Causitive HAVE HAVE + DIRECT OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE In this construction, in which the causitive use o the ver!

have is e"#resse$, have %eans &cause&, that is have sth' $one !( s!$' e)se' It*s use$ when (ou $on*t want to $o sth' (ourse) so (ou arran+e or s!$' e)se, +enera))( a #ro essiona), to $o it or (ou' Get is so%eti%es use$ in this construction instea$ o have' This construction is #assive in %eanin+' He has his teeth chec,e$ re+u)ar)(' Does he have his teeth chec,e$ re+u)ar)(He $oesn*t have the% chec,e$ re+u)ar)(' He %ust +et the% chec,e$ to%orrow' Emphatic DO The au"i)iar( ver! DO can !e use$ or e%#hasis, es#ecia))( when contra$ictin+ a #revious state%ent. /h( $i$n*t (ou te)) %e the truth- 0But I $i$ te)) (ou the truth' I si%#)( $on*t !e)ieve (ou )ove %e' 0But I $o )ove (ou' QUESTION TAGS These are short a$$itions to sentences, as,in+ or a+ree%ent or con ir%ation' A ter nea+ative sentences, we use the or$inar( interro+ative, an$ a ter a ir%ative state%ents we use the ne+ative interro+ative. He s%o,es, doesn't heShe isn*t stu$(in+ %usic, is sheHe wasn*t $rivin+ the car, was heThe( went awa(, didn't they1ou haven*t !een here or a )on+ ti%e, have youThe( cou)$ un$erstan$ hi%, couldn't they2OTE that state%ents containin+ wor$s such as neither, no 3a$4ective5, none, no one, nobo !, nothin", scarce#!, bare#!, har #!, har #! ever, se# om, rare#!, etc' are treate$ as ne+ative state%ents. 2o sa)t is a))owe$, is it2othin+ was sai$, was itPeter har$)( ever +oes to #arties, does he2OTE that when the su!4ect o the sentence is an!one, an!bo !, no one, nobo !, none, neither, ever!bo !, ever!one, somebo !, someone we use the #ronoun the! as su!4ect o the ta+. I $on*t su##ose an(one wi)) vo)unteeer, will they2o one wou)$ o!4ect, would they' 2either o the% co%#)aine$, did theyEver(one warne$ (ou, didn't theySo%eone ha$ reco+ni6e$ hi%, hadn't theyALSO 2OTE. I a% ver( s%art, am I not$ aren%t ILet*s +o out, sha## &eC)ose the $oor, &i## !ou-

The 'assive Voice It is use$ when the %ain interest is in the ver! activit( an$ the #erson $oin+ the action is un,nown, uni%#ortant or un$erstoo$' I the a+ent res#onsi!)e or the action is necessar( to %a,e the %eanin+ c)ear, it o))ows the ver! with B1' The su!4ect o a #assive sentence is the o!4ect o an active sentence' /hen the a+ent is an in$e inite #ronoun or the noun&#eo#)e& it*s usua))( o%itte$' The ver! in the #assive consists o the au"i)iar( ver! BE 3 which is in the sa%e or% as the ver! in the active sentence5 an$ the #ast #artici#)e o the %ain ver!. The Present Si%#)e Passive A7, IS, ARE + #ast #artici#)e The Present Continuous Passive. A7, IS, ARE BEI28 + #ast #artici#)e The Present Per ect Passive. HAVE, HAS BEE2 + #ast #artici#)e The Past Si%#)e Passive. /AS, /ERE + #ast #artici#)e The Past Continuous Passive. /AS, /ERE BEI28 + #ast #artici#)e The Past Per ect Passive. HAD BEE2 + #ast #artici#)e Passive with the %o$a)s. 7o$a) ver! + BE + #ast #artici#)e

A)so there are the #assive or%s o in initive, +erun$ an$ #artici#)e' Sentences !e+innin+ &The( sa(& or &Peo#)e sa(& are o ten e"#resse$ in the #assive or%. Active. The( sa(9Peo#)e sa( that he is ver( ta)ente$' Passive. :' It is sai$ that he is ver( ta)ente$' ;' He is sai$ to !e ver( ta)ente$' Other ver!s which can ta,e this #assive construction are. thin(, )ee#, e*pect, (no&, be#ieve, un erstan , consi er, )in , report, suppose. Active. Ever(!o$( ,nows that this (oun+ %an is ver( c)ever' Passive. :' It is ,nown that this (oun+ %an is ver( c)ever' ;' This (oun+ %an is ,nown to !e ver( c)ever' The in initive construction in the #assive $e#en$s on whether or not the ver! in the noun c)ause re ers to the sa%e ti%e as the ver! in the %ain c)ause' I the ti%e is the sa%e use the #resent in initive' I the ver! in the noun c)ause re ers to a ti%e !e ore the ver! in the %ain c)ause, use the #er ect in initive. It is sai$ that he is c)ever' He is sai$ to !e c)ever' It was sai$ that he was c)ever' He was sai$ to !e c)ever' It is sai$ that he has $one it' He is sai$ to have $one it' It is sai$ that he $i$ it' He is sai$ to have $one it' It was sai$ that he ha$ $one it' He was sai$ to have $one it' ALSO It is sai$ that he is wor,in+ here' He is sai$ to !e wor,in+ here' It is sai$ that he was wor,in+ here' He was sai$ to have !een wor,in+ here'

