German Historicism and Its Cricis

German Historicism and Its Crisis Author(s): Colin T. Loader Source: The Journal of Modern History, Vol.
48, No. 3, On Demand Supplement (Sep., 1976), pp. 85-119 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1878811 . Accessed: 09/09/2013 10:09
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German Historicism Colin T. Loader
and Its
Crisis
University In 1924, announced following
of Nevada, a young his
Las Vegas immigrant named Karl Mannheim the
Hungarian
advocacy
of German Historicism
with
statement:
into an intellectual Historicism has developed force of it epitomizes our Weltextra-ordinary significance; The Historicist not only organizes anschauung. principle like an invisible hand, the work of the cultural sciences but also permeates (Geisteswissenschaften), everyday in everyday thinking...For life too we apply concepts with Historicist overtones, for example, "capitalism," "social movement," "cultural process," etc. These forces are grasped and understood as potentialities, constantly in flux, moving from some point in time to another; on the level of everyday already reflection, we seek to the position determine of our present within a temporal to tell framework, by the cosmic clock of history what time it is.2 Why did Mannheim praise best that able only to meet Historicism of deal the as the times? world His view was it
the needs could could
answer in flux;
Historicism which
with
a world of
was a philosophy moving that
make sense
"forces... He believed a system German came at
from some point could
in time provide
to another."
Historicism (Sinn)
a Weltanschauung, for the chaotic
of meaning scene.
and valuation, Mannheim's
However,
optimistic
statement
85
a time very had
when
the
future
of
the
doctrine even
of
Historicism Historicists, provide This stemmed history body the of other of crisis a
was
much begun of
uncertain. to doubt for
Many people, whether the Historicism Germany will of
some could
system
values which belief,
1924.
of
Historicism, from more that tural But the than history, sciences, this belief
my essay voiced
examine, that
directly provided data culvalues. --
by Mannheim, method with and
an academic together provided (which the
a certain and
philosophy view,
a world made history
a system
Historicism) the doctrine in other
was of Hisby
accompanied toricism the of that doubt valuation. lay at was
by
realization
that
essentially science It the was
relativistic, could the of actually
words, some
that
provide of of
standard then,
relativization the I crisis
values,
heart
Historicism.
Georg characteristics normativitgt," normative
Iggers of the terms.
has
written
that
one
of
the
main was of "Antiin
German rejection He means
historical of that the
thought concept
thinking the
Historicism
denied
possibility thus making

by
of universal the
any
and eternal of any part

part. This which
values
for
mankind,
values
other
of mankind
rejection could of be history.
unchalpotentially avoided When
lengeable entailed only by
a radical a faith in
relativism, the
meaningfulness
86
this
faith
broke Iggers' Ernst
down,
the
crisis
of Historicism follows that that
reof the
sulted.3 Historicist Historicism essence flow
interpretation Troeltsch, from the itself... in the
who wrote internal .Here
the
crisis (Gang)
of and
itarises
movement
of history
we see and ever past
everything
in the
of becoming, in the
endless
new individualand in the answer of faith to
ization, direction this
determination
by the
of an unknown future."4 relativism of history.5 of Iggers
Troeltsch's
temporal
was a restoration
in the
meaning fulness
The interpretation cally refute their out correct, it. and the However,
and Troeltsch essay is
is not
basito which with-
purpose is not
of this
there does
an important satisfactorily why did Since the the
question answer crisis problem of of
interpretation some modification, occur
namely, did?
Historicism relativism ginning, the early
when it
was inherent why did 1920's?
in Historicism not all,
from the
very
beuntil each
Historicists After
perceive
a crisis that
Ranke had written relativistic
epoch
was immediate
to God, a blatantly Treitschke
statement. similar that herent the
And men like concerns.6 crisis arose doctrine the
and Droysen above
had is infrom the real
The answer not
to the
questions problems
from theoretical
in the of
of Historicism, for solving
but rather the very
inadequacy
doctrine
87
problems and the another cists' set
arisina
from Germany's
collapse
in World War One Or put Histori-
establishmeint way, inability the crisis
of the Weimar Republic. arose not the because existence of their of values the
of the
to guarantee but rather existence 1920's. crisis
of a universal inability for the to German
of values, the
because of a unity
guarantee nation expressed dissolution crisis to
in the their
Thus,
although
Historicists in terms of history, of the the
in temDoral truths
terms, flow
of eternal
in the resulting
was in fact pluralistic
spatial,
from their was not
antipathy an in
a truly
Germany,
one which
organic regards
community to universal it
of values. history was not
While
Antinormativitgt
was an important that factor, concept feelings
ingredient the a defined
of Historicism, intense limited dedication space the
but rather within
to a normative lay behind of I will the
that
of uncertainty. and "spatial" are what
Since important
categories
"temporal" attempt relationship entities
to my essay,
to make clear is
I mean by them. different different different units units units
A temporal of time, of time, of time.
one between within
between
existing
or between
entities of
representing "ancients
Thus the notions gap" refer relationships,
and moderns" temporal exist
and "the
generation Spatial within
to essentially however, of
relationships. objects
between
a shared
cross-section
88
time.
The
notions
of
"balance
of
power"
and
"class
con-
flict"
point
to
spatial
relationships. elements war)
Of course, (e.g. the
spatial
relationships process the leading
have
temporal
temporal (e.g.
up to a civil of the but
and vice-versa involved elements
shared
space
generations secondary
in generado not
tional define
conflict), the basic
these
relationship. in which a spatial relationship I will obtains, call the in
The field other "spatial words,
a cross-section This term,
of time, however, spatial his
realm."
must be qualified. realm," the spatial valinot be, of
Here I refer field dation. identical. the
to the
"meaningful expects fields
in which
a person
values
to find
The two spatial In the case the
can be,
but need
of the more optimistic two were the identical; these
thinkers men science, "believed in the
Enlightenment, that values,
assumed
like
laws
of physical
were universal. universal cause ends
Such men, wrote common to all
Troeltsch, -rules
mankind
in Humanity, of Nature."7
of Natural
Law, and the moral reacting of
The German Historicists, advocated the restriction nations
to the
Enlightenment, realm
the meaningful (V8lker),
spatial
to individual reflected
cept of
or peoples
a restriction conthe
in their
Zeitgeist
replacement
with that of
of the more universal

