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SUPORT CURS LEC SEMANTICS

INTRODUCTION
Linguistics and its subfields (see for example Semantics) have a prominent place being the basis of each deepened study of words and sentences. The search of the origin of words have involved since ancient times (antiquity) many scholars who sought for not only the history but also the destiny itself of terms (nomen est omen). We need to now the forms and meanings of words but chiefly we need to !travelling in time" learning the mystery of words# the iron phonetic rules# the charm of analogies# the curiosity of apparent equalities of sounds or meaning among languages. $nd all this is given by Linguistics which is science# art and intuition.

PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE
When tal ing about language we may say that it is a system of conventionali%ed symbols by which we communicate. The main properties are& 'arbitrariness( 'symbolism( 'creativity(. '$rbitrariness( can be explained by ta ing some words as examples& dog ()nglish) cane (*talian) chat (+rench) The relationship between speech sounds and meaning is regarded as arbitrary and for this reason different languages have different speech sounds to represent the same things& *n the vocabulary of any language there is a small group of onomatopoeic words as the ma,ority words of languages are to be seen as !arbitrary". The relationship between the words and things is symbolic. -og symboli%es a certain class of quadruped .hair symboli%es a certain type of furniture .reativity is another important feature of all languages which allow new utterances to be created than s to new thoughts# experiences# situations.

Examples & The little girl ate the apple. The man ate the apple. /oth ate the apple. $ll these examples have structural similarity. /ut# for instance# the following sentence ! The rull stud the thrull" does not ma e any sense since the words have no meaning even though the structure conforms to the rules of )nglish. 0n the contrary !dog the ate bone the" does not conform to the rules of )nglish. *n other examples such as She wintered in 1exico. 2e holidayed in 3reece. 4 the verbs are created from time expressions. Thus it is clear from what * have said up to now that languages are rule4governed structures. *n each language we have the following characteristics & $ll languages have a grammar that can be more or less equal in complexity. 3rammar with its rules and elements5 Linguistic competence which correspond to nowledge of language Linguistic performance which deals with how people use their nowledge of language# that is# grammar in comprehension and production. $nd again * have to remember you the branches of Linguistics & 6honetics& the articulation and perception of speech sound5 6honology& the pattering of speech sound5 1orphology& word4formation5 Syntax& sentence formation5 Semantics& the interpretation of words and sentences5 6ragmatics& how to use things with words. More clarificatio s o t!e feat"res of la #"a#e Tal ing about 'human languages( we can say that their main feature consists in the fact that unities of meaning (signs) are arbitrary and conventional. 7othing in the sound of the words in a language allow us to discover the meaning of the words. The sound# for example# of the words !chaise"# !chair"# do not have any physical relation with the ob,ects described by these words. $ll this implies that signs (unities of meaning which form a message) are conventional and arbitrary forms. The words of a language have been chosen by human beings to represent a given

set of ob,ects# ideas# or phenomena. Spea ing the same language as someone else# then# means sharing a certain number of conventions. 0n the other hand# the meaning of a sentence is not necessarily the addition of the meaning of each word that forms it. 1oreover the same word can have more than one meaning# that is# it can be polysemic. +or example# the word 'leaf( in )nglish means either 'the leaf of a tree8plant or the page in a boo . The context in which the sentence has been produced is necessary to any ambiguity which would arise in avoiding such cases. Language seen as a mental faculty allowing oral communication is innate while the code allowing its reali%ation is learned.

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The land that time forgot


Somewhere# runs the story# in the 0%ar s# or in the $ppalachians# or in -erbyshire in )ngland# there(s a village where the locals still spea perfect )li%abethan )nglish# untouched by the vast changes which have transformed )nglish everywhere else. 7o# there isn(t& this is pure fantasy. There is no such thing as a living language which doesn(t change. This myth crops up because people occasionally notice that the local )nglish in some corner of the world preserves one or two old forms which have disappeared elsewhere. (+or example# $ppalachian )nglish preserves the adoing form# as in !* was a(shootin( at some squirrels"5 this was once universal in )nglish but has been lost everywhere else.) /ut every variety of )nglish preserves a few forms lost in other varieties# and every variety also exhibits a few innovations not found elsewhere. (+or example# $ppalachian )nglish has undergone a change in its vowels such that $ppalachian think sounds to the rest of us rather li e thank.) Similar myths have been maintained by spea ers of other languages. :ntil the eighteenth century# even some linguists believed that the ancestral language of all human ind was still spo en# in its pristine state# in some favoured corner of the world5 much in was spilt over deciding which corner this might be. (+or example# one such linguist argued for the 7etherlands# and claimed that -utch was the uncorrupted ancestral tongue of all humans. 2e was -utch# of course.) /ut all languages that are spo en change# and no language anywhere is closer than any other to the remote origins of human speech. There(s a moral here& don(t believe everything you read. 1any ,ournalists# authors of popular boo s# and especially website writers are ignorant of the facts.
+urther reading& .rystal <==>5 6ullum <==<.

SEMANTICS
-)+. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication. The word is derived from the 3ree word !semanti os" ?significant from !semaino"? to signify# to indicate and that from !sema"?sign# mar . *n linguistics# it is the study of interpretation of signs as used by communities within particular circumstances and contexts. The word semantics in its modern sense is considered to have first appeared in +rench as semantique in 1ichel /real(s boo # !Essai de semantique" <@=>.