SU+,UNCTIVE The Present Su!4unctive. :' I own :' we own ;' (ou own ;' (ou own <' he9she9it own <' the( own The Past Su!4unctive. :' I owne$ :' we owne$ ;' (ou owne$ ;' (ou owne$ <' he9she9it owne$ <' the( owne$ The Past Per ect Su!4unctive. ha$ owne$9ha$ !een or a)) #ersons

:' I !e :' we !e ;' (ou !e ;' (ou !e <' he9she9it !e <' the( !e :' I were :' we were ;' (ou were ;' (ou were <' he9she9it were <' the( were

It is use$. :' in su!or$inate c)auses a ter. I &ish, i), as i), as thou"h, i) on#!, it%s -hi"h,about. time, I% rather, &ou# to Go ,ima"ine, suppose, supposin", etc' to e"#ress wishes an$ re+rets. #resent. I) on#! I were (ou' #ast. I) on#! I ha$ !een (ou' uture. I) on#! I wou)$ !e (ou' 1ou can use /AS or the :st an$ the <r$ #erson sin+u)ar with I &ish' ;' In con$itiona) c)auses. #resent. I I were (ou, I wou)$n*t +o there' #ast. I I ha$ !een (ou, I wou)$n*t have $one that' <' in THAT c)auses a ter the ver!s. or er, insist, recommen , eman , re/uest, as(, propose, su""est, a vocate ru#e, a vise, a"ree, arran"e, comman , etc' 3 on)( the #resent su!4unctive is use$ here5' The or% SHO=LD + in initive is a)so #ossi!)e here in British En+)ish.

The( re>ueste$ that the %one( be$ shou# be re#ai$ at once' He su++ests that she sta!$shou# sta! here' ?' in su!or$inate c)auses o #ur#ose a ter. that, )or )ear that, #est3 on)( the #resent su!4unctive is use$ here5' The or% SHO=LD + in initive is a)so #ossi!)e here in British En+)ish. /e eat )est we ie$shou# ie0 @' in THAT c)auses a ter. it is better$ esirab#e$important$essentia#$necessar!$improbab#e$stran"e$vita#$etc' 3on)( the #resent su!4unctive is use$ here5' The or% SHO=LD + in initive is a)so #ossi!)e here in British En+)ish. It is i%#ortant that ever( chi)$ have$shou# have a +oo$ e$ucation' A' in certain e#ressions. as it were, if I were you; were I you, be that as it may, (God) bless you!,come Monday (Tuesday, etc.), come what may, (God) damn it!, far be it from 3or for5 me, till death do us art, God save our !racious "ueen; lon! live our noble "ueen., #eaven forfend$forbid, so be it, suffice it to say, woe betide, eace be with you, lon! live the %in!, the owers that be, albeit 3a s(nthesis o all be it, i'e' althou!h it be5, truth be told, rue the day, would that it were, God rest ye merry !entlemen, etc' CONDITIONA1S BERO CO2DITIO2AL This t(#e o con$itiona) c)auses re ers to &a)) ti%e&, not 4ust #resent, #ast or uture' It $enotes +enera) truths, an$ the con4uction IC can !e re#)ace$ here !( when, whenever, every time& I2 3 'resent Simp#e, 'resent Simp#e I (ou water (our #)ants, the( +row' T1PE : This t(#e re ers to the #resent or uture' It*s rea), %eanin+ that it e"#resses rea) con$itions' Since the con$ition is #ossi!)e, its resu)t is a)so #ro!a!)e' I2 3 'resent Simp#e, 4I11$CAN$5A6 3 in)initive Imperative I (ou !u( a car, it wi))9can9%a( cost (ou a )ot' I (ou !u( a car, $rive it care u))(' A,o ,u#iD auto, to Ee te ,oDtati9%oFe $a te ,oDta9%oF$a Ee ,oDtati #uno' A,o ,u#iD auto, vo6i +a #aF)4ivo'

