Elementary Particles

BY ENRICO TERMI

NEw FtvEN: YALE t NIvn asr?r Pntss

UNIVERSI?f
PNESS

TED EILLIMAN FOUNDATION

oJ eishty thousand Aoll,rs Y&le ao\ese in the cila ol Fellaus d aas leJt to ttrc Presit:lent and Nen Ilauen, to hc hekl in trust, as a silt lrcm her chiLbm, in memary

In

the sear

t88s a leltdc!

Cawilltt,

1951,hu

lot. Lalnvi\ Pt.ti

Pr'ii..l in lE

United Statu aJ Anr.tit:u

SuantJ

FiBt PahlilL.l, Mat!, 1951 Printrts, /1xsrtt, M)e

LIrs. He?'a Elv Silliman. On tlis loudation Yale Collese uas req\ested anA .lirected to esldblish '1n annllal alse o! Iectves desisned ta iLlu'trak the tfesencc antl, prol)iLenc., the uis|lo'r. ar^,] goodncss al God' as naniJesled in thc naLural and narul uo d These uere to be de$isnaled s.s tlw Mts. Hepsa Dt! Siltirnan Menorial Lectutes ll uas the beL;el oJ the testatar that an! or(lerl! presentatian al tlrc lacb ol nature at historu cantributed to Lhe enl oI tlis tounLlattion nrore ellectiuela tlnn
ol their
belo\ed, and hanored mathet,

tislts tsetre'l Thi{ baa| nds tat l)r r.r,odked, it uhoL. nL ytt. in LL! Tnnr

dr!

attempt to emphdsi1e the clenents oJ doctrine or aJ crecd; antl he

lotuptltl tri.1trttsJot th. pnblit p ti),n:nh att ritbr pd"tirian ,onL the PrbliiLo!

that lrctwes on dogmatic ar palemical theolosu shouLl. be enludett Jram the scope al this launalatian, and tlwt the subjccts shaltld, be sclecle.l rather !rcn the donains oJ nalwal science and. histar!, giting $pecial praminP'rLce tn astronoma, chenishv, geolthcreJore prarided uas Jltflher d;rected that edch annual aLrsc should be w1d.e th! basis o! a talune Ia lann r)ot ol tr scties canstitut;ns a llut&rial ta Mrs. Silhnan The memarial lund came intn the pcl'

It

ydle Ltnil)ersila in lhe lear 19a1; and the prcscnt lnorh con:tlitutes the thirtietk Mlume published on lhis
sessian oJ the CorporaLion oJ

-v

Foreword
Wiih nunerous additions and subtractioDs thc present book contains the matorial presented by ilre author in the Sillimar l-ctures at Yale Unir-crsity in lpril, 1950. Six lct:ures for tho genral public snd six lcctures lor ttle physics students were given. In this rewritins ihe subject matter of tlre latier has been emphasized and amplincd. IIany of the lheoretical papers on the subject of elmentaw pariiclc; and of Ureir intcra(tions are 1'ery dimcult reading ercept for r small, highly specializcd sroup of theoreticnl physlcists. Ttis

book is not $'ritten for thrit sroup. It attempls insiead to make accessiblc to a larg-"r mrnber ol shrdenis and, I hope, e larae frac, tion of experjmLjrtal phtsicists so c ol the most signilicant rosults of tbe 6eld ihoodes of elemeniiary particles that can be under stood, at leasii in s semi quantitaiive wry, \Lithout e{cessive mrthe matical apparal,us- A rcader $ho has lo o$'d understood a neclanics should sood Etandard univcrsity course in quanlum ^nd not firld sedous djfrcutiics in the follo{'ing putsris. I have not been able io sivc jn the text rdeqrLaic references to tbe rerjr extensive originr,l litcrs,ture. I am afruid, also, that in se\''ral instarccs I lnav noii ha\,c succeeded in givins du. crdit to Ure origin{tor of a paticuhr iden. I rpologize for the omissions. l'ortunately rn xcellent "cu e to tlle l-iteraturc ol Elcmentary Particles Physics" has been prcparert recently by Tlomno and wleler (,,lnen.lr?' Sci.n,ist, s7, Apdl and Juty, 1919), ond tte reader is relerred to it lor much dctail. A list of books rnd reliew aruclcs in {'lich cxknsive additional information can be found is
appendcd here.

II. n. Beihc, lllementrry

87, 1932.
1944_

Nuclear Theory, Ncrv York, 1917.

'l\'. Hejtler, Qu{ntum Theory of Ra.li:rtion, Oxford Univ.

l,reEs,

E. J. Konopinski, "Bela Dccay," Rr. Motl. Ph!'i. 15,209, t943.

V
FOEEI''OND

W. lauli, I{son l'heorY, Nex' York. 1946i "Relativistic Field Thcories of Elementary Ps,rti0les." Rrr. Moal. PhtJs. 1s' 203'

\u.t,er fo-... \r\v Yorl,, lqrS .r s"t'*1"*.-. QL r "m Ih ''Jtnani'r" Pi's f'' );

1941.

Ro.cn"e'o.
1948:

r439'

Contents

65I, 1949i7n,790, 1949 J Tiomno and J A \lheelcr' "spcctrum of Eleclirons from l4eion Decrv. ' /?nr. f,fnd. Phlr' 21, 1+s, 1q79 c \\enL)e].a,n|mT\'""Jo'f 'ld'. \'$ Y rk ll19: Be'"nr Rcsear0h in tr{eson Thcorv," Rt,. Mod Ph't/s 19' I' l9!\7
Chi.cago, Seplember

*.