Volkseist._8
However,
fact
that
the meaningful
spatial
realmi was not
conceived
89
to include
all
of the
spatial
realm, with
that those
the
values
of the
German Volk might V8lker, did not
be in conflict a crisis
of other among early stated: "I write
trigger
of values
Historicists. Conly7 for
As Heinrich Germans."9
von Treitschke
The Historicists realm, the
perceived
their
meaningful not only
spatial in its but
German nation, to the for
to be organic, process in its
relationship
historical this essay,
as a whole, own internal realm
more importantly organization. an organic individual cists ated stood with
The meaningful indivisible units whole
spatial rather In this
was viewed
as
than belief,
as a mere sum of the HistoriassociFor the theory, the
or parts.
opposed the English
to the mechanistic and French
philosophy
Enlightenment. contract
mechanistic basic spatial basic unit
view, was the
epitomized autonomous
by the
individual.
To understand what the
relationships, unit, the the
one first
had to discover about, of these the whole
individual,
was all
and then individuals in terms was perceived this chaotic. passage by the of the
determine with parts. described
causal
relationships One understood
one another. Further,
the
relationship
of the laws; it
parts
in terms unique. view
of universal
was not
as something mechanistic This rejection
The Historicists
rejected
as abstract
and potentially in the following
can be seen
90
Historicist school
Georg von Below, Romantic reaction
who traced to the
the
origins
of his
to the
Enlightenment.
of the Enlightenment If the historians without exception operated with the actions of individuals, then the movement which they essentially had in mind was like the reciprocal collisions and forces of atoms. The Romantic, on the other hand, envisions the personality as being singularly distinct, the individual state, the individual epoch not as a sum of atoms, but as a true Individuality His goal is above all0understanding (Individualitht). in terms of the whole (aus dem Ganzen). The concept of Individuality, is crucial on which Below placed so
much importance, toricism. concept than of
to the understanding correct
of Histhe
Below was undoubtedly to the idealism of the
in tracing
German Romantics Hegelian of the
rather concept
to the more logical
and systematic use
Individuality.11
The Romantic
term was also as by the
emphasized
by Troeltsch, embodiment whether
who defined from time
an Individuality to time assumed
"the particular Divine Spirit,
in individual
persons life."
or in the 12 Perhaps
superpersonal further description most
organizations of the form of state.
of community concept
clarification of the the
can come from Ranke's with that which he was
Individuality Ranke admitted i.e.
concerned,
certain aristocracy, he of
general
and analytic could that value. to me... aspects. this
categories,
monarchy, state. analysis
democracy, believed limited
be applied "formal"
to the type of
However,
was only
It seems and real
between formal that we must determine The formal aspect only covers
91
covers the real generalities, the living peculiarities, of constitution, forms Certain elements. particularly of personal those a limitation stipulating powers and the definition of class relationships, may be necessary to all states. But they do not constitute the source of life which alone gives content to all forms. There is an element which makes a state not a subdivision of general categories, but a living thing, an individual, an unique The primary self.... is the unique fact... spiritual existence of the individual state, its principle,...its inner life.13 Individualities einheiten) terized by of then history, were to organic use "basic unities" term, and (Grundcharacoriginality
Troeltsch's (Einmaligkeit)
their
uniqueness
(Ursprunglichkeit)
division.14 unities quantified. shunned the could causal could Thus not This
and not
the be did
susceptible
nature or mean causally, the that
to meaningful
of these
sub-
essential exactly, not
spiritual or
explained Historicists they qualified they of
that
analyses, effectiveness.
but
simply Causal
latterst
analyses, the only essence be
felt, an through Eduard
not
penetrate This
all
the
way
to
Individuality. understanding Spranger wrote
essence and historical
could
grasped
(Verstehen) of the
intuition method:
(Ahnen).
It is a matter of... a reproduction (Nachbilden), consummated the powers of imagination, through of external life-forms of the past. and internal And this power of not an abstract, imagination is... intellectual shell, but rather a complete consciousness of life in which the totality of all spiritual acts, forms of experience and manners of reaction demonstrate the same interplay as they do in life itself. That is the organ with which we grasp history.15
92
If
Individualities' the
essences
could for their of
never
be exactly
exwith or in any of such HisHe
plained,
same was true The relationship
relationships to
one another. an epoch, logical all
a person not
a state
Individualities, way. was based world's In fact, largely basic
could the
be grasped
or exact
understanding faith
a relationship toricist believed degree variety in the that but not
on the
of the
harmony and meaning. perceivable existed to some behind
a spiritual exactly
unity,
demonstrable, of historical and the integral moments. age of the
the
and finiteness The lack
Individualities. potential parts relativism of
of exactness were
historical even written lay in its that
knowledge most the
of Historicism, Rothacker has
optimistic golden
Erich
German cultural that each itself
sciences nation and to
between focal
Herder's point
statement of its
in 1774
had the Ranke's
happiness that each
within epoch
statement value
in 1854 rested a union Historical
was immediate The union
God and its two principles, concept spiritual teenth temporal challenged fact, aided
upon itself.16 which Rothacker
of these basic entire nineand
saw as the of the the
of the
School
and indeed
development century,
of German learning a combination this
during
was really
of spatial never
relativism. the that basic faith,
However, faith
relativism
in the unity
of history the need for
and, the
in
by eliminating
93
organic
unity
to be actualized of the in the
in universal
form or laws
as some thinkers This process writings centuries. faith
Enlighternment organic unity
had demanded.17 of the historical
continued throughout
in the the
mainstream nineteenth the the discipline course
of Historicist and early twentieth became there
Even though during that
of history of that unity period, integrated of the
more specialized was always specialized century, their eyes a belief
an organic At the
research.18 there
beginning that
twentieth had closed
were complaints larger belief organic that
specialists but
to the by the if
picture, the organic
this
was continued
accompanied to exist
unity
even
it
was neglected.19 important question: in the above, of the crucial the the why 1920's? we hisrelation-
But again should this
we come to the be challenged
faith this
so strongly indicated view of the
To answer
question,
as I have Historicists' to that
must move away from the torical ship person It process between
in general of
two forms
Individuality, spatial realm, view
individual German nation. latter
and the meaningful when the proved that a real camp. led
was only
Historicist to be untenable sense
of this
relationship Republic Historicist ;relationship
during
the Weimar in the organi relation-
of crisis of
appeared this
The questioning to a questioning
basic organic
of all
94
ships
and to a questioning process.
of the unity
of the whole
historical
The Historicist relationship, by two types be equated often finds while
conception always
of this
limited
spatial
organic, These
can be characterized types, however, Indeed, cannot one
of organicism. with both camps within types present
the movement. within certain it other spatial the the
same thinker's as bethat
writings. longing type
When I characterize to one of the two types, than the
thinkers simply within
means that their
was more dominant The first type
works. which I of
of limited emphasized realm
organicism, political point that
will
call
corporate, spatial
character the state spirit. prethe
the meaningful was viewed For the dominated,
to the
as the
prime
expression
of the this
national type
Historicists men like
in whose Ranke,
writings
Treitschke
and Below, While person
state these an
was the most thinkers
important that their that state. "All is,
Individuality. the individual emphasis
none of
denied
was also
Individuality, as a citizen, ality" of the
prime
was on the in the frame in
individual "person-
as a participant It was in this that count
of mind that and make of
Ranke wrote: themselves their