T1PE ; This t(#e re ers to the #resent an$ the uture, !ut its unrea), that is it e"#resses unrea) con$itions, there ore the resu)ts o such con$itions are a)so unrea)' Since this t(#e is unrea) an$ h(#othetica), we have to e"#ress the unrea)it( !( usin+ the su!4unctive. I2 3 'ast Simp#e, 4OU1D$COU1D$5IGHT 3 in)initive I (ou invite$ %e, I wou)$ +o to (our #art(' Ga$a !i %e #o6vao, otiD)a !ih na tvo4u Fur,u' I I were (ou, I wou)$n*t $o it' Da sa% na tvo% %estu, ne !ih to ura$i)a' A)thou+h the or% o the #ast su!4unctive o TO BE is /ERE or a)) #ersons, the or% /AS is #ossi!)e in the <r$ #erson sin+u)ar. I it were9was war%er, I*$ +o swi%%in+' Da 4e to#)i4e, iDao !ih na #)ivan4e' T1PE < This t(#e re ers to the #ast an$ it is unrea)' The con$ition is unrea), there ore its resu)t is i%#ro!a!)e' Because it*s unrea) an$ h(#othetica), the su!4unctive is use$.

I2 3 'ast 'er)ect, 4OU1D$COU1D$5IGHT 3 the per)ect in)initive I (ou ha$ +iven %e her #hone nu%!er, I wou)$ have ca))e$ her' Da si %i $ao n4en !ro4, 4a !ih 4e #o6vao'

7IHED CO2DITIO2ALS So%eties the con$ition %a( re er to the #resent an$ its resu)t to the #ast, an$ vice versa' In that case we use the %i"e$ con$itiona)s. I I ,new (ou !etter, I wou)$ have +uesse$ that (ou $i$ it' Da te !o)4e 6na%, #ret#ostavi)a !ih $a si ti to ura$io' unrea) #resent unrea) #ast I I ha$ inishe$ %( ho%ewor, (ester$a( I wou)$n*t have an C now' Da sa% 4uIe ura$io $o%aEi, sa$a ne !ih unrea) #ast unrea) #resent i%ao 4e$inicu' ' CO2J=2CTIO2S instea$ o IC even i) J even thou"h 1ou %ust +o to%orrow i (ou are rea$(' J 1ou %ust +o to%orrow even i (ou aren*t rea$(' &hether000or J i)000or 1ou %ust +o to%orrow whether (ou are rea$( or not' un#ess + a ir%ative ver! J i) + ne+ative ver! I (ou $on*t strat at once, (ou wi)) !e )ate' J =n)ess (ou start at once, (ou wi)) !e )ate' but )or J i it weren*t or9i it ha$n*t !een or The car !ro,e $own' But or that we wou)$*ve !een in ti%e' 7( #arents #a( or %( stu$ies' But or that I wou)$n*t !e here' other&ise J or -e#se. J i this $oesn*t ha##en9$i$n*t ha##en9ha$n*t ha##ene$ /e %ust !e !ac, !e ore %i$ni+ht' Otherwise, we wi)) !e )oc,e$ out' /e %ust !e ear)( or we won*t +et a seat' provi e $provi in" -that., as$so #on" as J on con$ition that 1ou can #)a( here #rovi$e$ (ou )eave no %ess suppose$supposin"$ima"ine 0007 J what i '''/hat wi)) ha##en i the #)ane is )ate-J /hat i the #)ane is )ate- J Su##ose the #)ane is )ateI%a+ine (ou were rich, what wou)$ (ou !u(in case J i I*)) sta( in in case it rains' In %ore or%a) st()es IC can !e $ro##e$ an$ the au"i)iar( ver! inverte$. I (ou were to >uestion %e a!out the %atter, I wou)$ $en( a)) ,now)e$+e' J 4ere !ou to >uestion %e, ''' I I ha$ ,nown who he was, I wou)$*ve in or%e$ (ou' J Ha I (no&n who he was, ''' I the %eetin+ )asts )on+er, I*)) +ive (ou a ca))' J Shou# the meetin" #ast )on+er, ''' SEQUENCE O2 TENSES /hen the %ain ver! o a sentence is in a #ast tense, ver!s in su!or$inate c)auses are nor%a))( in a #ast tense a)so. The Present Si%#)e00000000000000000000000000000000000 The Past Si%#)e The Present Continuous 00000000000000000000000000000 The Past Continuous The Present Per ect00000000000000000000000000000000000 The Past Per ect The Present Per ect Continuous00000000000000000000 The Past Per ect Continuous The Past Si%#)e000000000000000000000000000000000000000 The Past Per ect The Past Continuous000000000000000000000000000000000 The Past Per ect Continuous The Past Per ect000000000000000000000000000000000000000 The Past Per ect The Past Per ect Continuous0000000000000000000000000 The Past Per ect Continuous wi)), can, sha)), %a(, %ust000000000000000000000000000 wou)$, cou)$, shou)$, %i+ht, ha$ to

