$ed %ond %et5een matri: and aggregates3 #he e:cellent resistance of silica fume concrete to a%rasion erosion damage 5as reported %4 (olland and ,c0onald %ased on in$estigations performed at the U3S3 Arm4 Corps )ngineers &ater5a4s ):periment Station 6&)S93 #he a%rasion-resistance test method used 5as de$eloped %4 the &)S 6see +iu, 5hich is no5 AS#, C 113<3 #his method uses steel %alls in 5ater stirred %4 paddles at 1200 rpm to simulate the a%rasi$e action of 5ater%orne particles such as silt, sand, gra$el, and %oulders3 !n the UK proprietar4 special concretes ha$e %een de$eloped for specific applications such as 5aste transfer stations, sea defence construction and hard 5earing floors3 Applications of silica fume concrete in dams has pro$en %eneficial to increase ser$ice life and thin surface applications containing silica fume ha$e %een de$eloped for industrial floors and high5a4 repairs3

*ig <3 tter%urn Arm4 #raining )state" 10; silica fume 5as used in concrete hardstandings to increase the resistance to a%rasion %4 trac>ed $ehicles 223 /)S!S#A-C) # *!/)

#here is no e$idence to suggest that the t4pe of cementitious material 5ill ha$e a large effect on the resistance to fire3 !n some cases of e:tremel4 lo5 permea%ilit4 concrete, e:plosi$e spalling has %een reported A num%er of researchers ha$e demonstrated that the fire performance of silica-fume concrete is little different from that of con$entional concrete, see for e:ample Oensen and Aarup and 0umuolin and 8ehloul3 .roperties such as thermal conducti$it4 and specific heat do not change significantl4, and there is e$idence that properties during the fire and residual properties are actuall4 %etter for silicafume concrete3 /esearch %4 .han and Carino indicates that for high-strength concrete, the relati$e amount of residual strength ma4 %e less than that in con$entional-strength concrete3 #his is in part due to the reduced content of calcium h4dro:ide in concrete 5ith po@@olans, 5hich means that less 5ater is released at high temperatures, see Chan, .eng and Chan, Chan, .eng and Anson and Saad et al3 !n some cases of e:tremel4 lo5 permea%ilit4, silica fume concrete, e:plosi$e spalling has %een reported3 &hile silica fume content as such is not the go$erning parameter, the lo5 permea%ilit4 often associated 5ith a lo5 5=c and silica fume ma4 re?uire pre$entati$e measures3 Section F32, Spalling, in .art 1-2 of )urocode 2 67eneral rules C Structural fire design9 suggests that no special precautions need %e ta>en for concretes up to C<0=9B pro$ided that the silica fume content is %elo5 F; %4 5eight of cement3 *or higher silica fume contents, and for concrete grades a%o$e C<0=9B, $arious 3 precautionar4 measures are recommended including the pro$ision of at least 2>g=m of monofilament pol4prop4lene fi%res3

233 )**)C#

- C -C/)#)HS .(1S!CA+ ./ .)/#!)S

Colour Although the curing time and form5or> t4pe can ha$e some effect, the colour of concrete is principall4 determined %4 the colour of the cementitious material3 Although G5hite cementsH are a$aila%le at a price, C), ! is normall4 a shade of gre43 778S is an off 5hite po5der and its use, particularl4 at high le$els, lightens the colour of concrete3 *l4 ash 6particularl4 5ith higher car%on contents9 is generall4 dar>er than C), ! and the use of this or silica fume tend to dar>en the colour3 .ortland limestone cements or com%inations containing limestone fines are normall4 slightl4 lighter than the corresponding C), !3 ,ost silica fumes range from light to dar> gre43 8ecause Si 2 is colourless, the colour is determined %4 the non-silica components, 5hich t4picall4 include car%on and iron o:ide3 !n general, the higher the car%on content, the dar>er the silica fume3 #he car%on content of silica fume is affected %4 man4 factors relating to the manufacturing process, such as" use of 5ood chips $ersus coal, 5ood chip composition, furnace temperature, furnace e:haust temperature, and the t4pe of product 6metal allo49 %eing produced3 Almost 5hite coloured silica fume is a$aila%le for use in architectural concrete3 )lastic ,odulus 778S, fl4 ash or silica fume usuall4 increase the ultimate modulus, %ut the magnitude of the increase is generall4 not significant in terms of design3 +imestone fines has little effect3 Selle$old et al found that the d4namic modulus of elasticit4 increases 5ith increasing silica-fume content in pastes3 (elland, (off and )insta%land concluded that the stress-strain %eha$iour of silicafume concrete 5as similar to that of concrete 5ithout silica fume3 Se$eral other researchers ha$e reported that the static modulus of elasticit4 of silica-fume concrete is apparentl4 similar to that of concrete 5ithout silica fume of similar strength, see for e:ample +uther and (ansenN +Uland and (ooton3 (o5e$er, 8urg and Zs reported that concrete incorporating 1B; silica fume as an addition had a higher modulus of elasticit4 than the control concrete 5ithout silica fume, regardless of curing 2 conditions3 &olsiefer reported a modulus of elasticit4 of 2331>-=mm and a .oissonHs ratio of 0321 for 2 a 9<-=mm compressi$e strength silica-fume concrete3 Saucie studied fi$e silica-fume concretes and 2 2 found .oissonHs ratios ranging in $alue from 0320< for 92-=mm concrete to 032BF for 113-=mm 2 concrete3 !ra$ani o%tained .oissonHs ratios ranging from 031F to 0320, including 031< for a 10B-=mm 2 2 2 strength, 3137>-=mm modulus silica-fume concrete, and 0319 for a 120-=mm strength, 3731>-=mm modulus silica-fume concrete cured for 3 5ee>s at 100; relati$e humidit4 and then for B 5ee>s at B0; relati$e humidit43 #he range of these $alues for .oissonHs ratio 6031F to 032BF9 are similar to 5hat 5ould %e e:pected for C), ! concrete3 Creep Under conditions of no moisture loss, lo5er creep $alues 5ill %e found 5hen using 778S or fl4 ash in concrete in comparison to C), ! concrete of a similar strength class3 #his is generall4 associated 5ith the greater strength gain of the 778S or fl4 ash concretes during the period under load3 Such conditions are li>el4 5ith concrete 5hich is remote from the co$er @one, particularl4 in large sections3 !n man4 other practical situations 6i3e3 %eams, columns, sla%s9, 5here there is significant long-term dr4ing, the strength gain ma4 %e negligi%le and the creep characteristics of the different t4pes of concrete 5ill %e similar3 #he creep of silica-fume concrete should %e no higher than that of concrete of e?ual strength class 5ithout silica fume3 &here the load is applied at an age less than 2<-da4s, the lo5er earl4-strengths of 778S or fl4 ash concretes ma4 result in increased creep, see 8amforth et al3 +imited pu%lished data and the different nature of the creep tests used %4 $arious in$estigators ma>e it difficult to dra5 specific conclusions on the effect of silica fume on the creep of concrete3 &olsiefer e:amined concretes loaded from %oth 12 hours and 2< da4s up to 2 months3 (e found that the silica fume concretes e:hi%it less creep than 5ould ha$e %een e:pected from control concrete of e?ui$alent strength3 .enttala studied high strength concretes 5ith 10; silica fume addition and found that the creep 5as 20; less than theoretical predictions3 #omas@e5ic@ concluded that the creep coefficient of a C<0 silica fume concrete 5as lo5er than a control C30 concrete3 #ensile Strain Capacit4 Concrete Societ4 0igest 2, ,ass concrete suggests that concrete containing 778S or fl4 ash might e:hi%it marginall4 more %rittle failure characteristics, 5ith the tensile strain capacit4 %eing slightl4