own...
states
the world tendencies nature,
felt
are motivated are
by special
[which] of all
of a spiritual
and the nay in-
personalities
citizens
are determined,
95
eradically
molded
by them.'20
Treitschke
added:
in the Juridical The state has a personality, primarily in the political In state moral sense... and secondly it is the will of the state which is expressed, treaties not the personal of the individuals desires who conclude them.... Roman law was not fortunate in its develcpment of the conception of legal personality, for...[it] assumes that a person in the legal sense must be merely an individual citizen. That is crude materialism.21 Below meant School in the correctly that noted that this emphasis on the state Prussian views. Dove's of man's historians as too relationThe out(the And
Ranke and the members of Treitschke's than separated in their
were more united same spirit, that the
Below state
cited
approvingly
Alfred
contention cultural disapproved materialistic ship, their
was the most
important
products.22 of the use
Even though of
some of these analogy
a biological the just identity of the
in describing views approached his
state-individual such an analogy.
individual side nation,
who defined
in terms larger
of goals
of or contrary the state)
to those
organism
was considered type of limited
cancerous. spatial organicism is, was
The second much like This type, the
larger
temporal writings
view,
that
monadic. Wilhelm emphasized realm von the
found Spranger, character
in the
of men like and Meinecke, spatial the
Humboldt, cultural the
Troeltsch of
the meaningful especially Individuality.
and saw and
creative
individual, prime
scientist
artist,
as the
As Helmut Schelsky
96
has noted, existed sense believed activity.23
these
men assumed the meaningful were
that
a basic
normative
harmony
within their that
spatial
realm,
and in this however, they
views this It is
definitely
organic;
harmony was achieved not surprising then to the
tnrough that
individual
many of these of the the
men made important German theory cultural full
contributions
development
of education
(Bildunp),
which
emphasized
personality
and the
development
of the
individual's
potential.
Humboldt wrote:
True reason can desire no other condition for man than one in which not only does every individual enjoy the most unlimited freedom to develop himself in his particularity but also does physical nature receive no other form from human hands but what every individual, limited only by his force and his right, gives to it from his own free will to the standard according of his need and inclination.24 Troeltsch echoed this sentiment in writing:
What German Bildun seeks is...basically nothing other than...UaQ concentration and simplification by means of a collection around a distinct focal point and a greater proximity to the elementary and instinctive features of our own self. It is not a question of the strengthening of national feeling or the creation of a political sense.25 Thus the monadic was individualistic. early Humboldt, with none the type, in contrast However, with to the the corporate type, of the
exception
of the monadic of the
thinkers to the
was greatly development
concerned of the organicist
threat
state This
individual's view
potential. of the meaningful
was due to their realm, their
spatial
97
faith of that
in the realm
basic
harmony between "subjective light, their
the Geist,"
"objective the soul
Geist" of the
and the In this
individual.26 was very liberal the state
monadic
individualism of Western threat of
different thinkers, to the of this organicism
from the
individualism the
who emphasized individual. group of
potential
In fact,
the monadic to
indithe it was
vidualism corporate to classical idealist
of thinkers the other
was closer Historicists
than organicist
Western premises
liberalism types
due to the
of both opposed the
of Historicism. saw to be the to basic his
Both types Western type --
what
they
individual
who sought
satisfy
own material calculus practicing
needs
and who operated and pain. 27 but
according Such a person rather
to Bentham's was not
of pleasure true
individualism, championed since
mere subjectivism. was not and ideal a true unity
The individual Individuality which
by Manchesterism the organic
he lacked such the
characterized like
an entity.
Instead
he was a mere "economic centuries, abstract man." this
abstraction, In the realm late
classical and early
economists' twentieth
nineteenth
of material
interests
and increasingly by the of society term for
relationships most damning was its lack
was designated characteristic of organic
"society." the
The
Historicists
unity.
Treitschke
wrote: the state, unlike and we will,
Anyone can see is intangible..
for himself .Society...
that society, has no single
98
have no duties to fulfill towards it....Society is composed of all manner of warring interests, which if left to themselves would soon lead to a bellutr, omnium contra omnes, for its natural is toward conflict tendency and no suggestion of any aspiration after unity is to be found in it. 28 Thus in the actually chaos with eyes of most Historicists, as an autonomous seeking to give
of values physical
society, entity, would material
were be a
it
to exist of individuals
to fulfill
interests
no organic
bonds
The
them meaning
the for marketplace men than
and ethical
was was fact, society but no more pushthroughcould simply
orientation. able pull out not as to of this be provide the
push-pull
adequate of
the
objects
science. believed that
In
period, taken as of
Historicists a complete human and
distinct of of these
entity, ethical
an aspect
relationships, totality meaningful Georg
mutuality
(Gemeinsamkeit).29 the basis observed was based organic in the that unity sphere the of
The the of
relationships, realm, correctly sociology of had its
spatial Simmel
Geist.
Historicist conception wrote:
antagonism of society
toward (the
on this Simmel
object
sociology).
we hear, Existence, is an exclusive of indiattribute viduals (Individuen), their qualities and experiences. by contrast, "Society, is an abstraction. Although indispensable for practical purposes and certainly very useful for a rough and preliminary survey of the phenomena that surround us, it is no real object. It does not exist outside and in addition to the individuals and the processes (Einzelwesen) among them. After each of these is investigated individuals in his natural and historical characteristics, is left nothing by way of matter for a particular science.30 subject
99
Historicists actual which Gustav continue classes organized scientific national political of state entity stood
feared would behind
that
the
perception organic
of society spiritual agreed sociology of parties interests play a role
as an unity with would and were in the of
weaken it.31
the
Most Historicists this abstract teachings material never
Schmoller to play (those
that a role bodies
while
in the in which it world.
and promoted), and learned economy science"
could
Even the
discipline
(Volkswirtschaftlehre) with a historical
had to be a "moraland ethical conception
and society.32 1919, with that the Historicist movement individualistic did not view as a
Before the true conflict crisis,
mechanistic is, Rather
thought
as a breakdown this challenge even
of the basic was seen given the
premises as an credibility was spatial
of Historicism. external force.
Marxism was not academic had arisen
of a legitimate something realm. men, not cultural successfully it but that came not also that
philosophy, outside spoke for
and positivism of the meaningful Frenchmen
Comte and Buckle for Germans. i.e.
and Englishthe German were since realm, was
Movements that of the
from within Viennese serious
sphere,
Menger, challenge, spatial itself,
isolated. only
The most
from within the
the meaningful profession
from within
historical which
of Karl
Lamprecht,
was a resounding
failure.
100
Indeed,
the
Lamprechtstreit thinking
demonstrated rather II than
a solidarity a crisis.
in
German historical
At the his that tified