So%e a$ver!ia)s are a)so chan+e$. now0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000then to$a(000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000that $a(, the sa%e $a( to%orrow0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000the ne"t $a(, the o))owin+ $a( (ester$a(0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000the #revious $a(, the $a( !e ore ne"t wee,9%onth9(ear000000000000000000000000000000the o))owin+ wee,9%onth9(ear9etc' )ast wee,9%onth9(ear0000000000000000000000000000000the wee,9%onth9(ear9etc' !e ore a+o00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000!e ore this9these0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000that9those here0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000there The ru)e o se>uence o tenses is not a##)ie$. :' with +enera) truths an$ state%ents. &The Sun rises in the East an$ sets in the /est'& He sai$ that the Sun rises in the East an$ sets in the /est' ;' with =SED TO + in initive. &He use$ to +o out ever( ni+ht )ast (ear'& She sai$ that he use$ to +o out ever( ni+ht the (ear !e ore' <' with the secon$ an$ thir$ t(#e o con$itiona) c)auses. &I I were (ou, I wou)$n*t +o there'& He sai$ that he wou)$n*t +o there i he were %e' &I I ha$n*t $one it, I wou)$n*t have +one awa(' He sai$ that he wou)$n*t have +one awa( i he ha$n*t $one it' ?' with the su!4unctive. &I wish (ou were here'& He sai$ that he wishe$ (ou were there' @' %o$a) 7=ST, e"ce#t when it si+ni ies #ersona) o!)i+ation. &It %ust !e rainin+'& He sai$ that it %ust !e rainin+' &/e %ust o!e( the ru)es& He sai$ that we %ust o!e( the ru)es' B=T &7ust (ou +o there !( car-& He as,e$ %e i I ha$ to +o there !( car' INDI8ECT S'EECH I2DIRECT STATE7E2TS In$irect state%ents are intro$uce$ !( the ver!s SA1 an$ TELL 3usua))(5 an$ the con4uction THAT' I the intro$uctor( ver! is in a #ast tense, the ru)e o se>uence o tenses is a##)ie$. &I $on*t ,now (ou'& He te))s %e that he doesn't %now me' He to)$ %e that he didn't %now me' I2DIRECT K=ESTIO2S In$irect >uestions are intro$uce$ !( the ver!s ASG, /O2DER, /A2T TO G2O/ 3+enera))(5 an$ the con4uctions IC or /HETHER 3 or 1es92o >uestions5, that is the >uestion wor$ ro% the /H0>uestion' I the intro$uctor( ver! is in a #ast tense, the ru)e o se>uence o tenses is a##)ie$' The wor$ or$er o an in$irect >uestion is the sa%e as o a state%ent' &Do (ou see that %an-& He as,s %e i I see that man' He as,e$ %e i I saw that man' S P S P &/here $i$ (ou +o (ester$a(-& He as,s %e where I went yesterday' S P He as,e$ %e where I had !one the day S P before.

I2DIRECT CO77A2DS The( are intro$uce$ usua))( !( the ver!s TELL an$ ORDER' The ver! is in the in initive. &O#en the $oor'& He te))s %e to o#en the $oor' He to)$ %e to o#en the $oor' &Don*t ca)) %e to%orrow'& He te))s3to)$5 %e not to ca)) hi% to%orrow3the ne"t $a(5' &Te)) %e the truth, #)ease'& He as,e$ %e to te)) hi% the truth' OTHER I2TROD=CTOR1 VERBS So%eti%es, so%e other ver!s can !e use$ to intro$uce in$irect s#eech. &P)ease, #)ease ca)) %e'& He !e++e$ %e to ca)) hi%' &I $i$n*t $o it'& He $enie$ havin+ $one it' &1ou shou)$ see a $octor'& He a$vise$ %e to see a $octor' &I $on*t want to $o it'& He re use$ to $o it' &Be care u), the roo is +oin+ to a))' He warne$ %e the roo was +oin+ to a))' &/ou)$ (ou )i,e so%e co ee-& He o ere$ %e so%e co ee'

