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Dimensional Analysis (Partial Analysis)

DA is a mathematical method of considerable value to problems in
science and engineering especially physics and fluid mechanics.

All physical quantities can usually be expressed in terms of certain
primary quantities which in mechanics are: Length (L), Mass (M),
and Time (T).
e.g. Force = Mass x Acceleration
= Mass x Length/Time
2
= M L T
-2

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The principle of homogeneity of dimensions can be used to:
1. Check whether an equation has been correctly formed
(apples = apples) ;
2. Establish the form of an equation relating a number of
variables (dimensional analysis); and
3. Assist in the analysis of experimental results (experimental
design).

Checking Equations:
Eg. 1: Show by D. A. that the equation:
p + v
2
+ g z = H
3
is a possible relationship between pressure p, velocity v, and height
z for a frictionless flow along a streamline of a fluid of density ,
and determine the dimension of H.

Solution:
p = Force/Area = m a/Area = M L T
-2
L
-2
= M L
-1
T
-2
= mass/volume = M L
-3

v = length/time = L T
-1

g = L T
-2
, Z = L
p = M L-1 T-2
v
2
= M L
-3
x L
2
T
-2
= M L
-1
T
-2
g z = M L
-3
x L T
-2
x L = M L
-1
T
-2
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All terms on the l.h.s have the same dimensions and the equation is
physically possible if H also has dimension of M L
-1
T
-2
. is a
pure number hence not amenable to D. A. Constant could have
been another number and the equation is still valid.

Therefore, the analysis is not complete. We need additional
information to confirm that the constant is indeed .

Eg. 2. Check that Einsteins famous equation is indeed
dimensionally correct: E = mc
2


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Methods of dimensional analysis: grouping of variables.
Many methods are available but we will consider the main ones:

1. Rayleigh indicial method
2. Buckingham
3. Hunsaker and Rightmire (Whittingtons)
4. Matrix Method

The methods above are given roughly in chronological order. Also
from most tedious to use to almost automatic (if matrix inversion
routine available).
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Rayleighs method:
Example: The velocity of propagation of a pressure wave through a
liquid can be expected to depend on the elasticity of the liquid
represented by the bulk modulus K, and its mass density .
Establish by D. A. the form of the possible relationship.

Assume: u = C K
a

b

U = velocity = L T
-1
, = M L
-3
, K = M L
-1
T
-2

L T
-1
= M
a
L
-a
T
-2a
x M
b
L
-3b

M: 0 = a + b
L: 1 = -a 3b
T: -1 = - 2a
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Therefore: a = , b = -, and a possible equation is:

K
C u =
Rayleighs method is not always so straightforward. Consider the
situation of flow over a U-notched weir.

Q = f(, , H, g)
[Q] = [C
a

b
H
c
g
d
] [ ] => dimensions of
Using the M, L, T system,
[L
3
T
-1
] = [ML
-3
]
a
[M L
-1
T
-1
]
b
[L]
c
[L T
-2
]
d
M: 0 = a + b (1)
L: 3 = -3a b +c + d (2)
T: -1 = - b 2d (3)
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We have only 3 equations, but there are 4 unknowns. Need to
express a, b, c, in terms of d.
b = 1 2d
a = -b = 2d -1
c = 3 + 3a + b d = 1 + 3d
Q = C
(2d-1)

(1-2d)
H
(1+3d)
g
(d)


d
g H H
C
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
3 2

)
`

=
2
3 2

g H
H
Q
2 dimensionless groups. Please check.
This method can be very tedious if there are more variables.
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Buckinghams theorem
This is the most well-known method and is the basis for the matrix
and other methods.

If there are n variables in a problem and these variables contain m
primary dimensions (e.g. M, L, T), the equation relating the
variables will contain n-m dimensionless groups. Buckingham
referred to these dimensionless groups as
1
,
2
, ,
n-m
, and the
final equation obtained is:
1
= (
2
,
3,
,
n-m
).

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E.g. consider the previous problem with 5 variables, hence there
will be 5 3 = 2 dimensionless groups.

The dimensionless groups can be formed as follows:
1) Select 3 repeating variables from the list of variables which
together must contain M, L,T. eg. (ML
3
), H (L), g (LT
-2
)
2) Combine repeaters with one other variable in turn,
3) Never pick the dependent variable as a repeater.