lo5er than for a similar strength class C), ! concrete3 (o5e$er data on the effects of cementitious materials on the tensile strain capacit4 of concrete is $er4 limited3 0r4ing Shrin>age 8ecause of the differing conditions under 5hich tests ha$e %een carried out, it is difficult to ma>e direct comparisons %et5een the effects of different cementitious materials3 +ong-term total shrin>age of silica-fume concrete is compara%le to that of concrete 5ithout silica fume of other5ise similar composition3 Oahren found that shrin>age 5as of the same order as that of control concretes 5ith emphasis on good curing3 0r4ing shrin>age data on concrete containing 20; silica fume ha$e %een pu%lished %4 &olsiefer, 5ho found that shrin>age $alues for the silica fume specimens 5ere 22; lo5er than those of similar %ut lo5er strength concrete made 5ithout silica fume3 Khatri and Siri$i$atnanon reported that the incorporation of 10; silica fume as replacement for C), ! reduced the long-term dr4ing shrin>age of the concrete after 2< da4sN ho5e$er, it increased the earl4-age shrin>age after an initial curing of 7 da4s in lime 5ater3 Autogenous Shrin>age Autogenous shrin>age occurs under sealed conditions 6no moisture loss9, %ecause of chemical shrin>age 6$olume reduction due to the h4dration reaction9 and self-dessication 6internal consumption of 5ater %4 the h4dration reaction93 !t is generall4 onl4 considered to occur in concretes 5ith 5=c less than 032B, see C!/!A CFF0 and much of the pu%lished data on autogenous shrin>age is for concrete 5ith silica fume %ecause it is t4picall4 used in lo5 5=c, high-strength concretes3 n the %asis of limited e$idence, it has %een suggested that autogenous shrin>age is reduced in direct proportion to the percentage of fl4 ash in the mi:, is increased %4 <; for e$er4 10; of gg%s present, and is increased %4 10; for e$er4 1; of silica fume included3 Kanstad et al3 measured the autogenous shrin>age for concrete 5ith and 5ithout silica fume and incorporated their results into a mathematical model to predict the crac>ing %eha$iour3 #he4 found that the autogenous shrin>age of silica-fume concrete 5ithin the first 2 or 3 da4s is greater than for concrete 5ithout silica fume, consistent 5ith the findings of Springenschmid, 8reiten%[cher and ,angold3 &hen the other factors contri%uting to crac>ing 5ere ta>en into account, ho5e$er, such as de$elopment of tensile strength, the4 found that silica-fume concrete is no more li>el4 to crac> than concrete 5ithout silica fume3 &hiting and 0et5iler and &hiting, 0et5iler and +agergren studied the effects of 5=c and silica fume content on the tendenc4 of concrete to crac> under conditions of full restraint and found that the concreteHs tendenc4 to crac> 5as highl4 sensiti$e to the length of the curing period3 *or concrete that 5as moist cured for onl4 one da4, the tendenc4 to crac> increased 5ith the silica-fume content3 *or concrete that 5as moist cured for se$en da4s, there 5as no relationship %et5een silica fume content and tendenc4 to crac>3 #he4 recommended that specifications for silica-fume concrete %ridge dec>s re?uire 7-da4, continuous moist curing3 Coefficient f #hermal ):pansion !t is 5ell esta%lished that the coefficient of thermal e:pansion of concrete is largel4 influenced %4 the coarse aggregate used3 #hus the t4pe of cementitious material 5ill ha$e little influence on this propert43 #hermal Conducti$it4 And 0iffusi$it4 -o pu%lished data are a$aila%le on the influences of the thermal conducti$it4 and diffusi$it4 properties of concrete3 (o5e$er, as 5ith coefficient of thermal e:pansion, these properties are influenced mainl4 %4 the aggregate t4pe3 #he thermal conducti$it4 of fl4 ash is similar to that of ?uart@ sand, e3g3 03< to 03F 5=K3m, and as a result is li>el4 not ha$e an4 significant effect on the resulting concrete3 +imited measurements %4 #olloc@>o on concretes containing 0, B0 and 70; 778S sho5ed no significant differences %et5een the concretes3 #hermal ,ass #he cementitious material 5ill ha$e onl4 a marginal effect on the thermal mass of concrete and other factors such as aggregate-t4pe, 5=c and aggregate=cement ratio 5ill ha$e much more effect3