C1AUSES 2O=2 CLA=SES The( are intro$uce$ !( IC, /HETHER, THAT, or !( a >uestion wor$ 3/HICH, /HAT, /H15' A noun c)ause $oes the wor, o a noun or #ronoun, that is, it unctions as the su!4ect or o!4ect o a ver! or as a co%#)e%ent o the su!4ect or an a$4ective' 4hat he sai sur#rise$ ever(!o$(' 3as su!4ect5 2o one ,new i) the! &ere comin"' 3as o!4ect5 The i$ea was that &e shou# a## "o to"ether0 3as co%#)e%ent o the su!4ect5 /e are sure that ever!thin" &i## be 9ust )ine' 3as co%#)e%ent o an a$4ective5 The con4unction THAT is o ten o%itte$ e"ce#t when the c)ause unctions as the su!4ect o the ver!. That he was co%in+ %a$e ever(!o$( ha##(' He ,nows 3that5 he is wron+' RELATIVE CLA=SES The( are intro$uce$ !( the re)ative #ronouns. &ho, &hom, &hose, &hich, that or #ersons an$ thin+s an$ the a$ver!s &hen an$ &here' A re)ative c)ause #rovi$es in or%ation a!out a noun or #ronoun' There are two t(#es o re)ative c)auses. $e inin+ an$ non0$e inin+. :' $e inin+ 3restrictive5re)ative c)ause is a c)ause that is essentia) to the %eanin+ o the sentence. The oot!a))er who won the #ri6e #)a(s or our tea%' The re)ative #ronoun can !e o%itte$ i it is the o!4ect o the ver! or o the #re#osition in the c)ause. This is the house 3that9which5 Jac, !ui)t' This is the +ir) 3that9who9who%5 I %et at the #art(' 1ou can even urther shorten a $e inin+ re)ative c)ause 3a continuous tense can !e shortene$ to a #resent #artici#)e an$ the #assive can !e shortene$ to a #ast #artici#)e5. The +ir) 3who is5 co%in+ over to +reet us is %( sister' The i)% 3that was5 shown (ester$a( was an i%%e$iate success' De inin+ re)ative #ronouns sub'ect ob'ect re osition ossessive eo le who9that 3that9who%5 3that9who%5'''#re#osition whose thin!s that9which 3that9which5 3that9which5'''#re#osition o which9whose

;' non0$e inin+3non0restrictive5 re)ative c)ause is a c)ause which a$$s in or%ation that is not essentia) to the %eanin+ o the sentence. I)iE, who won the #ri6e, #)a(s or our tea%' These c)auses are se#arate$ ro% the rest o the sentence !( co%%as an$ (ou can*t use the #ronoun THAT in a non0$e inin+ re)ative c)ause, an$ (ou can*t o%it the re)ative #ronoun' 2on0$e inin+ re)ative #ronouns sub'ect ob'ect re osition ossessive eo le ''', who''', ''', who%''', ''', #re#'+who%''',9 ''', who3%5'''#re#, ''', whose''', thin!s ''', which'', ''', which''', ''', #re#'+which''',9''',which'''#re#, ''', o which''', 9''', whose''',

ADVERBIAL CLA=SES :' A$ver!ia) c)auses o concession A$ver!ia) c)auses o concession 3or contrast5 are intro$uce$ !( a#thou"h, even i), even thou"h, thou"h, no matter, ho&ever, neverthe#ess, in spite o), espite, &hatever' The( e"#ress contrast. No matter &hat I o, no!o$( is ever satis ie$' A#thou"h he #ives ne*t oor, I $on*t rea))( ,now hi%'

;'A$ver!ia) c)auses o ti%e are intro$uce$ !( &hen, as soon as, b! the time -that., be)ore, &hi#e, a)ter, -not. unti#' It te))s us when so%ethin+ ha##ens. I*)) )et (ou ,now &hen I hear somethin" e)inite' These c)auses can !e shortene$ !( usin+ #artici#)es 3see #artici#)es5' I there is a s)i+ht $i erence in ti%e, we use on + #resent #artici#)e, an$ i the actions are si%u)taneous we use the #artici#)e. On enterin+ the roo%, he wa),e$ over to the win$ow' Enterin+ the roo%, he )oo,e$ aroun$ to see who was there' <'A$ver!ia) c)auses o #)ace are intro$uce$ !( &here or &herever' The( te)) us where so%ethin+ ta,es #)ace. She )i,es to +o &herever her )rien s "o' ?' A$ver!ia) c)auses o %anner are intro$uce$ !( as, as i), as thou"h, #i(e' The( te)) us how so%ethin+ is $one. He $i$ the e"ercises as his teacher instructe ' She acts as i) she rea##! #i(es me' 3 I thin, she $oes )i,e %e'5 B=T i a c)ause !e+innin+ with as i), as thou"h re ers to so%ethin+ that is not rea))( true, we use the su!4unctive. She acts as i she )i,e$ %e' 3 She #ro!a!)( $oesn*t )i,e %e'5 She acts as thou+h she were the !oss' 3She #ro!a!)( isn*t the !oss'5 @' A$ver!ia) c)auses o co%#arison are intro$uce$ !( as, as$so000as, than' The( are use$ or %a,in+ co%#arisons. The tra ic wasn*t as ba as it &as !ester a!' I $o %ore wor, than m! )rien s o' A' A$ver!ia) c)auses o #ur#ose are intro$uce$ !( so that, in or er that' The( e"#ress #ur#ose' In sentences re errin+ to #ast ti%e, a %o$a) 3cou)$, shou)$, %i+ht5 is +enera))( use$ in the c)ause o #ur#ose. Let*s shut the win$ows so that nei"hbours on%t$&on%t comp#ain' The( !ou+ht the #aint in or er that the &or(ers mi"ht be"in t paint the house' L' A$ver!ia) c)auses o cause 3or reason5 are intro$uce$ !( as, !eacause, since, or' The( te)) us wh( sth' ha##ene$' Since &e &ere p#annin" the part!, we sent the invitations' These c)auses can !e shortene$ !( usin+ the #artici#)es 3see the #artici#)es5' CON,UNCTIONS :' Co0or$inatin+ con4unctions are an , but, both000an , or, either000or, neither000nor, not on#!000but a#so Both %en an$ wo%en were %a$e to co%e' He can*t 3either5 rea$ or write' 2ot on)( %en !ut a)so wo%en were chosen' He can neither rea$ nor write' Either an$ neither ta,e a sin+u)ar ver! or%' ;' besi esJin a$$ition to, in a$$ition . <' there)oreJso . Besi$es $oin+ the coo,in+, I )oo, a ter the +ar$en' I can*t +o' I*% !us(' Besi$es, I have nothin+ to wear'