Consider: Q = f(, , H, g) 5 variables
Pick repeaters: , H, g
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Combine with one other variable, say, Q.
Q g H
z y x
1 1 1
1
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 2 3
1
1
1

= T L LT L ML
z
y
x


M: x
1
= 0
L: -3x
1
+ y
1
+ z
1
+ 3 = 0
T: -2z
1
1 = 0
Therefore: z
1
= - , y
1
= -5/2
Q g H
2 / 1 2 / 5 0
1

=
2 / 5 2 / 1
1
H g
Q
=
12

2 2 2
2
z y x
g H =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 3
2
2
2

= T ML LT L ML
z
y
x

M: x
2
+ 1 = 0
L: -3x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
-1 = 0
T: -2z
2
1 = 0
x
2
= -1, z
2
= -1/2, y
2
= 3/2

2 / 1 2 / 3 1
2

= g H
2 / 1 2 / 3
2
g H

=
That is:
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 / 1 2 / 3 2 / 5 2 / 1
g H H g
Q

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Ex. The head loss per unit length (h/L) of pipe in turbulent flow
through a smooth pipe depends on v, D, , g, and . Use
Buckinghams theorem to determine the general form of the
equation.

F(h/L, v, D, , , g) = 0; 6 variables, 3 dimensions, 3 terms.

That is:
1
= (
2
,
3
).

Choose 3 repeating variables: v, D, and


1 1 1
1
x x x
D v =
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 3 1
1
1
1

= T ML ML L LT
x
x
x


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M: z
1
+ 1 = 0
L: x
1
+ y
1
3z
1
1 = 0
T: -x
1
1 = 0

Therefore: x
1
= -1, z
1
= -1, and y
1
= -1.

1 1 1
1

= D v or
vD

or Re =

vD


Final solution: { }
2
Re, Fr
L
h
=

Where Re = Reynolds number, and Fr = Froude number =
gD
v

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Hunsaker and Rightmires Method (1947)
This method is easier to use and quicker than Buckinghams
method. The method is similar the Buckinghams method by use of
repeating variables, but express them in term of the variables
themselves.
e.g. D to represent Length, [L] = D
v to represent Time, [T] = L/v = D/v
r to represent Mass, [M] = L
3
= D
3

1
: g = L T
-2
= v
2
D D
-2
= v
2
D
-1
,

therefore
1
=
gD
v
2

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2
: = M L
-1
T
-1
= vD
D
v D

=
2
3

Therefore:
2
= Re =

vD

3
=
L
h
, as before.

Example: A spherical drop of liquid of diameter D oscillates under
the influence of its surface tension. Investigate the frequency of
oscillation f.

F(f,, D, ) = 0 Ans:
3
D
K f

=


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Matrix Method

Best for problems with many variables. Can be solved using a
matrix inversion routine.

Consider a problem with 7 variables in 4 dimensions (M, L, T, )

First form the dimensional matrix:


a b c d e f g
M
L
T


A B


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We need to transform the above matrix to:


a b c d e f g
a

b

c

d
1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1


I = A
-1
A D = A
-1
B

A
-1
= adj A/ |A|

Whatever operation was done to get the unit matrix on the left
must be also done on the right to get D.
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Eg. Consider the earlier problem of the head loss per unit length.

F(h/L, v, g, D, , ) = 0


v D g h/L
M

L

T
1 0 0

-3 1 1

0 -1 0
0 1 0

1 -1 0

-2 -1 0

A B

Inverse of A can be obtained using Minitab, Matlab, or by
hand.

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(
(
(

1 1 3
1 0 0
0 0 1
1
A D =
(
(
(

(
(
(

0 1 2
0 1 1
0 1 0
1 1 3
1 0 0
0 0 1


D =
(
(
(

0 1 1
0 1 2
0 1 0



The three terms are:
(

L
h
vD
v
gD
, ,
2

The matrix method can obtain the terms all in one go instead of
one term at a time.
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Comments about Dimensional Analysis

Most important but most difficult problem in applying DA to
any problem is the selection of the variables involved. There is
no easy way of identifying the correct variables without
specialized knowledge about the phenomenon being
investigated.

If you select too many variables, you get too many terms and
may require much additional experimentation to eliminate
them.

If important variables are omitted, then an incorrect result will
be obtained, which may prove to be costly and difficult to
ascertain.

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Type of variables:

1. Geometry length, angles, diameter, or area.
2. Material properties , , elasticity, etc.
3. External effects any variable that tends to produce a
change in the system e.g. forces, pressures, velocities,
gravity, etc.
You need to keep the number of variables to a minimum, and that
they are independent. E.g. D and Area need not be included
together because one is derived from the other. Therefore, heavy
thinking is required in variable selection similar to DOE.

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Points to consider in the selection of variables:

1. Clearly define the problem. What is the main response
variable of interest? That is, what is Y?

2. Consider the basic laws that govern the phenomenon. Even a
crude theory may be useful.

3. Start the selection process by grouping the variables in the 3
broad classes: geometry, material properties, and external
effects.

4. Consider other variables that may not fall into one of the
three categories, e.g. time, temperature, colour, equipment,
etc.
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5. Be sure to include all quantities that enter the problem even
though some of them may be held constant e.g. g. For D.A.
it is the dimensions of the quantities that are important not
specific values.