$n understanding of semantics is essential to the study of language acquisition and of language change. *t is important for understanding language in social context# as these are li ely to affect meaning# and for understanding varieties of )nglish and effects of style. The study of semantics includes the study of how meaning is constructed# interpreted# clarified# illustrated# contradicted and paraphrased. The traditional descriptive aims of lexical semantics have been & a.to represent the meaning of each word in the language 5 $. to show how the meanings of words in a language are interrelated.

Semantics studies the meaning of words and it surely deals with the creativity of language. *mage is the representation of an ob,ect or scene which conveys only itself. *n common usage# the word 'image( refers to a physical depiction of something# as in a photographic image# or in common speech& !he is the image of his father". The words are used with the intention of describing something. /y extension# however# the image also exits in a mental representation# as in the memory or the imagination. Semantics is the field that studies the meaning of words and sentences. The main goal of linguistic description concerns a reflection of a spea er(s semantic nowledge. .ertain sentences describe the same situation (the newspapers are behind8next to the computer or the computer is in front8next to the newspapers)# other sentences contradict each other ('the computer is next to the newspapers( or 'the computer is not next to the newspapers( or else 'the newspapers are not next to the computer().

/y semantic nowledge we intend not what we now about 'newspapers or computer( but our nowledge dealing with the relations or functions expressed by items such as 'next to# behind# not(. Semantics however goes behind an encyclopedic set of definitions of linguistic expressions. The context in meaning is very important because certain aspects of meaning change with the context of 'utterance(( '$ is young( AyoungA can have different meanings Bit can be referred to Aperson (male or female)# food# place# currency# friendAC). 1eanings# in short# are held to be ob,ective# that is to say# they are not dependent on the ways any given person happens to understand them# autonomous and disembodied. This means that they should be considered as independent of what men8women in general do in spea ing# understanding# and acting. We can added another feature called 'compositionality( whose aim consists in defining inherent properties which belong to abstract ob,ects by analysing them in terms of components# i.e. !smaller" ob,ects more !primitive" concepts and the li e. +urthermore# it is nown that words # sentences# texts# and discourses have meaning in themselves. The meaning# for instance# of a given linguistic ob,ect can be unearthed than s to a sophisticated linguistic analysis that intends to find the correct interpretation or the semantic representation inherent to it. The interpretation of an utterance# a discourse# a text# is never completely inferable from the linguistic ob,ect alone but needs for different inds of bac ground nowledge.

SEMANTIC PROPERTIES% T&E LE'ICON% SEMANTIC RELATIONS (ET)EEN )ORDS


:nderstanding language implies three main points that are& a) Dnow the words and morphemes that compose them. b) Dnow how meanings of words combine into phrases and sentence meanings. .) *nterpret the meaning of utterances in the context in which they are made. Lexicon is the part of grammar which deals with the nowledge spea ers8hearers8readers possess about individual words# morphemes# including semantic properties. Words that share the same property belong to the same semantic class ( for example the semantic class of 'male( words ). Semantic classes can share the same characteristics. *n the case of the word 'male( we may see the class of words with the features 'male( and 'old(. Thus# these particular features are devices for expressing the presence or the absence of them by using the sign plus and minus.

*f we loo at the lexical entries for words 'man(# 'father(# 'girl(# 'boy( we shall see these words sharing or not the same features with the following sign (E or 4)& 'man( (E male E or Fyoung Ehuman )# 'father( (Emale EhumanE or Fyoung Eparent)# mother (Efemale Eparent Ehuman E or4 young )# 'girl( (Ehuman E young E female)# 'boy( (Eyoung E human E male). 0ther lexical entries where some proprieties are shared are& 'father# uncle# bachelorG Emale E human E adult (to the word 'father( we may also add Eparent which distinguishes this word from 'uncle and bachelor(). The semantic proprieties also establish relationships between the words such as synonymy# antonymy# polysemy# homonymy. Synonymy is the relationship between words or expressions that have the same meaning in some or all contexts while antonymy is the relationship between words that are opposite with respect to some components of their meaning& in fact antonyms are words that share all but one semantic propriety (man H woman# daughter H son). The perfect synonym is rare# perhaps# impossible. This can be seen in the following examples& the words 'youth( and 'adolescent( refer to people of about the same age# but only adolescent is used to imply 'immaturity( (he always remains an adolescent manI). $ntonyms normally contrast for a particular aspect of their meaning. +or example 'men and women( are antonyms that contrast in gender while 'arrive and leave( contrast in direction although these verbs specify motion. *n the case of synonyms we can have words with different sounds but with same meanings such as in 'remember8recall# car8automobile# big8large). There are also terms that have same sounds but different meanings Blight (first meaning& 'not heavy(5 second meaning& 'illumination(? one pronunciation but different in meanings)C. 0ther terms called polysemic are regarded as an association of lexical items with different but related meanings Bto glare(first meaning& 'to shine intensely(5 second meaning& 'to stare angrily()C. $ large proportion of a language(s vocabulary is polysemic. *t is sufficient to loo in a dictionary to find more examples about 'polysemic words(# for instance# in the Roget's Thesaurus of English words and phrases.

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The linguistic science at present is not able to put forward a definition of meaning which is conclusive.