223 )**)C#

- )-J!/ -,)-#A+ !,.AC#S

7eneral !nternationall4, there e:ist numerous detailed life c4cle anal4ses for C), ! 6see e3g3 -is%et, Oosa and C),8U/)AU, 778S 6see e3g3 8/) and ,arcea9 and fl4 ash 6see e3g93 0etailed life c4cle anal4ses for silica fume and limestone fines are more difficult to find3 !n these life c4cle anal4ses, %4-products such as %lastfurnace slag, fl4 ash and silica fume are often not assigned an4 of the %urdens of the primar4 process that produce them %ut are sometimes allocated a proportion of the primar4 %urdens on a %asis such as economic $alueN see 8S )- !S 120223 #hese materials do ho5e$er, full4 %ear the en$ironmental %urdens associated 5ith an4 further processing, transport, etc3 that is necessar4 to ma>e them suita%le for use in concrete3 Significant reductions in en$ironmental impacts occur for 778S, fl4 ash and silica fume, %ecause" - their manufacture does not re?uire the ?uarr4ing of $irgin minerals - their use in concrete a$oids them %eing disposed of to landfill - the4 use much less energ4 in their manufacture than C), !3 #he last point also applies for limestone fines3 #here ma4 also %e some effect on other en$ironmental indicators such as 5ater-use or acidification, %ut it is generall4 accepted that the most important reduction is in car%on dio:ide emissions, 5hich 5ill %e dealt 5ith in detail in the follo5ing section3 !t should also %e noted that there might %e indirect effects3 &here their use enhances dura%ilit4, this can lead to longer ser$ice life and reduced lifetime impact3 #he higher strengths achie$a%le 5ith silica fume concrete ma4 ena%le reductions in the o$erall $olume of concrete coupled 5ith less $olume of high C 2 C),1 thus reducing o$erall emissions N see Chan, et al3 )m%odied Car%on 0io:ide *or Cementitious ,aterials #he C), ! component of the mi: is responsi%le for the maPorit4 of the em%odied car%on content of concrete3 8ased on UK information, indicati$e em%odied C 2 6)C 29 $alues for the main constituents of concrete are pro$ided in #a%le 33 #he figures for C), !, 778S and fl4 ash are deri$ed using data for the calendar 4ear 2007 68CA9 and are Gcradle-to-factor4-gateH $alues, 5hich do not include transport from place of manufacture to concrete plants3 #he C 2 emissions associated 5ith the mi:ing, transfer and storage of silica fume slurr4, from the production site in -or5a4 to the port in the UK 6)l>em=)n$iros9 are 12 >g per tonne of slurr4, 5hich e?uates to 2< >g per tonne of silica fume po5der3 #a%le 3" )m%odied car%on contents for main constituents of reinforced concrete )m%odied C 2 ,aterial 6>g = tonne9 .ortland cement, C), ! 930 778S B2 *l4 ash 2 Addition or cement constituent +imestone fines Silica fume po5der ,inor additional constituent 32 2< 32 2 227

Aggregate /einforcement

)m%odied Car%on 0io:ide *or Concrete C), ! 6.ortland cement9 is the most energ4 intensi$e constituent of concrete and the o$erall em%odied C 2 content can %e significantl4 reduced through the use of additions or composite cements, see *igure 273 !n assessing the options for reducing the em%odied C 2, it is necessar4 to ta>e into account, see Concrete !ndustr4 Alliance report" the replacement le$el an4 increase or decrease in cementitious content to achie$e the re?uired strength transport distances