the
turn
of the
century,
Schmoller of the
proclaimed
in
inaugural
address
as rector scientific
University
of Berlin
Marxism had no real the

grounds
validity; from the

be the good
and he jusuniversity on
exclusion
that could as they do the
of Marxists
could not
scientists.33 and what its was good
Schmoller elite science, spatial stood
this
because
university of the
unchallenged what was
authority good within
and
indeed
meaningful
realm.34 In Weimar
Germany,
this
authority With the
in
questions of
of Germany
validity
in
no
longer
existed.35 the
defeat of the
World
War One and organic The advent
establishment seemed Republic
Republic with dis-
the
postulated
unity of the
threatened saw the
solution.
institution-
alization
the
of pluralism
in Germany,
at least
in the
for them the
view
meant
of
Historicists. democracy." institutions
Parliamentary Their formed formula to realize
democracy was the simple:
"party were
parties interests
material
of specific
of the chaotic
social
social
groups;
sphere
these
interests
of the
were
the
product
sphere
and not
organic
of Geist. action
Hence,
a state
which
was based subordinated
on the the
intersphere of
of parties
was one which
101
Geist
to
the
sphere unity
of to
material chaos. the that
interests,
one
which
subordinated This was the party, Marxist, described terests. merely
antipathy by party reformist word.
toward the at fact the in
pluralism the Social of
of
the
Republic were This that which inis,
reinforced strongest while in
Democrats the Republic.
beginning deed,
remained was a world in terms the
radical, view of
And Marxism and its
society For reflected by the
meaning Marxist,
material of Geist was the philosophy
orthodox the the
sphere
socio-economic conflict amounted of to
sphere, interests. a mechanistic
which For
characterized Historicists, of chaos. Both ideas the of
Marxism
Marxism Historicism.
and
party The realm unity who
democracy Historicists was was
rejected believed
the
elitist that of since shared
meaningful and
spatial since the the that elite
an organic provided by the spatial relegated
unity the values
values, of Geist,
sphere of
then for
interpreted
Geist Marxist the and, to
spoke
entire other
meaningful hand, of
realm. this elite group elite to
theory, of
on the
role
representative held the entire that
a specific claims of spatial
interest the academic realm
therefore, speak for and
any
meaningful
were
spurious
ideological.
102
The demise had been of the cultural dominated. deal with charged
of the with naturally
traditional the defense caused
political of the uneasy Historicist Historicism which crisis.
elite, spiritual
which unity
nation, elite,
feelings world
among the view preto
among whom the first time,
For the
was forced rejected its
a socio-political Here was the not all root
reality of the
premises. Still, the the 1920's. internal
Historicists perception
perceived consisted doctrine
a "crisis"
in of and,
This
of a recognition of Historicism its basic did
weaknesses
in the
at the premises. not
same time,
an unwillingness of Historicists,
to abandon the group,
One group36 the to
largest, the that
perceive
weaknesses. the
A second crucial
smallest, history
was willing was an ethical realm effect formed ceased to
abandon concept
premises, the meaningf'ul
and that unity
spatial This they group in
an organic
of valuation. (even though It is
to be Historicists the historical call of this the "crisis
remained group,
committed
method).
the
third
whom I shall focal their point
Historicists," However, briefly before discuss
who are the examining the other
section.
problems,
we must first
two groups. The first Weimar democracy this group of Historicists their remained lives. as hostile spoke to for
throughout
Below
group when he denounced
democracy
"the devastation
103
and waste Its
of the
nation" the in the
(volksverheerend problems doctrine that
und -verzehrend).37 were not to an
members believed
of Historicism itself, could
due to a weakness attack from without, the
but rather be repelled.
an attack in the
They viewed England
Republic the war --
same way as they foreign to
viewed the or-
during
as something
German spirit. ganicism, around politic poem, reflects
They advocated for flag rallying
a corporate, traditional to cleanse it.
statist elements the
a program a monarchist of democratic
in order
body
forces
infecting
The following in 1920,
delivered these
before views.
an academic
audience
Let not Bismarck die within yout Don't give it up, the banner attainedl Will yourself, German landt Will yourself, master misfortunel Bismarck was dead, is no longer deadt In your soul, which awakes, 38 He arises for you, returns and lives! Thus there torical which All was no feeling of the need the theory to reformulate of valuation, doctrine.39 the Resurhis-
problems,
to rethink a part
was so important
of the
Historicist for
one could of the Thinkers
do was simply Bismarckian of the denied of the the second the iron
hope state. group,
and wait
rection
men like
Max Weber and to those they of not the
Otto golden only
Hintze, days rejected
possibility chancellor. statist
of returning However, organicism
corporate
104
first message
group,
but
the monadic
type
of organicism. famous address, is spheres each
Their t"Science in
was contained
in Weber's
as a Vocation:' principle stand While toricist kind this because
"'Scientific' the various conflict
pleading value with quite in that
meaningless
of tne world other."40 (by Histhat some
in irreconcilable Hintze's position
was not
as radical he held
standards) of cultural conviction
as Weber's syntnesis
was possible, an extent that
he qualified he removed that himself
to
such
from the should it
Historicist try to
camp. "overcome the task
He wrote itself," which -the
Historicism words, the of a stanHintze that
not
in other had precipitated establishment spatial
should
abandon first for
crisis
in the
place
dard of values wrote:
the meaningful
realm.
Only the ethical will can overcome Historicism, and as soon as we are forced to deal with the ethical will, we are forced to consider the problem of value as well, a problem we have tried to exclude from our methodological discussion up to this point.... In the interests of a clear methodology, I should prefer to conceive of Historicism as nothing more than another mode of thought. another set of methodological categories.41 This group, while were highly essentially respected by their within fellow the academics, univer-
nonetheless sity
outsiders
community.42 The third group, the the first "crisis two. Historicists," Like occupied
a position
between
the Weber group,
105
they
realized the
that
the
Second statist
Reich
was
gone
forever
and wrote by the disci-
rejected in 1918:
corporate
position. will one as be
Meinecke accompanied as the
"Further
socialization the also But very while
further other."43 pline were believe nation. of not
democratization, They were
inescapable to
sympathetic the they crisis did unity
sociology.44 political in the
Historicists continue of the to German