2owever# there are certain facts of which we can be reasonably sure# and one of them is that the very function of the word as a unit of communication is made possible by its possessing a meaning. Therefore# among the wordAs various characteristics# meaning is certainly the most important. 3enerally spea ing# meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is communicated# in this way endowing the word with the ability of denoting real ob,ects# qualities# actions and abstract notions. The complex and somewhat mysterious relationships between referent (ob,ect# etc. denoted by the word)# concept and word are traditionally represented by the following triangle &

Thought or Keference (concept)

Symbol (word)

Keferent(ob,ect)

/y the LsymbolL here is meant the word5 thought or reference is concept. The dotted line suggests that there is no immediate relation between word and referent& it is established only through the concept. 0n the other hand# there is a hypothesis that concepts can only find their realisation through words. *t seems that thought is dormant till the word wa ens it up. *t is only when we hear a spo en word or read a printed word that the corresponding concept springs into mind. The mechanism by which concepts (i. e. mental phenomena) are converted into words (i. e. linguistic phenomena) and the reverse process by which a heard or a printed word is converted into a ind of mental picture are not yet understood or described. 6robably that is the reason why the process of communication through words# if one gives it some thought# seems nothing short of a miracle. *snAt it fantastic that the mere vibrations of a spea erAs vocal chords should be ta en up by a listenerAs brain and converted into vivid picturesJ

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<%co *e tio al meaning M.social meaning N.affecti*e meaning .ompare the following examples & <. /eagles are a breed of dogs. M. 2ey 9ane# how are you J N. Linguistics is really cool I

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Sometimes word meanings are somewhat li e game trails. So we have a new word when one of the main processes will be applied commonly enough in a particular instance. This new process can originate in a real world a connotation or a denotation& the former refers to the further meanings that a certain word evo es while the latter refers to the basic# literal meaning of some word.

De otatio
The central meaning of a linguistic form# regarded as the set of things it could possibly refer to. The study of meaning is a complex affair# and several quite different inds of meaning have to be carefully distinguished before we can hope to ma e much progress. +or example# when you say !The cat is scratching the sofa"# you clearly have some particular# individual cat in mind# and the relation between the cat and that animal is one of reference. 7ow the word cat itself cannot normally refer to any particular entity in this way. 2owever# one way of loo ing at the central meaning of cat is to see this as consisting of all the cats in the (real or conceptual) world F that is# as the totality of things to which the word cat might reasonably be applied. This interpretation is called the denotation of the word cat. -enotation is a difficult concept to wor with# since concepts li e 'all the cats in the world( are almost impossible to pin down. $mong 'all the cats in the world(# should we include all those cats which have not yet been born# and all those which died millions of years agoJ

-enotation is most frequently contrasted with connotation# but it has important similarities to sense# which is essentially a more directly linguistic way of interpreting the same ind of meaning. ($nd some writers have a habit of using denotation almost interchangeably with reference# but this is inappropriate.) Therefore 'denotation( is the set of elements in the real world pic ed out by a linguistic expression ( the word 'dog( with all its relations)5 connotation# on the other hand# includes the set of associations (personal or communal) that are evo ed by the use of a word ('earth( connotes safety# fertility# stability5 'sea( denotes a large body of water but connotes a sense of danger# instability etc). When we analy%e word meanings we should distinguish two separate concepts called 'denotational and connotational meaning(. The denotational meaning gives us the basic meaning of a word on conceptual level (this is a dictionary definition). The connotational meaning can be created than s to different factors and they turn out to be more problematic. 0ne aspect concerning the connotational meanings is the social meaning which varies between age4groups# sexes# social classes and cultures. -ialect can be a good example. Wal ing along the street you might listen to a conversation between two young boys or girls. ' 3et(ut o(ere 'andsome boy(# '3et out of here handsome boy(. The dialects carry certain connotations and in these examples we can understand to what social status the spea ers belong. *n the first case the spea er is low educated and he belongs to lower class# in the second case# the spea er is K6 and well4educated.

Co

otatio

The meaning of a word that is broader than its central and primary sense# often acquired through frequent associations. $ll these associations are part of the connotation of the word. )ven affective meaning is in a close accordance with connotational meaning referring to attitudes that are reflected towards the hearer or the sub,ect by spea er. 1oreover words can carry emotive meanings# for instance# the phonetic structure of a certain word can raise emotive effects (onomatopoeic words may strengthen the suggestive power). .onnotations change and vary and can be simply classified in the same way as denotational meanings are classified in a dictionary. 2owever they cause problems in cross cultural communication and our emotions as well as our culture will weld certain ideas and associations together with certain words. We must say that without connotational meaning communication would be quite impossible altogether.

SEMANTIC C&ANGE FIGURES OF SPEEC&

The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. .hanges of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico4 semantic word4building. *n such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change. The causes of semantic changes can be extra4linguistic and linguistic# e.g. the change of the lexical meaning of the noun !pen" was due to extra4linguistic causes. 6rimarily ! pen" comes bac to the Latin word !penna" (a feather of a bird). $s people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called "a pen". 0n the other hand causes can be linguistic# e.g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may speciali%e in its meaning# e.g. the noun !tide" in 0ld )nglish was polysemantic and denoted !time"# !season"# !hour". When the +rench words !time"# !season"# !hour" were borrowed into )nglish they ousted the word !tide" in these meanings. *t was speciali%ed and now means !regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon" .Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a 3erman scientist 2erman 6aul<. *t is based on the logical principle. 2e distiguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual ( speciali%ation and generali%ation)# two momentary conscious semantic changes (metap!or and meto +m+) and also secondary ways& gradual (ele*atio and ,e#ra,atio )# momentary (hyperbole and litote).