There are %an( #eo#)e here, there ore the #art( wi)) !e or+ani6e$ here' 1ou aren*t rich' Sti)), (ou can $o so%ethin+ to he)# hi%' The( are ver( e"#ensive, (et #eo#)e !u( the%'

?' sti## J a$%ittin+ that, neverthe)ess.

@' !et J in s#ite o that9a)) the sa%e9 neverthe)ess.

'8ONOUNS Persona) #ronouns. I, you, he, she, it, we, they. Possessive $eter%iners. my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Possessive #ronouns. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. De%onstratives. this$that, these$those. Re )e"ive #ronouns. myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

In$e inite #ronouns an$ $eter%iners. some, any, somebody, someone, somethin!, anybody, anyone, anythin!, one, ones. 2e+ative #ronouns an$ $eter%iners. nobody, no one, none. Kuanti iers. everybody, everyone, everythin!, each, all, both, much, many, a little, little, a few, few, each other( or two #eo#)e5, one another3 two, three our or %ore5' Interro+atives. who, whom, whose, what, which. Re)ative #ronouns. who, whom, whose, which, what, that whatever, whoever. 4O8D O8DE8 :' I2VERSIO2 /hen ne+ative e"#ressions-not, never, not on#!, har #!, scarce#!, se# om, rare#!, no&here, #itt#e, neither, nor, 000no000, no sooner5 are #)ace$ at the !e+innin+ o a sentence, the nor%a) su!4ect 0 ver! or$er is inverte$, an$ the su!4ect co%es a ter the ver! 3 usua))( an au"i)iar( ver! or a %o$a)5. 2ot a soun$ $i$ he %a,eM 2ot on)( cou)$ she sin+ we)), !ut she cou)$ even $ance won$er u))(' =n$er no circu%stances can (ou )eave so ear)(' ;' 2EITHER, 2OR, SO Neither an$ nor show #artici#ation in a #revious ne+ative state%ent. I can*t +o there' 2either can she' He $i$n*t #hone %e' 2or $i$ she' So shows a+ree%ent with the #rece$in+ re%ar, or #artici#ation in the action it $escri!es' The Cana$ians s#ea, En+)ish' So $o the Austra)ians' <' HERE, THERE Here an$ there can !e #ut at the !e+innin+ o a sentence, an$ in this case the su!4ect o ten co%es a ter the ver! un)ess the su!4ect is a #ersona) #ronoun. Here co%es the !usM Here is the ,e(M There +oes our train' Here co%es the !ri$eM B=T There she +oesM ?' In narrative te"ts with $ia)o+ues the su!4ect o ten co%es a ter the re#ortin+ ver!, es#ecia))( i the su!4ect is a )on+ one, !ut i the su!4ect is a #ronoun, we use the nor%a) wor$ or$er. &Let*s +oM& sai$ Joe' &OG,& I answere$' '8E'OSITIONS :' Pre#ositions o #)ace. AT, I2, O2 AT is use$ to e"#ress a )ocation at a #oint' It su++ests two $i%ensions' AT is %ain)( use$ with. 0 events. at a #art(, at a concert, at a $inner, at a unera), at a %eetin+, at a we$$in+ 0 a resses. at his +ran$%other*s, at ;; Oa, Street 0 nouns &ith :ero artic#e. at schoo), at ho%e, at sea 0 pub#ic p#aces, bui# in"s. at the station, at the !us sto#, at the #ost o ice, at the che%ist*s I2 is use$ to e"#ress a #osition insi$e a #)ace' It su++ests three $i%ensions' It is %ain)( use$ with. 0 #ar"e areas. in A rica, in the Sahara, in the Paci ic 0 outsi e areas. in the +ar$en, in the ie)$ 0 to&ns, parts o) to&ns. in Be)+ra$e, in Vracar 0 rooms. in the ,itchen, in the !athroo%, in the !e$roo% 0 nouns &ith :ero artic#e. in !e$ in church, in hos#ita), in #rison O2 is %ain)( use$ to $enote the #osition o so%ethin+ on the sur ace. on the ta!)e, on the !us, on the )e t ;' Pre#osition o $irection an$ %ove%ent. TO9CRO7, I2TO9O=T OC, O2TO9OCC She has !een to Lon$on' She has 4ust co%e !ac, )rom Lon$on' She went into the su#er%ar,et' She ca%e out o) the su#er%ar,et' The cat c)i%!e$ onto the couch' The chi)$ e)) o)) the chair'