One. Qu&nta or o Field as P&riicles r 1. IntrcdLclion

'

l95A

I
Field
a
12

2.

t. S.al6

The ELectranagnctic

Field

4. Fiekl oJ Ch setl Scalar Patticles 10 5. Particks Abeging th. Pauli Ptinciple TYo. lnira.tioD ol

uih Mass

i\e Ficlds

16

6. Gen al TlpB aJ Interd.tion !t) 7. Con*Naton aJ Monentw n 8. Ylkaba ltutatdcti.ans 2\

Ather Intetuclions 26
aJ

!0. Cdlcxlation
11.

Der.l,.pnent Patmelers 32

'lransitial Eatet

30

TLree, 'l'he Itrteioction Consl,aris 36

1t, glecttonasnctic md yLkdud Intarar:tia

Canstdnts

ts.

DecaiJ aJ the Pion ds Dtrrdr 14. 'l lLe BeLa Interaclion 39

Pr...ss
41
4t"

38

1n. Spa an.aLs Dq:all aJ the

1A. lrarcetl

lrhlar

D.ca!

aJ the

MLon

Four. Pions, Nucleons, PntlLc[ion

.rd dnti-nucl-"oN
Pians ilL

a0

17. ylkaua'1hcoru aJ Ntclaat Fotces ,A

18. aJ

19. Ef.4.t ltn NL.leafl Bonn 5E 10. P ad a. n at r 'r. h, Go1^o \'o . t. ti1 . Captue aJ i-csati"?, Pions b! Pratons 66 22. Scatterins oJ Pians by Nucl.nns 1-0 23. 'l'he Anti, tLucleolt,. ,\nniliLatiaL 73 ,4. Decalt aJ lln l:ethal Pion in ) Tat PholoB 76 95. StaListl.dl. Tlbotlt aI Pian Pradtctiatu 79

Nrdah Colliia$

55

doN?tv?a
26, Collisions
oJ

lrdtelnel! EiqlL Eners! Patticl$

81

,. Seond Qumtization ui L PdLLi I'rin iple L LI.a |abiliti! o! the Fi.lds 101 ,1. Re atitisti. In\atidn e fi6
6. Eelaliorships
betueen Intera.tiatu

1. O)antizdLian oJ thc naAi66or

lrield

9L

9a

ltQT,lTlO^'8

Cor.stants rca Lspd

jnss the I'arious meaninss sre listed, somerjmes \r,ith indicatioD

:, r\is boot \ -l-cn I l...enF h,,Fr i.

This is a collcction of ihe notations most frcouen v

use, ror,.t %

-n, n er;-

d* o ,{ B c D , ' j /
d,

I)estruction and creation operators. Bohr mdius. \rector potential.

Plane wave spinor. Yelocity of light. Deuteron wave function. ElemeDtary lect c chaqe.

ft ,r t,
,i.

/ a nl M

l/.

ft li

SFnbol for elctron. Also amptitude of electron field. Yukawa bteraction conStant. Interaction constanij of pion decay. Composite interaction constant for pion production (secs. 18, 19,25). Constant of the beta interaction. htcraction constant for spontaneou6 muon dcay. Intcraction constant for forced muon de.'v . PleD.L co,r.renr , ,d p "n,.t cor.,er di!i;d b, 2" Hrnrlrorian or .'Fra. ion Hari' on,rD

Culrert densiiy.
l-agrrngian density. Mass of a pa:rticle, pariicularly electroD mass.
Mass of a nrcleor

t/
iv
p

lr'equeDtly used as number of particles in stat s. llrequently used as number of stnteE. Strnbol for the neutroD. Also amplitude ot neut.on field. S]'nbol lor the anti-neutron.
Momntum Symboi for ihe pmton. Also anplitude of the proton lield. Symbol for the anti proton. Relalive momentum (secs. 18, 19). Yolume of momentum space.

P
q

NOf.ITIONS

r s 7

1,(r)

U I

Vector of a pojnt in splce. Frequcntly used as index for a particlc state. Kinei,ic enersy. Iiisenfuncijon of a partjcle.

CEAPTER ONE

Potential of nuclear forces. Velocity, somelimes speed.

Quanta oJ'a Field as Particles

1, INTIIODUCTION

u I,II

Y. Yo Volumes (sccs.25,20). Energy of e pariicle including rcst mass. Total ene.sy ol rhe system. Energy of bombftrding nucleon in labomtory syslem. a Dirac rnatriccs (space componcnts and vecto.). 0 Dirac matrix (fourih component). Symbol for s. pholon. 7 Pohrization unit vector. De llrosljc $,ave length, ordinnry and dn cd by 2tr. SJ'nbol lor the muon. Also rrnptitude of mLLon field

r,i

p }ilass of pjonp1 l,Iass 0f muon. / Slnnhol Ior tire neut no. Also ampliiudc of neutino field. t Slmbol for t]]e anti nelrtrino. . Symhol for pion. Also nmplitude of pion field . Cross section. o I'auli spin operators. Lilelrime or invcrse jiransition rate. " TFmfFr|r. r' pr a-gJ u' r- '$ . 26\. / e Scftlar lielil amplitude. Fieki amplitlrde for particl.s $'ift Pauli principle 'y' o Angular lrequency. o Nomalizationl'olune.