Metap!or is a figure of speech in which a term is transferred from the ob,ect it ordinarily designates to an ob,ect& it may designate only by implicit comparison or analogy(. 1etaphor belongs to daily language. *t is a typical linguistic phenomenon and concerns our way of thin ing because it is our own thought that is metaphorical. .onventionali%ed metaphors belonging to the system language are the basis to understand original and new metaphorical expressions. $n example of conceptual metaphor is given by the following expression 'time flies( where the abstract dominium of time can be led bac to a more concrete dominium of the verb 'to fly(.

<.2erman 6aul 4 Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte

This metaphor does not refer exclusively to a single expression of a language# but we must locate it to a superior level in order to motivate a series of locutions. B'Time G flies# persons G birds# time that flows G fly# persons( aspiration G destination of fly# difficulties G obstacles caused by the flyC. The success of metaphor# used today mainly in advertisements and in propaganda in general# depends on the novelty of the invention# by unforeseeable discover of a relation between two terms whose meaning is completely different. There are verbal metaphors that attribute inanimate ob,ects& 'the dish cries# time flies# the moon smiles# etc.(. 1etaphor is originated by the need of exteriori%ing emotional and ideal contents for which denotative language doesn(t contemplate adequate terms. The preference for the 'concrete(# for the 'particular( is deeply and firmly rooted in the human mind. *n a following example ' there is a hell of a wind( the metaphor employed to explain the strong wind adds force ad vigour and has some relation with the thinness of detail and the concreteness of the expression. Let(s suppose we are strangely happy and we want to express our feelings. We can say '* am happy( or try to find a more accurate word capable of defining this special and particular sentiment& pleased# glad# delighted# blissful# cheerful# gay# merry etc. There are many synonyms that may replace the word 'happy( that have light nuances as we have already noticed by loo ing at a dictionary. ')cstatic( suggests a sublime ecstasy# 'gay( suggests# on the contrary# cheerfulness# light4 heartedness. Karely we find an ad,ective that exactly expresses our feelings. +or this reason we recur to the daily use of metaphors such as '* am as merry as a lar or as a cric et(# or # '* feel as a millionaire man(# '* am in the seventh heaven(. So metaphors become a strong mean of communication and enrich our thought and lexicon. To be able to discern a metaphor in a piece of literature depends on one(s own ability to ma e a connection between two seemingly unli e ob,ects finding their common aspects. There is a good physical example of this in the common experience of loo ing at a bright light source# then closing one(s eyes and still seeing the 'afterimage(# apparently on the bac s of the eyelids. 1etaphor compares two things that are ali e in some way so as to clarify our understanding of one of them. The metaphor is used above all by poets because they want to ma e their readers seeing an aspect of something they have not noticed before. Writers of prose ta e use of metaphors to ma e a difficult idea easier to understand# by comparing something which is unfamiliar to something which is familiar5 in ordinary speech people use metaphors for emphasis. $ll metaphors# however# have one fact in common# that is# they do not announce they are comparing one thing to the other. The difference between metaphor and simile is that in metaphor the comparison is implied# while in simile it is explicit. So metaphors have a way of activating previous experiences and associations. $t first glance they can seem ambiguous and paradoxical# but in practice they can explain complex concepts both quic er and more accurate than a more literal explanation. *n many areas# especially where instant communication of

complex messages must be achieved# metaphor have become more and more important. Meto +m+ *t is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of metonymy& 4 the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an ob,ect placed there# e.g. the 2ouse 4 members of 6arliament# +leet Street 4 bourgeois press# the White 2ouse 4 the $dministration of the :S$ etc5 4 the name of some person may become a common noun# e.g. !boycott" was originally the name of an *rish family who were so much disli ed by their neighbours that they did not mix with them# !sandwich" was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. 2e did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to soil his fingers. 4 names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented# e.g. !watt" !roentgen" etc 4 some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy# e.g. holland (linen fabrics)# /russels (a special ind of carpets) # china (porcelain) # astrachan ( a sheep fur) etc. Simile 4 $ simile is defined as a figure of speech that draws a comparison between two different things# especially a phrase containing the word Lli eL or LasL. Thus# it is a figurative language drawing comparison 4 the li ening of one thing to another. There are many examples of similes that are used in our everyday conversation however. Fe- Examples of Similes "si # .li/e0 1y love is li e a red# red rose 2e eats li e a bird 2ow li e the winter hath my absence been" (Sha espeare). The reali%ation hit me li e a buc et of cold water. The snow was li e a blan et. -eath lies on her# li e an untimely frost OWilliam Sha espeare Suspicion climbed all over her face# li e a itten# but not so playfully OKaymond .handler

Ele*atio of mea i # *t is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time# e.g. ! night" #the 0ld )nglish form was c i!t originally meant !a boy"# then !a young servant"# then !a military servant"# then !a noble man". 7ow it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people5 !marshal" originally meant !a horse man"# now it is the highest military ran etc.

The term pastor underwent amelioration# originally meaning LshepherdL (a sense surviving in the word pastoral)# but coming to mean La minister# especially of a 7onconformist church. $nother example of elevated word by which its meaning improves is mi ister# coming from the Latin LministerL# it originally meant LservantL. 7owadays it came to be exactly the opposite of what it used to mean& a clergyman5 a person in charge of a department of State.

)levation also called regeneration or amelioration process# is often the result of narrowing during which former negative connotations have been lost.