#he Concrete Centre has prepared a ta%le to help specifiers to calculate the )C 2 content of their particular chosen mi: design3 #he information 5ill %e updated and specifiers should refer to it on the 5e% to gain the latest information a$aila%le3 2B3 S.)C!A+ A..+!CA#! -S #ernar4 8lends #ernar4 cements are %lends of C), ! 5ith t5o additions3 #he three cementitious materials can %e introduced separatel4 into the concrete mi:er %ut it is also possi%le to produce a ternar4 %lend %4 com%ining an addition 5ith a composite cement in the concrete mi:er3 !n (olland, fl4 ash is used 5ith 8lastfurnace cement and in !reland, 778S is used 5ith .ortland +imestone cements, under the pro$isions of the !rish -ational Anne: to )- 20F, see -SA!3 Currentl4, 8S <B00 does not contain an4 guidance for the use of ternar4 %lends %ut some guidance can %e found in the Concrete Societ4 7uide for the design of concrete structures in the Ara%ian .eninsula3 0hir et al measured strength de$elopment, permeation properties, car%onation rates, heat of h4dration, Ca6 (92 content and porosit4 on ternar4 %lends, %ased on 778S, fl4 ash, silica fume, limestone fines and meta>aolin3 #heir report pro$ides a %road data%ase, on ho5 cement and additions can %e com%ined and the li>el4 impact on concrete properties3 #he4 found that although the properties of ternar4 %lend concretes sho5ed some differences, the4 5ere %roadl4 similar to those of the corresponding %inar4 C), !=778S and C), !=fl4 ash %lends3 Silica fume has fre?uentl4 %een com%ined 5ith .ortland cement and either fl4 ash or 778S to produce ternar4 %lends, such as that used in the (ong Kong, #sing ,a 8ridge as sho5n in3 !n ternar4 %lends, the amount of silica fume is t4picall4 some5hat less than 5ould %e used 5ithout the fl4 ash or 778S3 8les@4ns>i, et al reported that ternar4 %lend concrete e:hi%its greater o$erall dura%ilit4 performance than C), ! concrete and %inar4 %lends, 5ith ternar4 %lends gi$ing %etter placing and finishing characteristics than %inar4 silica fume %lends3 #he paper also concludes that the incorporation of 778S into silica fume concrete reduces the 5ater demand 6or 5ater reducing admi:ture dose9N the com%ination of silica fume and 778S offers increased resistance to AS/ e:pansion and chloride ingress than the use of one of these materials alone3 8roadl4 similar effects 5ere found %4 +eung and &ong= Se$eral in$estigators ha$e e:plored the possi%ilit4 of using silica fume in com%ination 5ith fl4 ash, to compensate for the slo5er strength de$elopment associated 5ith the fl4 ash3 ,ehta and 7PUr$ and Carette and ,alhotra found that a ternar4 %lend 5ith silica fume could offset the reduction of earl4 strength caused %4 the use of fl4 ash on its o5n3 #homas et al found that a fl4 ash=silica fume ternar4 cement had man4 ad$antages o$er C), !3 #hese ad$antages include increased resistance to chloride ion penetration, al>ali-silica reaction, and sulfate attac> and also impro$ed placing and finishing characteristics, impro$ed long-term properties, and reduced cost compared 5ith .ortland silica fume cement3 #ernar4 %lends, ho5e$er, ma4 render concrete pa$ing more $ulnera%le to free@e-tha5 scaling if the concrete is not proportioned and placed properl43

*ig 93 (ong Kong, #sing ,a 8ridge FB;778S and B;S* for dura%ilit4 in marine e:posure #homas et al in$estigated ternar4 and ?uaternar4 %lends produced from C), !, .ortland limestone cement and a GSC,H 6a %lend of 2 part of 778S 5ith 1 part of fl4 ash93 #he4 measured strength, chloride permea%ilit4 and free@e-tha5 resistance using la%orator4 tests and also cast e:ternal sla%s to assess free@e-tha5 suscepti%ilit43 #he trends in performance 5ere similar to 5hat 5ould %e e:pected from %inar4 %lends at e?ui$alent le$els of addition3