Po.haps the most central problem in theoretical physics during the last iwenty years has beel Ure sesrch for a descdption of the elencntrry parriclcs and ol iheir interaotjons. The radiation theory oI Dnac aDd tho subsequent devetoprnent of quantum clectrodynamics form thc present basis tor our understanding of ihe eleciromasnetic fleld fld iis associarcd partictes, the photons. In paflicular, this theory is caplble of xplaining ihe processes of crcation of photons when light is emitted and of destruction of phoions \r'hen tighi i6 absortred. Thc field theories of other elementary particls are patterned on ihat of the phojron. The assumption is mado that for esch type of elnrcntsry parj,icte there exists an associatcd field of which the particles e the quanta. Tn additionto the electromsgnetic ficld an elecijror positron field, a nucleon frcld, several mcson fields, etc., llre also introduoed. The Nla"xwell equaiins that describe t}le macroscopic bebavior of the electromagnetic lield ha1'e bcen knos'n for a long time. It is therefore natural to rssume ihat the6e are the basic quations one should !.ttempt to q ontize in constructing a quaniLrm electrodlnanics. 'fhis has bccn done n'iilr { consjderable mccsure of success- Inthe prst twoorth.ee y*irs ihclast rmaining djfliculties associated with the inlinitc value of thc clectmmagnetjc mass and thc so-called vacuum pohdzal,ion hnvc been targely rcsolved through the $'ork of Bethc, Soh$'inser, Tononaaa. Feynman, and others. They hrvc been able to inieryrei satisfactority i,hc t,amb shiJt in the finc structure ol hydrogen ond tlie anomaly of the intrinsic magneiic moment of the elecuon rs due to the interaction with tihe radiaiion ficki. Next to the photons tlL partids ii'hich are bcst known experimenially rnd besi, undorstood ileoroticellv llre ihe clectrons and

QUANTA Otv

t FILt,D ls

PAnTlCLnS
jD

positrcns.

that lpplies ro rhc phoions. This can be,lotr","nh qllantization procedure ot Jordan aml \\iiener.
.

lectron-posirron field. .IIle proccdure ot quanlizntion rhis case rnust, LoweverJ Lc of a r1'pe sucli as to f.ietd th prrl p;;"i;i; for electuons and posirlons nrstead of ure Bose litnstein srat;si;cs

iivisiic cquarions ot Dirac rre irken

In the field theory of

leciroxs and positroDs the retaas rhe tiel,l eq.aij,rns

of;h;

elfflrui rnrl tlrc posiirl)n. l'his is nr)r tlc ontr narhemrrical porsibiljt]'. -ltiotir one hds boen slqgcste.:t Ly ilajrlrari in $.tictr lhere ls !o ioti nouirino. In the alp]nra on to the b{jta iheoi.
resulLs &s thc

tons ol r Dirac {rqurlion {hrt gives r\ro r,lpcs ot nentrino, ncLrtrino proper rnd anLi neLioino, rctrl,ed ro xch other lit<c thc

th"

principle alrd have spin 1/2 !,re rrsl,,rity atso dcscribediy a Dirac eo',j1r,io j,t,t

L:- .ol,\, ,c," r,. "..m t ,. tp. .ip, :!, ,.r i.r.t" I....0pr.., $, h.\pmld ldr i. ""\rFll".. at L,;qhdap "oi.,1e}J rFu,,urq $ni,.r ,i.i rh.,pJ...,rorF. _b.J rh,.px,.ti .r u.^.,,t.,.,u.c'.,.,ni"ur

"";;,;

l)itrr

iheory crccpi iD

Lhir ctlsc

rctxrl]I irr..ligrte,:t Ly l'irerrdn_ The belx ra\. i|ix)ry brldl on tlic cur,l.nro ttli)o resjs has hrd some
able dooblc bcta r)roc6sres
succels ;n cxr)i[n]iDs the serei[l li]ahu e-! of ihe beia disinregrations and in piri,icll,|r ihe (]nu.gJr djsirib|tion ol the emjri.!t etectrons.

ot ilre very inprob

:::l:l"i::."'or

the masneiic n)(,nent of ihc proion to bc 1 nuctcrr magncton and thrt of the-neutron ro bc 0. .the laci rhar Ule proron has irNiead a

hc n,r|r,.r ir r-:rr, its intrinsic mrsrctic monent is dirc(red parallel t" th;;;i; ,rn.. in. .,s :, is r^, h. ',1 or i t,"r r,.r"j -J u.d , ry :ll.l, Al1"" n"r'r^1. o. Jd;rion,, ."mpti-r oD ..r pr, ,.nrp.4d,p.,use h, rrp",f,, or hF Lr "b,,,t lr1 Ln4 .,ouJJ p\j,F.t

1:,^n--1.::.-, nF pLp' rror . Ilr,.!n n.Irru.. d T".. . ^l

rL,-

n' no!n'r"eri *iun' r'"'og''. 'h' ,.r Ji..of"r. J \pi,r prt a!..:u .i ncut,;n,
rn.,r,.,i_,, p,, i.,".-,",,",.,,,,,, 01,-

p."*n,

pxt,F,.upni.Lr

On the ol|cr h!nd. LLDr,il nor!,ro rerr y conrincirg torm ot ttris tL{xDv lllls Lc(, disc.jv.red. Tnstc ot oDc srristictuv ])eta rtrory

rl.r '-. \" to ., n,,. .p1..t op r\ sre'lt dc:'] of {ork 1]l1s bi:rn devoted to the tidd theorv ot .p, \ y,....,i Li.,rrr.r , ,"",1 ,""r"i,.,,
sh ou

lor ccs. 'lhe me-a )n ol YoLrrrl]

pn't. Ihe prrson ot porve (calted h"'r'n. r.,..' ',,',.t ,;4g.,, , p o,. o h. o,on, outr x'eihll. ]nrked i,o ihe nuchlns ard rlicretor.e ot lit e impotance in
ol Powcll (bricfll.,nlled lrere

td b irlcrrii fiecl

wiih the /-meson

Dj 1 I rr r' . , i"a is -. m,,,"o \F ,r ,..t ru,r ,.or,.r .:iuo l]" "", ,' 1"" ,.,, .rr nr,ion .rn.l I . r, ,ctr mo,{ ',. ,t .r,,ru jp., .,."..1"y.-F,, "r., 1J,- t", ".;:"i;. *h",".i..:,": or.,.snroi nlr. r..op..r:.. lrp ":1,.
,iF i i'.D.,..t,".a. . ,.1o\, o. ...-p Ld ,no \,o r t,.. p ..pi '
.