De#ra,atio of mea i # *t is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. *t is usually connected with nouns denoting common people# e.g. 1illai comes from the Latin word LvillanusL that meant Lperson living in a countryside mansionL. -uring the time the word *illai has suffered a meaning mutation& La person how is guilty or capable of great wic ednessL& -egradation of meaning is to be found in sill+ which meant LblessedL. 2ow did a word meaning LblessedL come to mean LsillyLJ Well# since people who are blessed are often innocent and guileless# the word gradually came to mean LinnocentL. Some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they havenAt the brains to be anything else. $nd some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they re,ect opportunities for temptation. *n either case they must therefore be foolish which is the primary meaning of the word sill+. $nother example of this ind will be& i,iot# word that used to mean Lprivate personL. 7ow it means& a very foolish person. The ad,ective *"l#ar once it meant& ApopularL or Lof the common peopleL. -uring the time it has received a pe,orative meaning& Llac ing in good taste# not refined# being more li e obscene. +or example& a vulgar gesture. $ll these rhetorical figures are very important to grasp the real meaning of words# phrases# sentences and finally texts and so they are introduced in the field of textual linguistics or textual analysis.

LE'ICAL AM(IGUIT2
The modern approach to semantics is based on the assumption that the inner form of the word (its meaning) presents a structure F the semantic structure of the word.

1ost words convey several concepts and thus possess the corresponding number of the meanings. <. The ability of words to have more than one meaning ? Pol+sem+ M. $ word having several meanings ? pol+sema tic -or, The process f developing a new meaning is termed transference. Transference based on resemblance is a process where a new meaning appears as a result of associating two ob,ects. &OMON2M2 2omonyms are the words which is identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these aspects# but different in their meanings. e.g. $a /# n F a shore $a /# n F an institution )nglish vocabulary is rich in such pairs and even groups of words. Their identical forms are mostly accidental& the ma,ority of homonyms coincided due to phonetic changes which they suffered during their development. *f synonyms and antonyms can be regarded as the treasury of the languageAs expressive resources# homonyms are of no interest in this respect# and one cannot expect them to be of particular value for communication. 1etaphorically spea ing# groups of synonyms and pairs of antonyms are created by the vocabulary system with a particular purpose whereas homonyms are accidental creations. 2omonyms may lead to confusion or misunderstanding. /ut it is this very characteristic which ma es them one of the most important sources of humor.

&omom+m+ creates lexical ambiguity in that a single form has two or more meanings. &omo +ms F are the words of one and the same language which are identical phonetically or graphically in all or several grammar forms (and in all or several phonetic and graphic variants) but which have essential difference in lexical or grammatical meanings.

So"rces of !omo +ms are as follo-s& <) 6honetic changes M) /orrowings N) Word4building

Classificatio of !omo +ms& They are subdivided into full homonyms and partial homonyms. F"ll !omo +ms are identical in sound in all their forms of paradigms of two or more different words# e.g.# in seal 3 O 'a sea animal( and seal 4 O 'a design printed on paper by means of a stamp(.

Seal 1 seals seals seals

seal2 seals seals seals

+ull lexical homonyms are words which represent the same category of part of speech and have the same paradigm. e.g. matc!5 n F contest# game 5 matc!# n F thin piece of wood Partial !omo +ms are subdivided into N subgroups& <) Simple lexico4grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of part of speech and have one identical form. e.g. la+# v F infinitive la+# v F 6ast *ndefinite of the verb to lie. M) .omplex lexico4grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form. e.g. rose# n 4 flower rose# v F 6ast *ndefinite of the verb to rise N) 6artial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of part of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. e.g. to ca # n F sealed tin container for preservation of food or drin 5

ca # v F modal verb. GRAP&IC AND SOUND6FORM CLASSIFICATION OF &OMON2MS <% &omop!o es 6 are words with the same sound but different spellings and different meanings& Piece (n) part separated from smth. 4 Peace (n) a situation in which there is no war between countries5 Knight (n) BnaitC in the past# a )uropean soldier from a high class 4 Night (n) BnaitC the part of each MP4hour period when it is dar Read red pair pear know no write right etc. M. &omo#rap!s are words different in sound4form and in meaning but identical in spelling& Bow 7n) BbouC a weapon for shooting arrows 4 Bow n BbauC a forward movement of the body or head to show respect5 Lead (v) Bli&dC to conduct 4 Lead (n) BledC a soft heavy grey metal Row BrouC a line of smth. F row BrauC F a quarrel# tear BtiQC F tear BteQC.

T!e ,isti ctio $et-ee !omo +m+ a , pol+sem+


0ne indication of the distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. *f a word has two or more meanings (polysemic)# then there will be a single entry# with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. *f two words are treated as homonyms# they will typically have two separate entries.

S2NON2M2 IN ENGLIS&

$ characteristic feature of a vocabulary of any language is the existence of synonyms# which is closely connected with the problem of meaning of the word. The most complicated problem is the definition of the term LsynonymsL. There are a great many definitions of the term# but there is no universally accepted one. Traditionally the synonyms are defined as words different in sound4form# but identical or similar in meaning. /ut this definition has been severely critici%ed on many points.