*ig 103 /apid Chloride .enetration #ests on 7rade 3B concretes S/ef 2B1T

/)*)/)-C)S OA(/)-, .3, 19<3, VUse of Silica *ume in Concrete,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and ther ,ineral 84-.roducts in Concrete, .roceedings of the *irst CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-79, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, pp3 F2B-F223 O)-S)-, 83 C3, A-0 AA/U., 83, 199F, V*ire /esistance of *i%re /einforced Silica *ume 8ased Concrete,W .roceedings, 2th !nternational S4mposium on Utili@ation of (igh Strength=(igh .erformance Concrete, .aris, *rance3 7/U#X)CK, ,3 &3N / 1, 03 ,3N A-0 & +*)-C -*)/, 03, 19<2, V,echanism of (4dration of .ortland Cement Composites Containing *errosilicon 0ust,W .roceedings, 2th !nternational Conference on Cement ,icroscop4, +as Jegas, !nternational Cement ,icroscop4 Association, 0uncan$ille, #e:3, pp3 193-2023 7 +0,A-, A3, 19<7, ,Sc thesis, #echnion, !srael !nstitute of #echnolog4, 0epartment of Ci$il )ngineering, (aifa, !srael3 ( # -, /3 03, 1993, V!nfluence of Silica *ume /eplacement of Cement on .h4sical .roperties and /esistance to Sulfate Attac>, *ree@ing and #ha5ing, and Al>ali Silica /eacti$it4,W C()-, X3, A-0 X(A-7, M3, 19<Fa, V0istri%ution of Ca6 (92 and the CS( .hase in the olithic ,ar%le=(4drated Cement .aste !nterfacial Xone,W .roceedings, <th !nternational Congress on the Chemistr4 of Cement, /io de Oaneiro, J, !!!, pp229-2B3 C()-, X3, A-0 &A-7, O3, 19<<, V)ffect of 8ond Strength 8et5een Aggregate and Cement .aste on the ,echanical 8eha$iour of Concrete,W .roceedings, S4mposium on 8onding in Cementitious Composites, S3 ,indess and S3 .3 Shah, eds3, ,aterials /esearch Societ4, .itts%urgh, .a3, pp3 21-273 S)++)J +0, )3 O3, A-0 -!+S)-, #3, 19<7, VCondensed Silica *ume in Concrete" A &orld /e$ie5,W Supplementar4 Cementing ,aterials for Concrete, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, CA-,)#, tta5a, Canada, pp3 1FB-2233 )X)+0!-, A3, A-0 8A+A7U/U, .3, 19<9, V8ond 8eha$ior of -ormal and (igh-Strength *i%er /einforced Concrete,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 <F, -o3 B, Sept3- ct3, pp3 B1B-B223 0) A+,)!0A, !3 /3, 199F, V8ond 8et5een /einforcing Steel and (igh Strength Concrete,W .roceedings, J3 3, *ourth !nternational S4mposium on Utili@ation of (igh- Strength=(igh.erformance Concrete, *3 de +arrard and /3 +acroi:, eds3, .resses de lH)cole -ationale des .onts et Chaussees, pp3 1097-11023 O (A-S)-, /3 A-0 0A(+, .3 A3, 19<3, VSili>a%etongens heftegens>aper,W 6W8ond .roperties of Silica *ume Concrete,W9 presented at Seminar 8ru> a$ Sili>a i 8etong, -ors>e Si$ilingenUrs *orening, slo, -or5a43 .(!++) , /3 )3, 19<F, V*ree@ing and #ha5ing /esistance of (igh-Strength Concrete,W -C(/. S4nthesis of (igh5a4 .ractice -o3 129, #ransportation /esearch 8oard, &ashington, 03C3, 31 pp3 . &)/S, #3 C3N C .)+A-0, +3 )3N (A1)S, O3 C3N A-0 ,A--, (3 ,3, 19B2, V.ermea%ilit4 of .ortland Cement .aste,W AC! O U/-A+, .roceedings, J3 B1, pp3 2<B-29<3 ( # -, /3 03, 19<F, V.ermea%ilit4 and .ore Structure of Cement .astes Containing *l4-Ash, Slag, and Silica *ume,W 8lended Cements, AS#, S#.-<97, 73 *rohnsdorff, ed3, AS#,, &est Conshohoc>en, .a3, pp3 12<-1233 SC())#X, 83 )3N 7/U#X)K, ,3N A-0 S#/!CK+)/, 03 &3, 19<1, V)ffect of Composition of Additi$es upon ,icrostructures of (4drated .ortland Cement Composites,W .roceedings, #hird !nternational Conference on Cement ,icroscop4, !nternational Cement ,icroscop4 Association, 0uncan$ille, #e:,pp 307-31< ,)(#A, .3 K3, A-0 7O\/J, 3 )3, 19<2, V.roperties of .ortland Cement Concrete Containing *l4 Ash and Condensed Silica *ume,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 12, -o3 B, pp3 B<7-B9B3 ,AA7), ,3, 19<2, V)ffect of ,icrosilica on the 0ura%ilit4 of Concrete Structures,W S!-#)* /eport S#*FB A<2019, -or5egian Cement and Concrete /esearch !nstitute, #rondheim3 ,AA7), ,3, A-0 S)++)J +0, )3, 19<7, V)ffect of ,icrosilica on the 0ura%ilit4 of Concrete Structures,W Concrete !nternational, J3 9, -o3 12, 0ec3, pp3 39-233 0)+A7), .3, A-0 A]#C!-, .3 C3, 19<3, V!nfluence of Condensed Silica *ume on the .ore-Si@e 0istri%ution of Concretes,W !ndustrial and )ngineering Chemistr4, .roduct /esearch and 0e$elopment, J3 22, -o3 2, pp3 2<F-2903 (US#A0, #3, A-0 +\+A-0, K3 )3, 19<1, VSilica in Concrete, /eport 2" .ermea%ilit4,W S!-#)* /eport S#*FB A<1031, -or5egian Cement and Concrete /esearch !nstitute, #rondheim, -or5a4, 1B pp3 )+-0!)8, A3 S3, A-0 ( # -, /3 03, 199B, V&ater .ermea%ilit4 ,easurement of (igh .erformance Concrete Using a (igh .ressure #ria:ial Cell,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 2B, -o3 F, pp3 1199-120<3 J)--)S+A-0, 3, A-0 7O\/J, 3 )3, 19<3, VSilica Concrete-.rotection Against Corrosion of