| n,,r,r.,.. or .i.Jrnr I mj F.F. .ns : r;{,c.,,: lllTrl s. rFIllj .rL,.r,,J ," ha, ri,n" .t.,n".., 'u.r-j .,..1qrrr.,.no

the expliDralion oI nn.rlc.lr lorfes.'fho yukxv''a rlieorvhas proved a verv Yrlu able gui<l: in erpcrimenlat rcscrirch and probabty {xDtxins manv corr(jOt le.rds io a firiure theorl. In pa.tirrlar, it is plri,ly responsiLl. l0r the (lisc,:,rery of Ure productim ot nesons in the collision ol hst nucl(xms. Or tlrc orhcr hrnd, Lhe lttemprs to put tlis theory in a quan{itrti\ c lorm l1arc h&d 1,ely ncdiocre success. Olton r pond(,ous nrrthemrti(jrl apparatls js used in rtcrir-ing rcsults ihal ere no bctier tl'xtr coutd be obiaincrl bv r skeiehv

vill p(

. . rtrr' , or

. r'" ..1r..

en. ,r I

ri.

rcps iDprore only

,.,..":.,,..,^"" rp | .,.rp.1t .rres

rhen nore erp(jrimenist informrtion

r., ..r.,,,"

,,",

becomcs a1-ailablc

:._:l:lr..,r.pr"m.,,

The existcnce of rhe r.ui,rino hls bcen suqgosicd by l)auli as an .

rr,.,:

.r

.\rFn pt j-'l., /t .. r'. n.r I s . p-i."pv.q .. r,..,r . Ir. .p,n is Lrlie! d t^ be r 2; it. m,renciit rrumeni eitt, r' th" th""; ;i ;i,;;;;;;;;,' l"'::il1;:T";"f#l

"n.F ,.,, "

",.a,r,,,,

* Hfif

treooneot of tlio ioid r:hdn.ies Llrr rxther ro erenplity semi_ qlrrnrill1iire ploc(Irres lhnt are sjmltc rnd mry be helptul in the irterpreiation of rixpe Dre ts. Tnere gre serer cases jn i,hictl not rnucl irould he gained bv a morc elaboftte marticnatical trcrtD en i. since a convnrcing ir(jatment hlt,norycir ireend;scolered In othei chcs the quditrtjrc dis(jussion prosr,"nrcd trere mev scrve

io point the s'ry tr) {| corrcct under;tanding. 'l'he r)rrrpose ol this djsc ssion is noi to aiicDrpi a m!,itrematjcal

3s0|i rodu,ion

,t"ra". u1,o.l I,""uLj,.,.r "

Q.Li.lNTA

Ol A FiELD

'15

PInTICLLS

1'IIE

1I

LECTNOM/1IiNETIC

FIEI,D

$ritli this riirormalizrti(n

9. IIl E LLECTROII'IGNlITIC IlLLD
field rncy l,c writien
l,he

the toial cnergy content of the

rldiation
(2)

^s field aDd of ilis photons wiil be discussed c{Sc ol the electromeltnciic

r firsi

(ixarnple ol the

quantizatio of a iekl

r' -

i",

",

l:nfortunately tlie electromqnetic field lics r rathff complicated stNcture sjnce ii is slre('ificd rt each pojnt hv ihij clecLri0 rnd ihe mqnctic veciors. On the olihcr hlnd, il is thc mosi. lrmiliu field rnd its qrlanlum propertics arc nost clerrlv undostood. Iri qtr{rtum mechanifs ol)scrvrblc physical qurnlil,ies rr{i desoibcd by opelalors obeying r non commrhtil.c Li$r' .,1multilnicattun. 'lhis is true, lor e\:Lmplc, r)l thc coodirrtcs :ind the xrpoDents ol ille mc,menlurn of a mlrs-* point. It is t e also ol oiher iypcs ol obscrlables lihe, for crnnple, anl' (nlponent of the eleotric ficlcl rt a given point of sprc.. h qurntum elccirodvn{mics the comrJrtrrcnts ol i,he field or thc potcntials 0t a posiiion in sp.ice rre cons crcd as oper:Ltors i{hich in senenl do not commute \ritli eAch oiher. ,\ field, ho$'e1-cr, is a system Nith an infinjte numbcr ol degrees of {reedon and lrom tlii; hci mxny com No aitcmpl rvill be madc here to gil'e c romplele dcscription ol tLe quanlization pror:cr:lurc adopted; it is dcscribed in detnil h more speciaUzed publications. Orlv thc sinplesi idclrs of tho rrri tion iheory rvill lx: ourlined. I"or {dditional exphnations soe ,\ppendix l. Since the early rttdnpts at seiting up thc staLjstic- oi radiatioll jt hm been custom y to ialk ol ndi:iiin,n oscillatoL. 'fhe ele0tromagneljc fie].1 cutoscd irr a cavit"v tr'ith perfecl,l"Y rellccting srlls is capable of os(iiLhiirg accordins to { number ot dji{orent modes {'ith dilTerent clnrracicrjstic lrequen.ics. Each mod.r crn be e\cited independently of ihe oLhers 1d hus properties qrrile similrr lo those of an $.itlrtor. In prrtnxtltir, one of the modes can t:rl(e up an amount 0{ e crgv:

Ea{rh terrD ol the sum rcpresenis ilr{j coni,ribuiion encrgv of one vibrational mode. photons oI cncrsy
de Broglie

to the roral

In the langtrll] ol thc lhotons (2) nldjcatcs ihat rhere arc n, id. . Erch one oI them is thought of as a rcr
rclotionslip

puscle 11il,h a momenl,rin p" related

I

io the \\'avc length I, by thc

2rh h
l"d

lb,

(3)

fil : 0, 1, 2 \rbere @" is thc anslrllrr lrequency ol thc mode and n" The additioml tctn no./'2, thc so c.illcd zero poi t eDergv, can be neglecterl c6 1l non-essentirl : ditiye constrnt to lhe energvl
llis cofftart is jtnnjLelv larsc 'l')e.umbo ol osoilhlors ol lrequ.cr b.t{eer o rtd o + d- is giYcn by (7) OorsequertlJ lhe loial
1. Aciuellr-',

the cx.it{tion amounts to,1 qua

?1

",..,i ,o ru";.,ora..."" 1,,'sorption or desiructjon of qui1]rta). Tn ordcr to undcrsrm,:l ihis lundamentrl point Ne shall discuss first an ordinary lirlc{r oscillafor. TLis lan be cx.ited to ihc ?rth qrur,ntum stlite. Thc cxcitatjon enerey of this slate cxduding tho rest energy is ion. Wc sav that
t{ ol nergy I'o each. Thc nuntrer oI qurntc Nill be a constarrL as long as rhe oscillotor is lcft rlon.

The rcpre"qcntrtion of thc elechom{snetjc [c]d jn terms ot os0illators is i lmplete. It is suiiallc to reprcscnr radjarion plienonena bui itoes noi irxtude, for .xampte, :rn clectrcstatic 1ield. ()tre can shoN, hoirevcr, that rhe railirrion phcnomena car be treated separatdy lrom ihu {rlctroslati( phenornc . r\ complete description of cl{xrtrodyrrrnn,s iF obl,aiicd by consjdejng on orlc limd the radir,inD fiekt dLrc to the supqposjtion of transvcn{l wd\'es of all Ircquencjes and on ihc other hard lihe Coutomb for0es btseen rilcctric charscs. In thc prcsont discussion 11e shnu be pdDrarily intcrcsted in thc behavior of the radiain,n fietrt and th.refore \ye shell linit oursclves to thc rninsl,ersal ll,!ves. As tong as no pefturbalion .tisturbs thc elecLronqlnetic [e]d thc qLrantum nunhcls r" of thc radiation osci aiors r.il be consiants and there will be no ch{nge jn thc mrnber of photons. A pcrturbation x.ill induce l,ransitjons \rhercbv the nurnber n. mrr-

Fir', n,F,."

IiTt-^
This inLes.rl is obviously djvcrscrt rt,larsc trcoueocies. This is re 6rsi bul noi lle vo.Bt exampi!^ ol innniti.e thsi one en;ounters in tield rheoris.

aoouDi or zerc poini, ene.gt i6

v
QOAN'I/I OF A FIELII AA I1R1:ICLL}J

t,x
I1]L IILECTROMACNETIC 1'] EI,D
trrnsitio.s in wlich the quentum number?r. ofoneolihe oscillators
chanses to

'on dJl-er l.,m1ro fu rrr"pF..u,,.,r.1 ..o"ot,.ri r.t lo h, 3br r.. r ul '\r "r..rp'.., o.. .t ,..,t poIpr,,r,.,rion.ri.re ilosFb-\',,a.jt,a.,trto.q .h 1"r.. .i\ ,Ir d,,.. ru \rr:.h. lhF..m!ri{.-n r,"an.jt. .,. I".F,,rr. Ft,r,4-r. v n. . . ,, ... J I "! br' .t ,{.r,. ,. i.., n ;,. o :'Ll ''11) J'r,r.r" i, o .re,,. .^rn",,.errnrM I L for ,, ,r ,,,. ot, oi n,s. a a , t r u.n,., . t," ".. only non-vanishing mrtrjx lenenis of rhc coordinate r rre x(n+n - t) I

mp- E.is t.rrrrlror .(it of lhe quanium nunbor ,u-hp'ror . onl I n6

Perturbations, however, may eil,her inffease or d(rcasc the .,,,n_ ru n. nu',l r , \mu.linL 1,. .cn.,., .,..r..i.,t i q.,1|.1r

,..,r.I
vhen
,, .n

?1

\:,l,rp ,.r t.",

I r:I ue flLe mrtrix ijterncnt ol re n.n.

,, +

1.'1

Note that whil .1(r) is en operrior, ihc ,ecror / rhar de6ns tle posjtion in sprce N,t which the isjtor potential is obscrved is &n odinary clcssical vector. The rcturl valucs of the matrix ctemenis c&n be obtrincd fsee ..oora ,rtes App"n Ji\ r' o! "\tr, . rs,4 n r" rn. o InF.- tr " etements and using (a). Ore findsihc ftnlowing resutr for themAtrjx of the obucrvable,4(r) corrc$pondjns to rr:inSitioff in which one photon id, is eiihcr oreai.ed or desirovedl

r,. ,." .."

y'#ro'

.,,. , ,.., , | _,,v li" vlln-.