/e trave) )rom our startin+ #)ace to our $estination' /e sen$9#ost )etters to #eo#)e an$ #)aces' /e arrive in a town or countr(, at or in a vi))a+e, at an( other $estination' Get to can !e use$ with an( other $estination an$ so can reach 3without #re#ositions5' 1ou can a)so "et in a $estination, which %eans &arrive at a $estination&' It*s chie )( use$ o trains. /hat ti%e $oes the train +et in/e can use a verb o) motion 3 home without a #re#osition. It too, us an hour to +et home' The( went home' B=T i ho%e is i%%e$iate)( #rece$e$ !( a wor$ or #hrase a #re#osition is necessar(. She returne$ 3to her #arent*s5 ho%e' /e can trave) +6 car3 !ut in the9%(9To%*s car5, b! !us9train9#)ane9he)ico#ter9etc' an$ b! sea9air' /e can a)so trave) b! a certain route 3 e'+' /e went b! the 7?'5, or !( a certain #)ace 3thou+h via is %ore usua)5' /e can wa), or +o on oot' /e can c(c)e or +o on a !ic(c)e or b! !ic(c)e' /e can ri$e or +o on horse!ac,' /e +et in$into a #u!)ic or #rivate vehic)e' /e +et on$onto a #u!)ic vehic)e' But we +o on boar a !oat 3Je%!ar,5' /e +et on$onto a horse9ca%e)9!ic(c)e' /e +et out9out o) #u!)ic9#rivate vehic)e, a horse, a !ic(c)e, etc' /e +et o)) a #u!)ic vehic)e, a horse , a !ic(c)e, etc' <' Pre#ositions o ti%e. AT, O2, I2, B1. AT is use$ !e ore an e"act ti%e, %ea) ti%es, ho)i$a(s, estiva)s, the wor$s ti%e, ni+ht an$ a+e. I !e+an %( wor, at :N an$ inishe$ it at %i$ni+ht9noon9$awn' /e*)) see (ou at )unch' /i)) (ou !e ho%e at Christ%asHe was in In$ia at that ti%e' Chi)$ren start schoo) at the a+e o si"' O2 is use$ !e ore $a(s o the wee, 3a)one or with #arts o the $a(5, a #articu)ar $a( o the %onth, anniversaries an$ ho)i$a(s. /i)) (ou co%e to %( #)ace on Sun$a(- /i)) (ou co%e on Sun$a( a ternoonI was !orn on 7a(:st, :OP<' 3B=T I was !orn in 7a('5 There wi)) !e a concert on TV on 2ew 1ear*s Da(' /e arrive$ on the %ornin+ o the si"th' I2 is use$ !e ore the na%e o a %onth, a (ear when +iven a)one, seasons an$ #erio$s o ti%e, an$ it is use$ with an artic)e !e ore #arts o the $a(. It a)) !e+an in Se#te%!er' /e %ove$ here in ;NNN' Da(s are short in winter' I can wa), ro% %( #)ace to (ours in ten %inutes' I*)) ca)) (ou in the %ornin+' B1, %eanin+ not )ater than, is use$ !e ore an e"act ti%e, $a(, %onth or (ear. I*)) !e ho%e b! si" o*c)oc,' /e*)) )earn a )ot b! June' O2 ti%e J at the ti%e arran+e$, not !e ore, not a ter. The train starte$ on time' I2 ti%e9I2 ti%e or + noun J not )ate. Passen+ers shou) !e in time )or their train' I2 ti%eJa ter a #erio$ o ti%e. He wi)) see the chan+es in the co%#an( in time 3vre%eno%5' ?' Pre#ositions, #artic)es, etc' o ten %isuse$. a5 ABO=T or O2- 3%eanin+ &concernin+&5 a !oo, on a+ricu)ture 3 or%a)5 a !oo, about Es,i%os 3in or%a)5 !5 ACROSS or OVER- 3%eanin+ & ro% one si$e to another&5 The sho# is across$over the roa$' OVER cannot !e use$ or )ar+e areas. There is a rai)wa( across Si!eria' ACROSS is use$ to $escri!e %ove%ent throu+h water. The( swa% across the Channe)' B=T we sa( OVER a wa))9 ence3not. across5 c5 AT or A8AI2STAT is use$ or s#ee$ an$ #rice. at PN ,i)o%etres an hourQ at :N $o))ars a !a+ AT a)so %eans &ta,in+ ai%&. to throw a stone at so%e!o$( 3to hit5 to throw a !a)) to so%e!o$( 3to cath5 to throw the !a)) a"ainst the wa)) 3not ta,in+ ai%5 $5 BESIDE or BESIDESBESIDE !e ore a noun or #ronoun %eans &ne"t to&. Sit besi e %e' BESIDES with or without an o!4ect %eans &in a$$ition to& or &as we)) as&. There were ive stu$ents there besi es 3%e5'