$mong numerous definitions of the term# the most comprehensive and full one is suggested by *.R. $rnold& LSynonyms 4 are two or more words of the same meaning# belonging to the same part of speech# possessing one or more identical meaning# interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning# but differing in morphemic composition# phonemic shape# shades of meaning# connotation# affective value# style# emotional coloring and valence# peculiar to one of the elements in a synonymic group.L This definition describes the notion LsynonymyL# gives some criteria of synonymy (identity of meaning# interchangeability)# shows some difference in connotation# emotive coloring# style# etc. /ut this descriptive definition as well as many others has the main drawbac s 4 there are no ob,ective criteria of LidentityL or LsimilarityL or sameness of meaning. They all are based on the linguistic intuitions of the scholars. +rom the definition follows# that the members of the synonymic group in a dictionary should have their common denotational meaning and consequently it should be explained in the same words5 they may have some differences in implication connotation# shades of meaning# idiomatic usage# etc. !ope" e#pectation" anticipation are considered to be synonymous because they all mean Lhaving something in mind which is li ely to happen...L /ut e#pectation may be either of good or of evil. $nticipation is as a rule an expectation of something good. !ope is not only a belief but a desire that some event would happen. The stylistic difference is also quite mar ed. The Komance words anticipation and e#pectation are formal literary words used only by educated spea ers# whereas the native monosyllabic hope is stylistically neutral. 1oreover# they differ in idiomatic usage. 0nly hope is possible in such set expressions as to hope against hope" to lose hope" to pin one's hopes on something. 7either expectation nor anticipation could be substituted into the following quotation from T. )liot& L;ou donAt now what hope is until you have lost itL.

Criteria of S+ o +m+
7ot a single definition of the term s%non%m provides for any ob,ective criterion of similarity or sameness of meaning as far as it is based on the linguistic intuition of the scholars. 1any scholars defined s%non%ms as words conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics. *n LWebsterAs -ictionary of SynonymsL its authors used the semantic criterion along with the criterion of interchangeability# which we may see from the definition. $ synonym is one of two or more words which have the same or nearly the same essential (denotational) meaning. *t is not a matter of mere li eness in meaning# but a li eness in denotation which may be expressed in its definition. The definition must indicate the part of speech and the relations of the ideas involved in a termAs meaning.

They usually are interchangeable within limits# but interchangeability is not the final test# since idiomatic usage is often a preventive of that. The only satisfactory test of synonyms is their agreement in connotation.

Classificatio of S+ o +ms
3% I,eo#rap!ic s+ o +ms 4 words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning& to understand 4 to reali%e to expect 4 to anticipate to loo 4 glance 4 stare 4 peep 4 ga%e 4% St+listic s+ o +ms4 words differing only in stylistic characteristics& to begin 4 to commence 4 to high to thin 4 to deem enemy 4 opponent 4 foe F adversary to help 4 to aid 4 to assist courage 4 dauntlessness 4 grit 4 guts 8% A$sol"te (perfect# complete) 4 words coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. $bsolute synonyms are rare in a language. *n )nglish& pilot F airman5 scriptwriter F scripter 5 .

S+ o +mic Patter s The )nglish word4stoc is extremely rich in synonyms# which can be largely accounted for by abundant borrowings. The synonymic resources of a language tend to form certain characteristic and fairly consistent patterns. Synonyms in )nglish are organi%ed according to M basic principles. 0ne of them involves double# the other a triple scale. *n )nglish there are countless pairs of synonyms where a native term is opposed to one borrowed from +rench# Latin# and 3ree . *n most cases the native word is more spontaneous# more informal and unpretentious whereas the

foreign one often has a learned# abstract air. The native words are usually colloquial. We quote a few examples of synonymic patterns double scale. $d,ectives& bodily 4 corporal# brotherly 4 fraternal# heavenly 4 celestial# inner 4 internal# learned 4 erudite# sharp 4 acute. 7ouns& fiddle 4 violin# friendship 4 amity# help 4 aid# wire 4 telegram# world 4 universe. Rerbs& answer 4 reply# buy 4 purchase. Side4by4side with this main pattern there exists in )nglish a pattern based on a triple scale of synonyms& 7$T*R) to as < stomach to end to gather to rise teaching +K01 +K)7.2 to questionM abdomen finish to assemble to mount guidance +K01 L$T*7 to interrogateN belly complete collect to ascent instruction

The infiltration of /ritish )nglish by $mericanisms also results in the formation of synonyms pairs# one being a traditional /riticism and the other 4 a new $merican loan& Leader 4 editorial5 autumn 4 fall5 government 4 administration5 luggage 4 baggage5 wireless 4radio5 lorry 4 truc 5 tin F can 5 stone 4 roc 5 team 4squad. $s a rule the $mericanisms have a lower frequency index than the /ritish counterparts. Thus# tin is more common than can# team 4 than squad. /ut luggage 4 baggage# lorry 4 truc # leader 4editorial are used sometimes interchangeably. )nglish also used many pairs of synonymous derivatives# the one 2ellenic and the other Komance& hypotheses F supposition# periphery F circumference# sympathy4compassion# synthesis 4 composition. $nother source of synonymy is the so4called e"p!emism# when a harsh word indelicate or unpleasant or least inoffensive connotation. Thus the denotational meaning of drunk and merr% may be the same. The euphemistic expression merry coincides in denotation with the word it
< M N