Ip" : h."/.

(5)

rth-n1r)
The processes

/ 'z';v n t

(4
t

Here p, is the moneDturr of the plroton. Its masniiude js

(6)

oscilhtors. Transitions in w-liich rhe exc ation nunbc; n" of one of Ure radiation os0iltators increftcs are proccsses jn rvhich Dtroions

of creaiion and dstruciion of photons jn the r',"or, drF.n.dtv,:pd ro hi. l,f^oc"J or rt"oeitr l-d.ilion ur. l,Jp- J. h, rsu,riou 'pjd:i "o,ri\st r.r r,,,1 lr_"n,hyo|ir..r

wliile , is n unit vcctor perpcndicular ro p" and poiniing in the direction ol the pol:r.rizrtior. The formula givins the numbo of osciltarjort nodes offrequency bet\veen o nnd @ + dd $'ill also be gi'en I

rllvays be lssruned io be ,ero since nn elcctro-agneitc rvrve .ani"oF.riLFdb\ , or y. lhe.,, orpo,.oriat afr"i , to'n'" is ',F.,rr .:,i .. ot r\p .^.ro- po,.nriat, 4, rontributed bv tLe \.arious modcs. .,1".rcpresents the ficld oI the sth mode. Its masniiude is prcpor_ . tional to the coodinate of rhc racliorion oscilaror numbel s. l-ihe lihis coodinate,4. lus nlltrix eicments indrcj4 rransitjons I.an n, ?n,. - L T|, v"ru"o.,rFn,rdt I/ a r gr"r po.iriun D rp8c' rs'LF quT ot I p qJ!, F. ,4" /. .l\/ qi ,bq.torc also be !n opel.alior h.r,nrg non vanishi.g mstdx etemeniis for
can

ot."airtio,rl. In_ r.orking out I quarllitative radiation tbeory orre tn.ls ; simpler to dcscribe the fietd in rerms of rhc veci;r potntial ,4 rather ihsn of the elecrric rnd masnerjc frirds. As iong as ih; discussion is limited to the radiaridr thcory t]re scatar potcDtial

" .', ".,"d f .i..:" ^r r.J ., io.. r, ,nsi,ion: n "t,i.t," a. " creases describe ihc desrrLrcrn,n
of photons (absorpUu"

': )'J' dP tt' - -2Qa1t'' '/f Er"i In lhe l.rst form ol lN thelrrtor 0 X 4rpi dp js the rotunlc elemcnt of phasc sp:Lce. This, dnidcd by the cube ot phnck,s {jonsrrnt /l : 2ri, cives tie rllrmber ol morles excepr for l,he fsctor 2, due to
the t1l'o possible pol:rrization directions.

'fhe second of

Lhc

i\ro
u"

expressions

(i)

contains ihe tactor

: L V!

"oao".,

\lhich iirn be resl1ded $ rhe cisenfunction 0t a photon of mo_ meniun p" (iorm{lized plane wrve). T}ris is a pdticutsr case of a

.l th. .o.respordins z, - I Drcan3 tbat .

2. ln lhe lhotrn largurse

a chlnge l.onz. hra, l- l nLears r,j, ! phoion trcqocDcr lns been c.e,red, !nd a ctrarse tr.or; z" ro lt'oioD hrs bc.n desrro,cd.

t-

3 tiond io thc

QUANI'A OI .1 I'ITI'D AS PAR'I'IALES 'l'he rnatrix clcmenl lor ihe destruclion of a pnrticlc js propor'
eipienlunction

so.tL.4n I7IELD
Gordon equotioD

VlrE MASS

The snnplest field quaiion for thc s(rhr pions is the ltleinv"o

of the state ol ihe particle rhat

is

destDycd. A sinilar lrlle is: Thc nalriri element for the oeriiorl of I prrti0le is proporlional to thc compler conjug,lte ol tho eisenfunction of thc sii1le ol Lhe

-!$

- r'r:
i

(10)

pfticlc ihal is created.

which difr'ers only bythe lost term lrom thc D'rllcmbert equation. The field amplitude e is a scalar.s

This sccond rlrle is exemltificd b-v thc first frrmuh (5) s'hich si\.es ihc matrix elerlent for tlie lllniion of li phon,n and is prop0rtionrl to

Iiqu:Ltion (10) has planealrvc soluii,,ns of thc form

a cxp i(:r,i

o0.

.,
3. SCALAN

l^-,,i,,,",., v!t
TlLLD IIIl']'H
M,i.I]S

Substitutins in (10) one obtains

-f+!-i":o
Is
(8)

(i1)

nr the o|ise of the elechomagrctili ficld, the vibrations ol the

as is

The photons behrve likc pfticlcs ol rcst mlss zcro indicrted by tlie relatiouship bot\v$D cniirsy lnd m(trn(inhrm

hu": cp"

lield,, (nn be desoibed as a supcrposiiion ol fundamental nodes with difierent dumcterjstic frcrlLLr:rrrirr o". I]aoh mode behares lilie n linear oscillallrl ot frc(luuxry o" . Omitting :lgaiD the zeropoint cnergy, the enetgl levcls oI tlis os(iillntor lrill be no"n" . ,{lso

that holds for lhem. Thjs relalionship is o conscqucncc of thc D'Alenberi equaiion

v,.r f|on
light.
which

* !44:

(e)

in this cose the jnlegral rurlnb{rr n, is niterpreted as lhe number of quanta in the uode s, each hrlvins thc enersv rr" : td". The momentum p. of each quanluln is si\1xi i)y the de Rroglie relationship p" : ii'i". Usins this vrlLrc ol p, and (ll) the follo]vins relrtionship is obtrjned bei\\.ccn ihc cnersv arld momeni,um ol a
1t"

it

follorys th:rt ilio photons tm\.el n'ilh thc \.clociit' ot Tbis

h6"

- \/ cil+jF
\/ c?f

c,Tx.