e5 BET/EE2 or A7O28 BET/EE2 shows $ivision !etween two #eo#)e, thin+s or ti%es. Divi$e this bet&een the two o (ou' A7O28 + #)ura) noun is use$ when we want to re er to a nu%!er o #eo#)e. /ere the( amon" the #eo#)e #resent5 B1 or PASTThe( are use$ a ter ver!s o %otion 3+o, run, wa),, etc'5 to %ean &!e(on$ in s#ace or ti%e&. She went ri+ht b!$past %e without s#ea,in+' A ew $a(s went b!$past' +5 LIGE or ASLIGE 3Jco%#are with, si%i)ar to, the sa%e as, or e"a%#)e5 is o))owe$ !( a noun or #ronoun. It was #i(e a $rea%' I )oo, #i(e %( %other' AS + o!4ect %eans &in the ca#acit( o &' It e"#resses the 4o!, unction or use o a #erson or a thin+. He wor,s as a waiter' /e use the +ara+e as a stora+e #)ace' She went to the #art( $resse$ as a nun' /hen AS is use$ as a con4unction, it is o))owe$ !( a su!4ect an$ a ver!. Do as I sa( an$ sit $own' As (ou ,now, I*% )eavin+ to%orrow' AS is a)so use$ in co%#arisons. She is not as ta)) as her e)$er sister' h5 OC or OCCA noun or #ronoun o!4ect is a)wa(s use$ a ter OC, an$ we can use OCC with or without an o!4ect to su++est se#aration' It*s not nice o) hi%9Peter' Gee# o)) the +rassM /e +ot o)) the train' Ta,e the )i$ o))M Ta,e (our shoes o))M i5 OVER, ABOVE or O2 TOP OC OVER 3coverin+ so%ethin+5. Gee# the shaw) over (our shou)$ers' ABOVE 3at a hi+her )eve)5. The #)ane )ew above the c)ou$s' /e can use !oth OVER an$ ABOVE to %ean &vertica))( at a hi+her )eve)&. A he)ico#ter was above$over the shi#' But i we re er to two !ir$s on the tree, we sa( that one !ir$ is above the other 3we are concerne$ with the hi+her )eve), !ut not vertica)5' /e cannot use over' /e use !oth over an$ above to re er to ran,. A +enera) is over$above a ca#tain' O2 TOP OC 3touchin+5. Put the $ictionar( on top o) the she) ' 45 =2DER, =2DER2EATH, BELO/, BE2EATH =2DER 3covere$ !(5, =2DER2EATH 3co%#)ete)( covere$ !(5 Put a %at un er$un erneath the co ee #ot' BELO/ is the o##osite o ABOVE' It re ers to #osition' The water was 4ust be#o& %( ,nees' BE2EATH can so%eti%es !e use$ instea$ o =2DER, !ut it*s sa er to ,ee# it or a!stract %eanin+s. He wou)$ thin, it beneath hi% to te)) a )ie' 3unworth( o hi%5 She %arrie$ beneath her' 3into a )ower socia) c)ass5 ,5 CRO7, SI2CE, COR, D=RI28. CRO7 is nor%a))( use$ with TO or TILL9=2TIL. 7ost #eo#)e wor, ro% nine to ive' SI2CE is use$ or ti%e an$ it %eans & ro% that ti%e to the ti%e re erre$ to&. He*s !een here since Cri$a(' COR is use$ o a #erio$ o ti%e. )or si" (ears, )or two %onths, etc' D=RI28 is use$ with ,nown #erio$s o ti%e, i'e' #erio$s ,nown !( na%e, such as Christ%as, Easter or #erio$s which have !een a)rea$( $e ine$. urin" the 7i$$)e A+es, urin" :O?:, urin" the su%%er, urin" his chi)$hoo$, urin" %( ho)i$a(s, etc' )5 BEHI2D, I2 CRO2T OC, OPPOSITE In the theatre. To% is sittin+ in )ront o) 7ar( an$ she is sittin+ behin hi%' But i the( are havin+ a %ea). To% is sittin+ at one si$e o the ta!)e an$ 7ar( at the other' OR To% is sittin+ opposite 7ar(' OR To% is acin+ 7ar(' B=T the sentence &He stoo$ in ront o %e& cou)$ %ean &He stoo$ with his !ac, to %e'& OR &He ace$ %e'&