)m%edded Steel,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and ther ,ineral 84-.roducts in Concrete, .roceedings of the *irst CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-79, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, pp3 719-730 ,C7/A#(, .3, A-0 ( # -, /3 03, 1999, VA /e-)$aluation of the AAS(# #2B9-90 0a4 Salt .onding #est,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 29, 1999, pp3 1239 &(!#!-7, 03, 19<1, V/apid 0etermination of the Chloride .ermea%ilit4 of Concrete,W /eport -o3 *(&A=/0-<1=119, *ederal (igh5a4 Administration, &ashington, 03C3, 172 pp3 &(!#!-7, 03, 19<<, V.ermea%ilit4 of Selected Concretes,W .ermea%ilit4 of Concrete, S.-10<, 03 ( # -, /3 03N .U-, .3N K OU-0!C, #3N A-0 *!0O)S#\+, .3, 1997, V!nfluence of Silica *ume on Chloride /esistance of Concrete,W .roceedings, .C!=*(&A !nternational S4mposium on (igh .erformance Concrete, -e5 rleans, pp3 22B-2BF3 0)#&!+)/, /3 O3N *A. (U-0A, C3 A3N A-0 -A#A+), O3 A3, 1992, VUse of Supplementar4 Cementing ,aterials to !ncrease the /esistance to Chloride 0iffusion of Concrete Cured at )le$ated #emperatures,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 91, -o3 1, Oan3-*e%3, pp3 F3-FF3 ,C7/A#(, .3, A-0 ( # -, /3 03, 1997, V)ffect of 8inder Composition on Chloride .enetration /esistance of Concrete,W 0ura%ilit4 of Concrete, .roceedings of the *ourth CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-170, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, J3 1, pp3 331-3273 &(!#!-7, 03, A-0 0)#&!+)/, /3, 199<, VSilica *ume Concrete for 8ridge 0ec>s,W -ational Cooperati$e (igh5a4 /esearch .rogram /eport 210, #ransportation /esearch 8oard, &ashington, 03C3, 137 pp3 0)#&!+)/, /3 O3N K OU-0!C, A3 -3N A-0 *!0O)S#\+, .3, 1997, V)$aluation of Staunton, !llinois, 8ridge 0ec> $erla4s,W Concrete !nternational, J3 19, -o3 <, Aug3, pp3 23-2B3 S)++)J +0, )3 O3, A-0 -!+S)-, #3, 19<7, VCondensed Silica *ume in Concrete" A &orld /e$ie5,W Supplementar4 Cementing ,aterials for Concrete, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, CA-,)#, tta5a, Canada, pp3 1FB-2233 ( ++A-0, #3 C3, 19<3, VA%rasion-)rosion )$aluation of Concrete ,i:tures for Stilling 8asin /epairs, Kin@ua 0am, .enns4l$ania,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+-<3-1F, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, F2 pp3 ( ++A-0, #3 C3, 19<Fa, VA%rasion-)rosion )$aluation of Concrete ,i:tures for Stilling 8asin /epairs, Kin@ua 0am, .enns4l$ania,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+-<F-12, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, 10F pp3 ( ++A-0, #3 C3, 19<F%, VA%rasion-)rosion )$aluation of Concrete ,i:tures for /epair of +o5-*lo5 Channel, +os Angeles /i$er,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+-<F-12, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineers &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, 92 pp3 +!U, #3 C3, 19<1, VA%rasion /esistance of Concrete,W AC! O U/-A+, .roceedings J3 7<, -o3 B, ,a4, pp3 321-3B03 0U, U+!-, C3, A-0 8)(+ U+, ,3, 199<, V,odelisation du Comportment au *eu de Structures en 8(.,W 6V-umerical ,odeling of the 8eha$ior of (igh Strength Concrete Structures in *ire,W9 Challenges for Concrete in the -e:t ,illennium, .roceedings of the 13th *!. Congress, 03 Stoelhorst and 73 .3 +3 den 8oer, eds3, pp3 B3-B73 6in *rench9 .(A-, +3 #3, A-0 CA/!- , -3 O3, 2002, V)ffects of #est Conditions and ,i:ture .roportions on 8eha$ior of (igh- Strength concrete ):posed to (igh #emperatures,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 99, -o3 1, Oan3-*e%3, pp3 B2-FF3 C(A-, 13 -3N .)-7, 73 *3N A-0 C(A-, O3 K3 &3, 199F, VComparison %et5een (igh Strength Concrete and -ormal Strength Concrete Su%Pected to (igh #emperature,W ,aterials and Structures, J3 29, pp3 F1F-F193 C(A-, 13 -3N .)-7, 73 *3N A-0 A-S -, ,3, 1999, V/esidual Strength and .ore Structure of (igh Strength Concrete After ):posure to (igh #emperatures,W Cement and Concrete Composites, J3 21, -o3 1, pp3 23-273 SAA0, ,3N A8 -)+-)-)!-, S3 A3N (A--A, 73 83N A-0 K #KA#A, ,3 *3, 199F, V)ffect of #emperature on .h4sical and ,echanical .roperties of Concrete Containing Silica *ume,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 2F, -o3 B, pp3 FF9-F7B3 &313 C(A-, &3 X()-7 A-0 A+8)/# K3(3 K&A-, +ife-C4cle Car%on *ootprint And &aste 7eneration of (igh-.erformance Concrete 8uildings, .roceedings ,AS#)C Conference, (ong Kong, 20093 K-U0S)-, #3, 19<2, VSilica *ume-Cement .astes" (4dration and .ore Structure,W Condensed Silica *ume in Concrete, .roceedings of the -ordic /esearch Seminar on Condensed Silica *ume in Concrete, 3 7Por$ and K3 )3 +oland, eds3, /eport 8,+ <23F10, -or5egian !nstitute of #echnolog4,