reactionaries, intellectual-spiritual wrote:
Spranger
The most interesting of the structure of the aspect of history is the coalescence of scientific philosophy of values; objectivity with a lively affirmation a state in opposition of affairs to Max Weber's which, attempt to prune sciences' role in valuation, away the cultural showed even more strongly that such a role was at the very roots of the cultural sciences. Here we agree with Ernst Troeltsch, who, in his "Historicism," called special attention to this reciprocity between historical consciousness and a living standard of values.45 Despite (either members in in their these their from of democratic the heart or convictions, simply the from which reason) Historicists view. in the they with shared the continued The problem German them aristocracy democracy....The to to refine be carried it and people all. is
Weber's
group, and
crisis world instill
idealist men's eyes
organicist how the to values and with
was of
a new Again
consciousness Meinecke:
which spiritual
united
"Intellectual
by no means values into protect the it of
incompatible our spiritual
political
aristocracy...have in order
political against
democracy, degeneration."46
106
The crisis if allowed
Historicists to its
assumed full the
that
the
personality, would auto-
to develop be in accord Essentially
potential, objective
matically nation.
with they
Geist
of the between to
envisioned
a relationship life the
socio-political that sibility meaningful learning
and cultural-intellectual Germany, in which organic on the
similar prime
of pre-Bismarckian for
respon-
the maintenance realm
of the fall
unity shoulders of the
of the of
spatial and culture their
would
rather spatial
than idealist
on those
state.
Accordingly, rather than
organicism of the
was monadic personality
corporate,
and the
rescue
from materialist main themes during
and v8lkisch the
collectivism
was one of their
Republic.47 of histcry of the was assigned an
Naturally, important of history, of for the role
the
discipline rescue
in the
personality.
The task
wrote
Troeltsch, Geist, making. the values
was to awaken a consciousness to prepare the German people to provide
German national
modern decision between
It was necessary of the would past
continuity modern True,
end the new one. was
setting. the discipline within
History's needed its ranks, in the
role the
be a synthetic which specialization
specialization this
increasing always Since itself,
however, framework with not the follow
had to occur history the
of a larger problems the
perspective.
was concerned historian could
of life of the
example
107
natural of to his
scientist research.
and There a new
retreat would of
into have history
the to
specific be and a new
problems dedication in the replace such
synthesis, as
union
philosophy for would
a manner entire the It old was
would
provide
a new Weltanschauuing This new world been this found new view to
German
people.48 which
Historicism, the the divisions crisis of
had
be wanting. that pro-
blocking Historicism.
synthesis
voked
Meinecke
lamented:
of individual This endless which we are pluralism values .is discovering now in our everywhere.. able, especia'lly to again us into thrust gloomy position, confusion and us helpless. is Individuality leave Everything following its own laws, is flux... How are we to emerge everything from this of values? From Historicism, anarchy how does one again come to a science of values?49 Meinecke's identify The of of crisis an age value, the statement problem is of revealing value asked to such in relativism themselves an eternal was man. that he as continued a temporal the to one. values
Historicists were or traceable whether
whether unchanging at best
sphere a thing-inSpranger,
a sphere
itself,
unknowable
by historical
An Eduard
an Ernst take ever, organic notion
Robert
Curtius positions
and an Ernst concerning the meaningful They would
Troeltsch this
would
all How.was an
different all
question. realm
assurmed that spiritual unity.
spatial not
entertain as they
the main-
of
spatial
relativism. organicist the
And as long conception between
tamned their ful spatial
monadic realm,
of the meaningthat realm and
relationship
108
the just
entire as The it
flow always great they
of
history had been for
could for the the
remain Historicists. crisis
a matter
of
faith
--
problem defended of the of
Historicists political were unwilling
was and to within of their on the Rather
that, social grant the
while
pluralistic they
structure the existence
Republic, competing realm. v8lkisch were
Weltanschauungen The main theories true victory irrationality In other world of thrust was
meaningful
spatial and
attacks denial they
on Marxism that were these seen interests organic as
based
theories the or
views. individual at words, as the than the the
temporary of total sphere.
material of sis ment the
expense the cri-
spiritual interpreted essential
Historicists of the
their
crisis rather
abandonas its
spiritual Their and the solution
unity
fractionalization. of the individual so to did not that his proper give
remained of his
education
realization interests The to Geist, the the
spiritual be subordin-
essence ated then might
material place.50
could crisis
their not be
Historicists that might there be other whose
credence
conLention that there spatial to
an objective within was the of
Weltanschauungen claim to validity to
meaningful strength
realm
equal of
theirs. Geist, a unity
Chained
concept
an objective
of meaning
they charged
and values
science
for
with
the meaningful
the task of
spatial
discovering
realm,
what that
109
objective
Geist Historicists
was.
Unwilling and reject
to
follow
the
corporate
statist
democratic
institutions,
but
also
unwilling
task of
to follow
science and
Weber's
the organic
group
and reject
of
the
ethical
unity
values,51
they
to to
remained
--
in a quandary.
to purity to the the to isolate of
The options
the university
that
appeared
from on with its society
open
them
either the or
preserve
scientific lines of might were
decisions communication reassert
validity,52 society leadership both only spatial of its refused one so
improve
that of
university
spiritual since be
nation53--
equally that for
pathetic, there the could meaningful be the the value-
abandon
the
premise
"scientific" realm and that In the
Weltanschauuni the refusing nation, the university to the
should
judge
validity. within to -never interpret of finding
recognize crisis as one world with
pluralism tinued tivism thus Despite Historicism never really
Historicists of temporal view the for
conrelathe age,
problem organic grips
a new coming that to
really belief when did.
problem. the old they relation-
their
they
could the discussions
"overcome" new synthesis, about
they All
discovered their
the
ship the total the
of
a new cultural of the of history, of relativism
synthesis present
with cultural
the
old unity
one, with
or about the
relationship stream problem
were useless within
since
they
skirted spatial
the meaningful
110