substituted but the connotation of the latter faded out and so the utterance on the whole is milder and less offensive. Rery often a learned word which sounds less familiar and less offensive or derogative& for example !drun enness" F !intoxication"# !sweat" F !perspiration". The effect is achieved because the expression is not so harsh. Set expressions consisting of a verb with a postpositive are widely used in present day )nglish& to choose 4 pic out# abandon 4 give up# postpone 4 put off# return 4 come bac # quarrel 4 fall out. )ven more frequent are# for instance# such set expressions which differ from simple verbs in aspect or emphasis& to laugh 4 to give a laugh# to sign 4 to give a sign# to smo e 4 to have a smo e# to love 4 to fall in love. Smell5 sce t5 o,or5 aroma all denote a property of a thing that ma es it perceptible to the olfactory sense. Smell not only is the most general of these terms but tends to be the most colorless. *t is the appropriate word when merely a sensation is indicated and no hint or its source# quality or character is necessary. Sce t tends to call attention to the physical basis of the sense of smell and is particularly appropriate when the emphasis is on emanations or explanations from an external ob,ect which reach the olfactory receptors rather than impression produced in the olfactory center of the brain. O,or is oftentimes indistinguishable from scent for it too can be thought of as smth. diffused and as smth. by means of which external ob,ects are identified by the sense of smell. Aroma usually adds to o,or the implication of a penetrating# pervasive or sometimes a pungent quality5 it need not imply delicacy or fragrance# but it seldom connotes unpleasantness# and it often suggests smth. to be savored. U ,ersta ,5 compre!e ,5 appreciate are synonyms when they mean to have a clear and true idea or conception# or full and exact nowledge# of sth. They (especially the first two) are often used interchangeably and seemingly without loss5 nevertheless# they are distinguishable by fine sharp differences in meaning in precise use. *n general# it may be said that " ,ersta , refers to the result of a mental process# compre!e , to the mental process of arriving at such a result5 thus # one may come to understand a person although one has had difficulty in comprehending his motives and his peculiarities5 one may be unable to comprehend a poem# no matter how clearly one understands every sentence in it. L;ou begin to comprehend me# do youL cried he# turning towards her. L0hI ;es 4 * understand you perfectly.L Sometimes the difference is more subtle5 compre!e , implies the mental act of grasping or sei%ing clearly and fully5 " ,ersta ,5 the power to receive and register a clear and true impression. Appreciate5 as here considered# implies a ,ust ,udgment or the estimation of a thingAs true or exact value5 therefore#

the word is used in reference to persons or things which may be undervaluing or overvaluing. L;ou are of an age now to appreciate his character.L

T&E DOMINANT S2NON2M $ll (or# at least# most) synonymic groups have a LcentralL word of this ind whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant s%non%m. 2ere are examples of other dominant synonyms with their groups& To surprise O to astonish O to amaze O to astound. To shout O to %ell O to &ellow O to roar. To shine O to flash O to &laze O to gleam O to glisten O to sparkle O to glitter O to shimmer O to glimmer. To tremble O to shi'er O to shudder O to shake. To ma e O to produce O to create O to fa&ricate O to manufacture.

Differe ces (et-ee S+ o +ms Rery often words are completely synonyms in the sense of being interchangeable in any content without the slightest alteration in ob,ective meaning# feeling4tone or evocative meaning. /ut ma,ority of them may have some distinctive features# which are listed below. These differences are the following& <. /etween general and specific5 M. /etween shades of meaning5

ANTON2M2 IN ENGLIS&
$ntonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech# identical in style# expressing contrary or contradictory notions.

The number of antonyms with the suffixes ful4 and 4less is not very large# and sometimes even if we have a word with one of these suffixes its antonym is formed not by substituting 4ful by less4# e.g. SsuccessfulT 4TunsuccessfulT# SselflessT 4 SselfishT. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTON2MS a) complementary# e.g. male 4female# married 4single# b) gradable antonyms# e.g. good 4bad# c) converseness# e.g. to buy 4 to sell. *n this classification# a).complementarity is described in the following way& the denial of the one implies the assertion of the other# and vice versa. S9ohn is not marriedT implies that S9ohn is singleT. The type of oppositeness is based on yes8no decision. *ncompatibility only concerns pairs of lexical units. .omplementary (or binary antonyms) are based on binary oppositions# which do not allow for gradations between the extreme poles of a semantic axis. These are forms of antonyms which truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are said to be exclusive. +or example& (present( ) (a&sent( #(accept ()(refuse(# *married(+ (single( # (male() (female( # (ali'e() (dead( # (&egin( ) (end( # (perfect( ) (imperfect(# (false ()(true(# (animate ( + (inanimate ( # (same() (different(.

b). 3radable $ntonymy is the second class of oppositeness. *t is distinguished from complementarity by being based on different logical relationships. +or pairs of antonyms li e good8bad# big8small only the second one of the above mentioned relations of implication holds. The assertion containing one member implies the negation of the other# but not vice versa. S9ohn is goodT implies that S9ohn is not badT# but S9ohn is not goodT does not imply that S9ohn is badT. The negation of one term does not necessarily implies the assertion of the other. 3radable $ntonymy is used to designate those meaning oppositions which admit certain gradations with regard to the expressed meaning& )xample& (%oung( ) (old( *cle'er ()(stupid( (near ()(far( (interesting () (&oring ( (small ()(large( (good()(&ad(

(&ig( and (small( form part of a scale of values which will include some of the following& (huge ( , ('er% &ig( , (&ig( , (quite &ig( , (medium)sized( , (quite small( ,(small (,(tin%( Lhot / cold" (Sue's coffee is cold( *-ar%'s coffee is hot( The scale of values& (&oiling( , ('er% hot( , (hot( , (quite hot( , (warm( , (lukewarm( , (tepid( , (cool( , (cold( , (freezingL $n important linguistic difference from complementaries is that gradable antonyms are always fully gradable# e.g. hot# warm# tepid# cold. c)..onverseness ( Kelational antonyms ) is mirror4image relations or functions# e.g. husband8wife# pupil8teacher# precede8follow# above8below# before8after etc. These are terms which describe a relation between two entities from alternate viewpoints# as in the pairs& LownL8Lbelong toL# LaboveL8 LbelowL# LemployerL8 LemployeeL S9ohn bought the car from /illT implies that S/ill sold the car to 9ohnT. 1irror4image sentences are in many ways similar to the relations between active and passive sentences.