#rondheim, -or5a4, pp3 19-B03 ()++A-0, S3N ( **, A3N A-0 )!-S#A8+A-0, #3, 19<3, V(o4fast 8etong,W 6V(igh-Strength Concrete,W9 presented at -ors> 8etongdag, #rondheim, -or5a43 +U#()/, ,3 03, A-0 (A-S)-, &3, 19<9, VComparison of Creep and Shrin>age of (igh-Strength Silica *ume Concretes 5ith *l4 Ash Concretes of Similar Strength,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and -atural . XX +A-S !- C -C/)#), .roceedings of the #hird CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.112, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, J3 1, pp3 B73-B913 +\+A-0, K3 )3, 19<3, V*asthets^og deformasPonsegens>aper i herdnet tilstand^ (erde%etingelser,W 6VStrength and 0eformation .roperties of (ardened Concrete,W9 presented at Seminar 8ru> a$ Sili>a i 8etong, -ors>e Si$ilingeniors *orening, slo, -or5a43 ( # -, /3 03, 1993, V!nfluence of Silica *ume /eplacement of Cement on .h4sical .roperties and /esistance to Sulfate Attac>, *ree@ing and #ha5ing, and Al>ali Silica /eacti$it4,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 90, -o3 2, ,ar3-Apr3, pp3 123-1F13 !/AJA-!, S3, 199F, V,echanical .roperties of (igh- .erformance Concrete,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 93, -o3 B, Sept3- ct3, pp3 21F-22F3 K(A#/!, /3 .3, A-0 S!/!J!JA#-A- -, J3, 199B, V)ffect of 0ifferent Supplementar4 Cementitious ,aterials on ,echanical .roperties of (igh .erformance Concrete,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 2B, -o3 1, pp3 209-2203 & +S!)*)/, O3, 1991, VSilica *ume Concrete" a Solution to Steel /einforcement Corrosion in Concrete,W 0ura%ilit4 of Concrete, .roceedings of the Second CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-12F, SAUC!)/, K3, 19<2, V(igh-Strength Concrete for .eace>eeper *acilities,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+<2-3, U3 S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, F0 pp3 & +S!)*)/, O3, 19<2, VUltra (igh-Strength *ield .laca%le Concrete 5ith Silica *ume Admi:ture,W Concrete !nternational, J3 F, -o3 2, Apr3, pp3 2B-313 &(!#!-7, 03 A3N 0)#&!+)/, /3 O3N A-0 +A7)/7/)-, )3 S3, 2000, VCrac>ing #endenc4 and 0r4ing Shrin>age of Silica *ume Concrete for 8ridge 0ec> Applications,W AC! ,aterials Oournal, J3 97, -o3 1, Oan3-*e%3, pp3 71-773 S./!-7)-SC(,!0, /3N 8/)!#)-8_C()/, /3N A-0 ,A-7 +0, ,3,199B, V.ractical ):perience 5ith Concrete #echnological ,easures to A$oid Crac>ing,W #hermal Crac>ing inConcrete at )arl4 Ages, /3 Springenschmid, ed3, )'*- Spon, +ondon, pp3 377-3<23 .A.& /#( *, C()- ., #/!-0)/ ., .))K A, +o5 (eat Concrete, #a45ood )ngineering .t4 +td )+K), ,A#)/!A+S +#0, .artial .roduct Car%on *ootprint f ,icrosilica Slurr4, )n$iros Consulting +td, April 2009 1A,A# , #3N S )0A, ,3N A-0 ), # , 13, 19<9, VChemical /esistance of Concrete Containing Condensed Silica *ume,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and -atural .o@@olans in Concrete, .roceedings of the #hird CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-112, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, J3 2, pp3 <97-9133 8/) !nformation .aper, !.B09, 2009 AC! 232 /-0F 7uide for the Use of Silica *ume in Concrete3 /eported %4 AC! Committee 232, 200F CS#/ 21 Concrete Societ4N report of a Concrete Societ4 &or>ing .art4, 1993N 93F" 937 pp3 3F-37 +U#()/,,A/K 03 " VU3S3 8ora: .lant Summer ,aintenance, Oul4 19<FW, memo for record3 )l>em ,aterials !nc3, .itts%urgh, .enns4l$ania S(A-7(A! !-S#!#U#) * 8U!+0!-7 SC!)-C) 6S!8S9 /esearch of ,icro-silica Concrete used in Se5age 0isposal Component, 2007 7O /J, 3)3 0ura%ilit4 of concrete containing condensed silica fume3 .roc3 AC! S.-793 ,alhotra, J3,3 6)d93 CA-,)# = AC! *irst international conference on the use of fl4 ash, silica fume, slag and other mineral %4-products in concrete, ,onte%ello, 19<33 Jol3 !l3 0etroit, American Concrete !nstitute, 19<33 pp3F9B to 70<3 *!0O)S# +, .3 /einforcement corrosion and the use of CS*-%ased additi$es3 AC! S.- 1003 Concrete dura%ilit43 Katherine and 8r4ant ,ather !nternational Conference3 Jol323 0etroit, American Concrete !nstitute, 19<73 pp3122B-12B<3 81* /S, K3 Car%onation of concrete 5ith silica fume and fl4ash3 -ordic Concrete /esearch .u%lication -o323 slo, -ordic Concrete *ederation, 19<B3 pp32F-3B3 SKO +SJ +0, 3 Car%onation depths of concrete 5ith and 5ithout condensed silica fume3 AC! S.913 ,alhotra, J3,3 6)d93 CA-,)# = AC! second international conference on the use of fl4 ash,silica fume, slag and natural po@@olanas in concrete, April 19<F, ,adrid3 Jol3!`3 0etroit, American Concrete !nstitute, 19<F3 pp3l031-102<3 CA/+SS -, ,3N ( .), /3N A-0 .)0)/S)-, O3, 19<F, VUse of Condensed Silica *ume 6CS*9 in