realm. Since organicist to the crisis premises, large premises of segments of of the nation the were rejected proposed always the basic
Historicism, which pipedreams.
solutions based on
Historicism, were mere
these
The monadic
organi-
cist,
as
cultural
obsolete as
solution
the
of the
crisis
Historicists
statist
was just
solution
corporate
organicist,
of
their
fellow
historians. this paper,
The perceptive quickly
Karl
Mannheim, the
of His-
with
futility
whom I opened
of his Within admitted the
came to realize
on the future of
optimistic five years
statements of his failure would views the fail) which
toricism. he new would conflict gies modern the had
advocacy
Historicism, developed it. social ideolothe discipline, socially multimeaningful multiof lay Hisin This its tablets He a
doctrine's also
and had to succeed
discipline regard (the or utopias, world.
(which those ideal both His of
world of
transcended as "unmasking" on group, either in
Historicists) for
destined would and which
hopes
now rest a new
a new the the the of that
sociology
knowledge,
unattached plicity spatial plicity toricism, the belief idea has of
intelligentsia, Weltanschauunqen The Historicist
incorporated within
competing rejection
realm. was
abandoned.54 Becker,
As an earlier wrote: or "The value
antagonist of history
Carl of
a factual been
transcendental it will never
objectivity. return,
shattered;
111
have past.
been "55
broken
to pieces...
.The
age of Historicism
is
112
I was
aided
in
my research
for
this
essay
by
a fellow-
ship
from the
Deutscher
Akademischer
Austauschdienst
(DAAD).
view of the mainI mean the world 1By "Historicism," and in the nineteenth thought of German historical stream by Friedrich has been described which centuries, twentietn Georg Iggers. and more recently, Ernst Troeltsch, Meinecke, of "Historicism," Karl Miannheim, ed. Paul Kecskemeti Knowledge, G. Iggers, 1968), 2 in the Sociology Essays p. 8L4. 1968), (TLondon, of History Die
3Georg (Niddletown,
The German Conception 270. 125-127, pp. M-9,
Troeltsch, 4Ernst vol. neue Rundschau, 5Ibid., 6See especially p. 590.
des Historismus," "Die Krisis 1 (1922), p. 573. 33, pt.
Gustav Johann p. 182. "The in to
Droysen,
Historik
(Darmstadt,
1974),
7Troeltscn, World Politics," OL Society,1500 p. 209. 19)0), and
in Law and Humanity of Natural Ideas Law and the Theory iiatural Otto Gierke, (Boston, ernest barker 1&00, trans. Louis Wirth
8See Mannheim, Edward Shils
trans. Ideolo and Utopia, nd), p. 27L. (New York, History Eden and
9Heinrich Nineteenth vol. 1919),
von Treitschke, trans. Cet ur, 5, p. 611.
of Germany in the Cedar Paul (London, von 1916),
10 Georg von Below, den Befreiungskriegen p. 11. 11For Hegel, of Geist realm the individual.
Geschichtschreibung Die deutsche Tagen bis zu unseren (Leipzig, a moment entity, conceiving
was "Individuality" and not a historical against He warned
of the universal the particular, it in this
latter
way in his
Phenomenology
of Mind,
trans.
J.B.
But the Historicists p. 333. 19b7), (New York, Baillie against. warned what Hegel seem to have done just themselves was philosophy of Hegelian one of the criticisms Indeed, Die von Ranke, See Leopold it was too abstract. that 2 of Aus Werk und Nachvol. der neueren Geschichte, Epochen and and Helmut Schieder (Munich ed. Theodor lass, Berding of the differences For an account p. 63. 1971), Vienna, see Erich School, and the Historical Hegel between
113
in die Einleit,un Rothacker, stadt, pp. 62-7L. 1972), Troeltsch, "Natural
Geisteswissenschaften p. 211.
(Darm-
Law and Humanity,t"
on Politics," 13Ranke, "A Dialogue Laue, Leonold Ranke: The Formative p. 162. Der Historismus 14Troeltsch, P Buch: Das Logische Ti Ibingen, 1922), P. 36.
in Theodore H. von Years (Princeton, 1950), Probleme; Erstes
und seine
und "Allgemeine Kulturgeschichte 15Eduard Spranger, Archir fir KulturEr5ffnungsbericht," ?iethodenlehre: vol. 9 (1911), p. 366. geschichte, 16Rothacker, Loyik schaften (Darmstadt, und Systematik p. 114. 1970), des Geisteswissen-
J.G. 17Hayden White makes this argument concerning in NineThe Historical Ima ination Herder in M4etahistory: 1973), pp. 70-74. teenth-Century Europe (Baltimore, is on this question 18The classic statement deutscher "Drei Generationen Gelehrtenpolitik," vol. 125 (1922), Zeitschrift, pp. 248-283. p. 19See, 66. 20Ranke,
p. 10.
Meinecke, Historische
lor
example, "Dialogue
Below,
Deutsche
Geschichtschreiben,
on Politics," ed.
p. 168. 1963), 84.
21Treitschke, 22Below,
Politics,
Hans Kohn (New York, pp. 54-56,
Deutsche
Geschichtschreiben,
23Helmut Schelsky, und Freiheit: Einsamkeit der deutschen und inrer Gestalt Universitgt second edition (Ddsseldorf, 1971) , p. 64. 24Quoted in Leonard Krieger, p. 488. (Boston, 1957),
Idee und Heformen, of Freedom
The German Idea
in Alexander von "Deutsche Bildung,," 25Troeltsch, Weltanschauung (ed.), Der Leuchter; Gleichen-Russwurm p. 200. (Darmstadt, 1919), Lebensgestaltung
und
114
der Gegenwart Die deutsche 26See Spranger, Bildungsideal in gesenichtsphilosophischer Beleuchtung (Leipzig, 192b), P. 64. 27For an extreme statement of this denunciation of the Western type, see Werner Sombart, Hgndler und Helden: Patriotische Besinnungen (lviunich, pp. 9-16. 1915), Ernst Rober't Curti-s, 28Treitschke, Politics, p. 26. the kind of excessive arguing in 1932 against nationalism which Treitschke had represented and in favor of a cultural used basically internationalism based on the classics, the of society same conception that Treitschke See did. Curtius, Deutscher Geist in Gefahr (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1932), pp. bO-9b. One could say that this view was typologized by Ferdinand T8nnies' book, Communitv and und Gesellschaft) Soc (Gemeinschaft in which the latter term characterized atomistic, materialistic, abstract relationships. This is especially true if one accepts Rene K8nigts interpretation that T8nnies viewed the Gesellschaft as nothing more than the absence of Gemeinschaft. See K8ni, "Die Begriffe Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft bei Ferdinand T8nnies," K8lner Zeitschrift fMr Soziologie und vol. 7 (1955), SozialDsychologle, p. 407. Tdnnies believed tnat the highest form of Gemeinschaft was founded on the unity of Geist. The disintegration of the spiritual organic Gemeinschaft into the materialistic, mechanistic Gesellschaft was exactly what historicists feared. It would be to insinuate unfair that T8nnies' view was nationalistic (he saw the nation as a form of Gesellschaft), but many of the book's admirers did draw nationalistic conclusions from it. 29Dietrich Die deutsche Geschichtswissenshaft Fischer, von J.G. Droysen bis 0. Hintze in ihrem Verhgltnis zur Even earlier, (Kbln, 1966), Soziologie Ranke PP. 30-31. the same view. had basically See Rudolf Vierhaus, Ranke und die soziale Welt (Mdnster, pp. 99-104. 1957), 30Georg Simmel, The Sociology of Georg Simmel, trans. and ed. Kurt H. Wolf (1~ew York 9. This was the argument made by Below in his well-known exactly polemic against sociology, Soziologie als Lehrfach, Ein kritischer zur Hochschulreform. Beitrag (Miunich and Leipzig, 1920), especially PP. 49-57. 31See for example Spranger, Deutsche pp. 60-61. Also, Below, Die Entstehung (Jena, 1928), p. 23. Bildunasideal, der Soziologie