6. Make sure that all variables are independent look for
relationships among subsets of the variables (same as DOE).


Remember that after a dimensional analysis, you still need to
carry out the experiment to relate the dimensionless groups.
Hence DOE may be needed unless you have only 1 or 2
terms.

More on this later.
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More on terms

Specific terms obtained depend on the somewhat arbitrary
selection of repeating variables. For example, if we choose:

, D, g instead of , D, v, we would end up with a different set of
terms. Both results would be correct, and both would lead to
the same final equation for h/L, however, the function relating
the different terms would be different.

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Hence, there is not a unique set of terms which arises from a
dimensional analysis. However the required number of terms is
fixed, and once a correct set is determined all other possible sets
can be developed from this set by combination of products of the
original set.
e.g. if we have problem involving 3 terms,

1
= (
2
,
3
)
we can combine the terms to give a new term:
b a
3 2
'
2
=
Then the relationship could be expressed as: ( )
3
'
2 1
, =
Or even: ( )
3
'
2 1
, =
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All these would be correct; however, the required number of
terms cannot be reduced by this manipulation; only the form of
the terms is altered.

e.g.

vD
v
pD
=

=
2
2
1
;
v
pD vD
v
pD

2
2
2 1
1
1

=

= =

Which form of p terms is best? There is no simple answer. Best
to keep it simple. Some p terms are well-known dimensionless
numbers like Reynolds, Froude, Mach, Weber, Cauchy, Euler,
etc.
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Correlation of Experimental Data

One of the most important uses of dimensional analysis is an aid
in the efficient handling, interpretation, and correlation of
experimental data.

As noted earlier, DA cannot provide a complete answer and a
specific relationship among the terms cannot be determined
without experimentation. The degree of difficulty obviously
depends on the number of terms.

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Problems with:

1 term = C where C = a constant
2 terms
1
= f(
2
) simple regression problem
> 2 terms
1
= f(
2
,
3
) multiple regression problem

With more and more terms, a DOE approach may be needed as
in Problem 4 of assignment 2 and may require the use of RSM if
relationship is nonlinear.


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Eg 1: The pressure drop per unit length, p/L for the flow of
blood through a horizontal small diameter tube is a function of
flow rate Q, diameter D, and the blood viscosity . For a series
of test with D = 2 mm and = 0.004 Ns/m
2
, the following data
were obtained for p measured over a length of 300 mm.

Q (m
3
/s) 3.6 x 10
-6
4.9 x 10
-6
6.3 x 10
-6
7.9 x 10
-6
9.8 x 10
-6

p (N/m
2
)
1.1 x 10
4
1.5 x 10
4
1.9 x 10
4
2.4 x 10
4
3.0 x 10
4


Perform a DA for this problem and make use of the data to
determine a general relationship between p and Q, one that is
valid for other values of D, L and .

Solution: 4 variables, F (p/L, D, Q, ) = 0, i.e. 4 3 = 1 term
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From D.A. (try this yourself), we get:
Q
D L p

4
) / (
= constant
Substituting the values used in the experiment,
Q
D L p

4
) / (
=
Q
p
Q
p
=

8
4
10 33 . 1
004 . 0
) 002 . 0 ( 3 . 0 /
. Using the data obtained
from the experiment,
Q
D L p

4
) / (
= [ 40.6, 40.7, 40.1 40.4 40.7]
Average for constant C = 40.5, hence:
4
5 . 40
D
Q
L
p
=

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Eg 2: A liquid flows with a velocity v through a hole in the side of
a tank. Assume that v = f(h, g, , ). Where h is the height of water
above the hole, is the density of the fluid, and the surface
tension. The density is 1000 kg/m
3
, and s = 0.074 N/m. The data
obtained by changing h and measuring v are:

V (m/s) 3.13 4.43 5.42 6.25 7.00
h (m) 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50

Plot the data using appropriate dimensional variables. Could any of
the original variables have been omitted?

Solution: 5 variables, F(v, h, g, , ) = 0, 2 terms.

From dimensional analysis,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
gh
gh
v

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gh
2
/ 3.31 x 10
4
13.3 x 10
4
28.8 x 10
4
53.0 x 10
4
82.9 x 10
4

v/(gh)
1/2
1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41 1.41

Plotting the data will show that
gh
v
is independent of

2
gh
, which
means that and can be omitted.

Of course this is well-known if one were to apply the Bernoulli
equation to solve the problem.
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References:

Chapter 2, 3, 4 notes from course website.

Thomas Szirtes (1998): Applied Dimensional Analysis and
Modeling, McGraw Hill, 790 pages.

Most books in physics and fluid mechanics.