(12)

or thG rc{son thc liel(] {au:rtn,n (C) crnnot be used lor thc pion liekl. The pions In1'c r rcst mNs dillorcnt from zero r d tralcl with r rc|)(iity lcss tlran t][i ol l]ght. l,ihe the phoions t ey rre blievcd to obey thc llosc Mrisiiiiri strtistics since rccodi g 1io the

isqluilrlent io tLe rehtj\ istic cncrs]. nomntum rehtionship

. :
lor a particlc with rst nass

+.\'

(13)

Yuli:rN! thc(ny pions (frn l)c cmittcd or :lbsorled by r{clij1)ns. In this scctjrn rnd ir tlrc r(ixt r il'pc of lield Nill be djsclrsscd \\t!)sc (1trsntr hrlc r n(n vurishirrg rcst mass. T|is liekl mis|i bc arloptr:rl lor ihc dcscil)innr ol piorls. The clrse ol nenlr pjons Nill bc discuslcd in this scctio nnd lheL of olurscll piors in ihe trcxt. In both cases these parLicles sjll be rssurarll to have zero spin so that they mry be represenied try r scahr [e]d.

(14)

3. Scda. (luartitics rrc usrrllj- chssed rs serlrN lrrolcr and pscudo F.llrru. $rlLer ilie -spare coordnrats arc enccierl $iih respeei to theorisi! t

scali. J.rnains an.liungcd rnLl a ls.ud.s.ah..hrnsed ils disD. A(oordnrs to th. lssunttiors rnj.lc ,,,1 llt behlvior ol e on. .,n ...sl,dr.l eiilie. I scdu or a pscudos.rlD lh.oLT.l llre pioh. T|ere ii no dio.rcn.e b.t$ecn thcsc l,no llLelie! e\cpt nr t[e{llo1t.b1c ftrdrs ol interrctiol ol t}]epiom
$.iih

ih. r .lcons. (!ec Sccrior

8.)

a1N71Ott,1 !1i!,t) 1S P-jR:]ICLLS Ntost ol the discussjon ol Section 2 a d Appcndir I can be repeated for the scalar ficl(l e. In prrticr lr ihc anllitude e(D of the lield rt n posii.io r ls al opemtor iLii.h miltrix clenents corrsponding lo lhe creatioD or to illc destl\rction ol a qruntun.
Q

ro

F11"1,1) OF

CEIiGED

SCAL/|L'?

pARIICLES

ll

Thc

matr

elenents ol e(rJ alc

I-lt n ."-l \/

h.

^ v zydt
h.
2t)u

P"J'\, \..,

li)
,16l

lion mr.y be used to ctisrfibe :r Iirtd s'hose qMnt:r arc e]ectricalty chalged. I complex 1l{)l() ol tlir tl.pc s,ill be used for ihe chalged pions. Th quanla ol th;s complcl fietd can l,e ch'rsed boih posiiively &nd negaiivcly. Itor eidl llloll,able vrluc p. ot rhe momc tum there rrny be rr.1 posiiivo and n; nesr"rive pcrtictes. Omittirs again ihe zcro poinl enersics, the iotal eners'- in ihe
field

rlill

be

rr

:t

D.(nl

+,r).
e*

(1s)

io (5). Siucc q is a scalar, ol ctnxse \re lL:Lve no pohrizrliioD vcci,or .. The dih'crlnre br l,hc irclor l/+f; is due to hI-ins u;ed llca.'ysjdc urils lor e rnd Dor r:lijrnlliz(l urits lor thO electrousnciiic tield. Whdi the field is ilcltrdirl n,si{le:L lolume a onty a djsc,cic series ol nomenluDr l.rlu($ is Nllo\\.rble.'flic lorirula givins 1,lri) nuntrer of loNoble nlomentum vNhres bel\um t ond p + d? j-. . f't. _;_,ndn d\ _ -:t 7\ .,.,, This founuh comrnonly used io stitisiilrlll mechrnics js qrite simihr io (7) and diffeN floJl it onl)' l)y rr l!ctor 2, du{i io ihe r\\,o ,li{, n1r to.. ':.:.o '. 1.,., r..
!j.
of

Tbc mairix elemenis (1;) &nd (lr-jl are quitc rftLlogous

IIELD Oti l:IIAnUED

nCAL.4R P/1H,tICLES

or by clel1iirlg , negative onc- p* has lhe opposite effecr. Sirce as far as rve hnorv l,hc iilcctric chargc is ahv0\,s consaNed, we expecl theii neither e ror' e* \rill eyer nlpeor alone ;n rny term of the Hamiltonian. Thcy s'ill alwrJ,s b(i rs.qociaied ryith othr qrlantities so tllnt the clursc trill be conserved. Iior ex,mpl{r, erndp* olone1l'oultl be inoccep tallc. Ilur rjhejr produd e*(r)e(r) is
Exccpt for these difererces, Lhe matrix elemerts of e and !,* are quitc similar to (15) and (10). Thcy arc

inportant. The qur.iitie.r (.(r) rnd e+i.) r,c operai.o$ \'hose n{trix elelrcnis (onnecr. slalcs in $'hich ilrc rrrmljer ol prftictes obrnges by +1. l,Iore prcciscLl., I'ruli and l.i,.skopf havc toun,:l tl*Lt e(4 indorcs tmnsiiion! in whitlh eir,hr:r rii decreascs l,y one uDit or 71; irr(J{}l;es by one unit. The oppo"cite hotds tor t}re conjus:ite rielde+(r) \!hichprodu(s either ihe tr:insitioDs rl+ zl + I 1 ln other nbrds, e is the opcr:rtor tlar rcdures ttie totxl chargc by one unit, ciihcl bv destloyins a posirivo particte