115
32 Gustav "Wechselnde Theorien und feststehende Schmoller, Wahrheiten im Gebiete der Staatsund Sozialwissenschaften und die heutige deutsche Volkswirtschaftslehre." Schmollers vol. 21 (1897), Jahrbuch, pp. 1395-101, 1L04-1407. This did not mean that Schmoller and the Verein fdr Sozialpolitik, which he headed, were total reactionaries who the modern world. completely rejected In fact, they were reformers. But while could Schmoller accept industrialism and crusade for imDroved factory conditions, he could never accept social ss something conflict inherent in the nation. Reforms were designed to preserve the organic to whole, maintain harmony, to bring the workers into tune with the rest of the nation. Schmoller always believed that some higher unity should prevail over the divisive material interests of bourgeois and proletarians. See Dieter Lindenlaub, im Verein RichtungskfmDfe fIr Sozialpolitik (Wiesbaden, pp. 3, 90.-_ 19-67), 33Ibid. 34The social, institutional and intellectual basis of this position of moral authority is presented in Fritz K. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1690-1933 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), especially chapters one and two. I am much indebted to Ringer's book, which is crucial to an understanding of the period. 35Charles McClelland writes that the historians correctly are perhaps the best reflection of intellectual trends in nineteenth century Germany. The German Historians and A Stud'r in Nineteenth-Century England; Views (Cambridge, 1971 ), p. 6. Tlhis was no longer true during the Weimar Republic, a fact that most Historicists could not admit to themselves. This lack of touch with the social and political reality of Weimar Germany was an important theme in Carl Becker's pamphlet calling for reforms in the university. See Becker, Gedanken zur Hochschulreform (Leipzig, pp. 9-14. 1920), Becker's attack caused great concern in Historicist circles. 36The categorizing that the Historicists groupings. 37Below, Die (ed.), darstellungen, 38Quoted of groups themselves is my own. I do not claim were conscious of these
Autobiographical sketch in Sigfrid Steinberg Geschichtswissenschaft der Gegenwart in Selbstvol. 1 (Leipzig, p. LO. 1925-1926), in Ringer, German Mandarins, p. 227.
116
Krill, Die Rankerenaissance: 39See for example, Hans-Heinz Marcks 1962), p. 197. Max Lenz und Erich (Berlin, From Max Weber, ed. 40Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," Mills (New York, and C. Wright 1958), and trans. H.H. Gerth "'Science as a p. 147. Also see Friedrich H. Tenbruck, and R. H3rstel (eds.), Vocation' in E. Forsthoff Revisited," Standorte im Zeitstrom: Festschrift fif'r Arnold Gehlen (Frankfurt, 1974). of Histori"Troeltsch Hintze, and the Problems 41Otto of Otto The Historical Essays cism: Critical Studies," Gilbert ed. Felix pp. Hintze, (New York, 1975), 407, 373. 42See Gilbert's "Drei Generationen introduction deutscher to Ibid. Also Gelehrtenpolitik," Meinecke, p. 282. Welt Einzelund
der Geschichtlichen Die Bedeutung 43Meinecke, der ftir die Bildung des Geschichtsunterrichts personlichkeit Berlin, 1918), p. 33.
with 4AThis Meinecke cited apparent sympathy varied. of sociology in 1916 Alfred Dove's denunciation approval as a "Wortmaskenverleihinstitut." See "Alfred Dove," Historische 116 (1916), 96. During Zeitschrift, vol. p. the disciDline Weimar, Meinecke seems to have accepted Troeltsch, "from reason," much as he did the republic. for the work of showed tre other hand, great sympathy own work can be called sociologists, and some of his sociological. 5Spranger, L6Quoted in Deutsche Ringer, Bildungsideal, German Mandarins, Deutscher "Neinecke's Thinking," Medieval
p.
on
11. p. 212.
47See for example Curtius, N. Anderson, see Eugene Also in Historical and the Crisis and Eugene N. Anderson (eds.),
Geist, pp. 16, 96. Ideengeschichte in James Lea Cate and Historiographi-
cal ESsays in Honor of James Westfall Thom'so Chicago, In fact, looking back on the 1938), pp. 367, 3d7-3d5. entire crisis and the resulting Nazi Tyranny Meinecke still See The German opted for this monadic cultural solution.
Catastroohe,
11 b.
trans.
Sidney des
B.
Fay
(Boston, pp.
19647,
pp. 115-
* Troeltsch,"Krisis
Historismus,"
584-589.
des pp. Histor223-224.
49Meinecke, und das "Ernst Troeltsch ismus," Schaffender (Stuttgart, Spiegel
problem 1948),
117
50 Their emphasis was on the education of the elite rather than the whole populace. They saw the masses as the place where materialism and irrationality won their easiest victories. The masses were like Schiller's Naturmensch, material unbalanced toward natural needs at the expense of the spiritual. Thus while the crisis hoped to Historicists provide some degree of Bildung for the masses, their main concern was for those who would provide leaderspiritual ship for the masses. These leaders would instill in the masses the only valid world view for the new meaningful spatial realm. See, for example, Alfred Weber, "Die Bedeutung der geistigen Fihrer in Deutschland," Die neue Rundschau, vol. 29 (1918), pp. 1262-1268. 51This was especially difficult for Troeltsch, who was a friend and great admirer of Weber. However much Weber's ideas influenced Troeltsch's the latter writings, could not bring himself to accept the concept of a value-free science. Troeltsch defended Weber during this staunchly period of crisis, but only up to a certain Doint. See Troeltsch, "Die Revolution in der Wissenschaft," Gesammelte Schriften, vol. 4 (Tibingen, 1925), p. 673. 2 This was the position of Curtius in Deutscher Geist in Gefahr, especially pp. 73-78. 53Friedrich von der Leyden suggested that educational institutes be set up in conjunction with the university to promote the German ideal and create a German politics out of the total Gerrman Geist. "Gedanken 7ur Hochschulreform," Deutsche vcl. Rundschau, 1b4 (1920), p. 253. Histcricists n general hoped to harness the active youth movement to promote a new spiritual synthesis. The importance of establishing spiritual leadership for the vounger generation was the theme of Spranger's colleague Aloys Fischer in the inaugural volume of the Dedagogical journal they founded for this very purpose. TUnsere Zeit und die Mission der PHdagogik," Die Erziehung, vol. 1 (1926), pp. 1-7. 5L0f course many Historicists did not follow Mannheim and continued to interDret the crisis as a temporal one. Karl Heussi's contribution in 1932, although providing some fine specific insights concerning methodology, is nothing more than a re-statement of Troeltsch's position. Heussi frequently cited Mannheim's earlier essay, "Historicism," but not the later Ideology and Utonia. See Heussi, Die Krisis des Historismus (Tdbingen, 1932), especially pp. 6577.
118
"Der Wandel1 irm geschichtlichen 55Carl H. Becker, Die neue Rundsctiau, vol. Bewusstsein," 38, pt. 1 (1927), pp. 113-114.
119