Concrete,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and -atural .o@@olans in Concrete, .roceedings of the Second CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.-91, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, J3 2, pp3 1013-10303 ,A#()/, K3, 19<2, VCurrent /esearch in Sulfate /esistance at the &ater5a4s ):periment Station,W .roceedings of the 7eorge Jer%ec> S4mposium on Sulfate /esistance of Concrete, S.-77, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, pp3 F3-723 K(A#/!, /3 .3N S!/!J!JA#-A- -, J3N A-0 1A-7, O3 +3, 1997, V#he /ole of .ermea%ilit4 in Sulfate Attac>,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 27, -o3 <, pp3 1170-11<93 ,)(#A, .3 K3, 19<B, VStudies on Chemical /esistance of +o5 &ater=Cement /atio Concretes,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 1B, -o3 F, pp3 9F9-97< ( ++A-0, #3 C3, 19<3, VA%rasion-)rosion )$aluation of Concrete ,i:tures for Stilling 8asin /epairs, Kin@ua 0am, .enns4l$ania,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+-<3-1F, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, F2 pp3 ( ++A-0, #3 C3, 19<Fa, VA%rasion-)rosion )$aluation of Concrete ,i:tures for Stilling 8asin /epairs, Kin@ua 0am, .enns4l$ania,W ,iscellaneous .aper S+-<F-12, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3, 10F pp3 ,C0 -A+0, O3 )3, 1991, V.roperties of Silica *ume Concrete,W #echnical /eport /),/-CS-32, /),/ /esearch .rogram, U3S3 Arm4 )ngineer &ater5a4s ):periment Station, Jic>s%urg, ,iss3 8U/7, /3 73, A-0 ZS#, 83, 1992, V)ngineering .roperties of Commerciall4 A$aila%le (igh Strength Concretes,W /esearch and 0e$elopment 8ulletin /0102, .ortland Cement Association, S>o>ie, !ll3 S)++)J +0, )3 O3N 8A07)/, 03 (3N K+!#7AA/0 O)-S)-, K3N A-0 K-U0S)-, #3, 19<2, VSilica *ume-Cement .astes" (4dration and .ore Structure,W Condensed Silica *ume in Concrete, .roceedings of the -ordic /esearch Seminar on Condensed Silica *ume in Concrete, 3 7Por$ and K3 )3 +oland, eds3, /eport 8,+ <23F10, -or5egian !nstitute of #echnolog4, #rondheim, -or5a4, pp3 19-B03 & +S!)*)/, O3 Ultra high-strength field placea%le concrete in the range 10,000 to 1<,000 psi 6F9 to 122 ,.a93 AC! Ann3 Con$3 Atlanta 19<23 .)-#! A+A, J3 ,echanical properties of high-strength concretes %ased on different %inder com%inations3 Utilisation of high-strength concrete3 .roceedings of the s4mposium in Sta$anger, 1B1< Oune3 #rondheim, #apir .u%lishers, 19<73 pp3123-1323 # ,ASX)&!CX, A3 (o4fast 8etong 0e13B3 .ilotforso> med >r4p i ho4fast %etong3 *C8 /eport S#*FB= A<S00F -#(3 -or5a4 19<B3 KA-S#A0, #3N 8O\-#)7AA/0, \3N S)++)J +0, )3 O3N (A,,)/, #3N A-0 *!0O)S#\+, .3, 2001, V)ffects of Silica *ume on Crac> Sensiti$it4,W Concrete !nternational, J3 23, -o3 12, 0ec3, pp3 B3-B93 X1!+0!/!,, C3 +a%orator4 in$estigation of concrete containing silica fume for use in o$erla4s3 AC! ,at3Tnl3 Oanuar4 =*e%ruar4 19<73 #( ,AS, ,3 03 A3N S()(A#A, ,3 (3N S(AS(!./AKAS(, S3 73N ( .K!-S, 03 S3N A-0 CA!+, K3, 1999, VUse of #ernar4 Cementitious S4stems Containing Silica *ume and *l4 Ash in Concrete,W Cement and Concrete /esearch, J3 29, -o3 2, pp3 1207-12123 ()++A-0, S3N ( **, A3N A-0 )!-S#A8+A-0, #3, 19<3, V(o4fast 8etong,W 6V(igh-Strength Concrete,W9 presented at -ors> 8etongdag, #rondheim, -or5a43 ( # -, /3 03, 1993, V!nfluence of Silica *ume /eplacement of Cement on .h4sical .roperties and /esistance to Sulfate Attac>, *ree@ing and #ha5ing, and Al>ali Silica /eacti$it4,W +\+A-0, K3 )3, 19<3, V*asthets^og deformasPonsegens>aper herdnet tilstand^(erde%etingelser,W 6VStrength and 0eformation .roperties of (ardened Concrete,W9 presented at Seminar 8ru> a$ Sili>a i 8etong, -ors>e Si$ilingeniors *orening, slo, -or5a43 +U#()/, ,3 03, A-0 (A-S)-, &3, 19<9, VComparison of Creep and Shrin>age of (igh-Strength Silica *ume Concretes 5ith *l4 Ash Concretes of Similar Strength,W *l4 Ash, Silica *ume, Slag, and -atural .o@@olans in Concrete, .roceedings of the #hird CA-,)#=AC! !nternational Conference, S.112, J3 ,3 ,alhotra, ed3, American Concrete !nstitute, *armington (ills, ,ich3, J3 1, pp3 B73-B913 #() C -C/)#) S C!)#13 #he use of 778S and .*A in concrete, #echnical /eport 20, #he Concrete Societ4N Cam%erle4, 19913 #() C -C/)#) S C!)#13 ,icrosilica in concrete, #echnical /eport 21, #he Concrete Societ4N Cam%erle4, 19933 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S )- 2B03 *l4 ash for concrete, .art 1" 0efinitions, re?uirements an conformit4 criteria, .art 2" Conformit4 e$aluation, 8S!, +ondon, 200B3 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S )- 1B1F7, 7round granulated %last furnace slag for use in concrete,

mortar and grout, 8S!, +ondon, 200F3 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S )- 132F33 Silica fume for concrete, .art 1" 0efinitions, re?uirements and conformit4 criteria, .art 2" Conformit4 e$aluation, 8S!, +ondon, 200B3 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S 79793 Specification for limestone fines for use 5ith .ortland cement, 8S!, +ondon, 20013 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S )- 197-13 Cement3 Composition, specifications and conformit4 criteria for lo5 heat common cements, 8S!, +ondon, 20003 8/!#!S( S#A-0A/0S !-S#!#U#! -, 8S )- 20F-13 Concrete, 8S!, +ondon, 20013