&IERARC&ICAL RELATIONS ( 2;607;1;# 1)K07;1;)

&2PON2M2

2yponomy is a relation of inclusion# so 'dog( and 'poodle( are hyponyms of 'animal(# as# in fact# are 'cat( and 'cheetah(5 'poodle( in turn is a hyponym of 'dog(# and 'cheetah( (and any other cat you can thin of) is a hyponym of 'cat(. .onversely# 'animal( is a !+per +m (or s"peror,i ate) of 'dog(# and 'dog( is a

hypernym of 'poodle(. The relation is probably best illustrated by a diagram &

animal

dog

cat

poodle

terrier etc.

cheetah

persan etc#

* mentioned that hyponymy is often presented as a relation of inclusion. *t(s worth thin ing for a moment# though# about what exactly this means. What includes whatJ Well interestingly# the answer to this question depends on whether we loo at meaning extensionally or intensionally. Seen extensionally# the set of ob,ects denoted by the superordinate term includes the set of ob,ects denoted by the hyponym F i.e. the set of animals includes the set of dogs (the correct term F again from set theory F is that the set of dogs is a sub4set of the set of animals). Loo ing at meanings intensionally# however# might lead us to conclude that the meaning of 'dog( is somehow richer and more complex than the meaning of 'animal(# or even that the meaning of 'dog( somehow includes the meaning of 'animal(.

MERON2M2

The final sense relation * would li e to introduce you to is mero +m+. This describes a ind of part4whole relationship# and li e hyponomy it is a relation of inclusion. So 'leaf(# 'bar ( and 'branch( are meronyms of 'tree(# because they are parts of a tree5 'clutch(# 'bra e( and 'engine( are meronyms of 'car( because they are parts of a car. *t is a fairly complex relation which attempts to ta e into account the degree of differentiation of the parts with respect to the whole and also the role that these parts play with respect to their whole.There are interesting parallels between meronymy and hyponymy# although it should be obvious the two are not the same F a poodle is a type of dog and a cheetah is a ind of cat# but a leaf is not type of tree and a clutch is not a type of car. 0ne obvious parallel is that you could also represent meronymic relations using a tree diagram. 1any ob,ects in the world are conceived as a whole consisting of different parts. $nd correspondingly# our concepts for complex ob,ects contain these parts as elements. 0ne of the best examples of a complex ob,ect is the human body with its parts# their sub4parts and so on. The head is the part of the body that carries the most important sense organs & eyes# ears# nose and tongue. $ system of this type is not to be confused with hierarchy based on hyponymy. *t is a part4 whole relation# it means that a potential referent of face is part of a potential referent of head.

1eronymy (from ancient 3ree meron ? part )5

2olonym (3ree holos ? whole ).

*f A is a meronym of (# then ( is holonym of A% *t is not generally a transitive relation. 2yponymy is always transitive# but meronymy may or may not be so. The division of the human body into parts served as a prototype for all part4whole hierarchies &

(o,+ ( holonym )

2ead

nec (meronym)

trun

arm

leg

Face

forearm

!a ,(holonym)

E+e

nose

chin

mo"t!

palm

finger (meronym)

*ris pupil lashes

tongue

lip

teeth

So# $o,+ is the holonym and head# nec # trun # arm# leg are meronyms of body. Face is the holonym and eyes# nose# chin# mouth are meronyms of face. /ut Face is also the meronym for &ea,. E+e is the holonym and iris# pupil# lashes are meronyms of eyes. /ut e+e is also the meronym of face.

The ultimate conclusion to be drawn is that meronymy is a complex relation.

The following diagram shows how part4whole relationship can be represented hierarchically &

Car

/ody

wheel

electrical system

+rame

chassis

tire

rim

starter motor

battery

Disti ctio $et-ee

mero +m+ a , !+po +m+

1eronymy can be expressed by the pattern !U is a part of ;"# whereas hyponymy is by the pattern !U is a ind of ;". +or example# head is a part of body# but not a ind of body# while potato is a ind of vegetable# but not a part of vegetable.

* conclude that# lexical semantics relations play an essential role in lexical semantics and intervene at many levels in natural language comprehension and production. They are also a central element in the organi%ation of lexical semantics nowledge bases.

There are many inferences we can ma e solely on the basis of what words mean. We now# for example# that if something is a poodle# then it(s a dog5 we now that if it is a dog# then it is

not a cat# but that it is an animal and so on... This must reflect some nowledge about the meaning of words that we have. 9ohn Lyons# a linguist some of you may have heard of# put it li e this& !Loo ed at from a semantic point of view# the lexical structure of a language F the structure of its vocabulary F is best regarded as a large and intricate networ of sense relations& it is li e a huge multi4dimensional spider(s webV"

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