German Historicism and Its Cricis

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German Historicism and Its Crisis Author(s): Colin T. Loader Source: The Journal of Modern History, Vol.

German Historicism Colin T. Loader

University In 1924, announced following

of Nevada, a young his

Las Vegas immigrant named Karl Mannheim the

the needs could could

was a philosophy moving that

"forces... He believed a system German came at

from some point could

a Weltanschauung, for the chaotic

and valuation, Mannheim's

a time very had

uncertain. to doubt for

Many people, whether the Historicism Germany will of

values which belief,

directly provided data culvalues. --

by Mannheim, method with and

an academic together provided (which the

a world made history

Historicism) the doctrine in other

accompanied toricism the of that doubt valuation. lay at was

essentially science It the was

relativistic, could the of actually

relativization the I crisis

Georg characteristics normativitgt," normative

Iggers of the terms.

main was of "Antiin

German rejection He means

historical of that the

possibility thus making

and eternal of any part

unchalpotentially avoided When

lengeable entailed only by

broke Iggers' Ernst

of Historicism follows that that

sulted.3 Historicist Historicism essence flow

interpretation Troeltsch, from the itself... in the

who wrote internal .Here

we see and ever past

new individualand in the answer of faith to

ization, direction this

of an unknown future."4 relativism of history.5 of Iggers

and Troeltsch essay is

basito which with-

an important satisfactorily why did Since the the

question answer crisis problem of of

interpretation some modification, occur

Historicism relativism ginning, the early

was inherent why did 1920's?

in Historicism not all,

Ranke had written relativistic

to God, a blatantly Treitschke

statement. similar that herent the

And men like concerns.6 crisis arose doctrine the

and Droysen above

had is infrom the real

The answer not

of Historicism, for solving

but rather the very

problems and the another cists' set

in World War One Or put Histori-

establishmeint way, inability the crisis

to guarantee but rather existence 1920's. crisis

of a universal inability for the to German