Both the complcx qucniii,y e ard

1ts compler conjngare

$ill

be

Asnr b, p ticles Niihout elcctri(i.tnrge are(tuanrr ficld Njlh real componenLs. Ior e1:Llrlplc, rlLc ptroton! xrc itr quanfu ol the e]ecrron,gnetiN [dr]. Insrexd, jt i,c fouud thai a fielrt irhose quanie rrc olerirically chxrsed h$ compLex anplit:rrir:.

js tNe also lor rinrle! irhiirh, thoug| n(Itrrl, bale son{) r elecl,romrguelic pnrt)cnir- lor e\mit)lc, the ncuiiur \ritlr its nxg nelic monenl. This t)ro|e(y is q ji{r senel3l and is r(rated ro ttrc requircment of gaugc irrr-nirnce a For tlris reiLson thc r{rrl fjeld e ol i|e l)rcr.b s secLion hrs neuirJ puliclcs trs iis phoions Dd therelore cou|l be rL d xs iho lietd ot l.he neutrtl pions. Paltli xrd Iieissltopl hrr(i shos,n, troNever, ihal, a sc.tlu roDrdex qLuniiiy e obe) iris {lrc lilcnr cordon equa.r Sc. Ior dxurjlle l,roli, -rler. oj itlod. PU$ , 13,2t3, t!4L

lllis

a\',

n:

t'
V2a'

(\/ nI
lr/i__ + r i.u;-=.,:

p'rt,) -,i

,"'" = t)- v ;21rt,

h"

tto'

) ,_

The formula siviru the number of alloirable valucs of the lnomentun p" is identic{l io (17).

QI].INTA O1' l NIELD 'I3 PAI]TICLLS

P,lRTlt:l,t:SOBEII,'C'lE|tP.!Li1,II'tlttitlpLt
ono nil, .ritlro fr.oot 1 rio 0 or lrom 0 2) the folL.,Njris mairft derne|ts:
t/
l.o 1. One fiDds Gec

ls

,\ppeuLli\

I P)R] /CLES 0Rlt'Ir"G t IIE P 1TiT,T PRI):'IPLE

'fll(i (rurntr ol lire eled|ornrgnetic ficl(i rnd thosc of thc scrhr fiel(l. b.{h neutrtl .r d clisrsrd, obe}-tlr(i llose-Tiinsi(iin sl.ali-.1ii:s. lhis is evide.t btt:luse l iriiegr rlurLber 2" of p.rl.i( L{rj clln be iornd irr r silitc ol giren nNmentum l, -{ dillcrefl ilpri of iheorY is necded fr)r the nurr .l|meniuv ]ral1rrl{s ifrl cm l! o$n or b{tnrvcd lo ohcl Lhe l'tuLi prirciple.

/rll

0 -

v1.l

I (r 0-,, lhe -l or

|2l

v{t

'lr, I
tnrl

'"" probehly

r.,rt'

r'.torr'

olso.rn

se0oDrl quantizotidr procedure ol Jordlm and \Vigner, {or Nhicii r.he nrrml)n ol p|lxtnilcs jr c qu riun] stttc cin be onlv 0 or i. Ii$t, rclalirily .x!recLions xrd spir $-ill be resle(it{t1 On

muons ?l|rliltes ob{r) ing lhe l'aLlli \clusion princjple bc desoiL(l in lems ol .r liek1 ilir;ory by thc so called

fin(h nr this crse tLari l]le rolc ol leld qutniir;y i.r pltlo(t bv tlle proi)rl)ili1y aDrflittrdc,y' obe-ving the limo dcFjndentS.ltrocdjrger

p1, ..,\',1'I,r..

lLFr '".rFnI

."

(20)

In the ordin J Srlurnxlirger ilr(r)ry lhis equttioo is construcd i,o desoibc thc st!le ol t single ptrticLc (elertron) 'Ihe rmplirude ol probrrbilii:! lor obsrirr.rtion of thc electron {1i position I is then t(r'). h the nel(t thco,t'ol tllc dccirorr: equttion (20) is;till LLsed, lornrLly unchrLngcrl but lvith a vers dillerent mr:tnirtg ltr the (iase ol thii lilciD-(loiln equrlion N'( ha1'e trcricd the fiel(l s ls ar op tlor whi(ih has mrlrix cl{rncDli givrl }rv (15) and (1ti) conncdirs statcs i $l1ich tlt(, nuuber ol parlicles chtrng.s by +l. I a similtr $.rv tfe ficl(l (|taniit)',y' rlso rvjll be consirtued rs rn operalor.lior docLlons ol)cving ih Ilu iprincipl' ho$1rvcr, the nrrml)er of ptrticlcs in .1 strtc ol gi\'en monlcnlum p" crn bc on11'0 or 1 m lons $ the spirl is nogltcled ln olhcr ilods' th(i occuprtion unlbers n" cxn be only 0 or I ffc opefutor pr)r)crties olilr(i clcctron fittd nust be sI(ih.t-.lo lntd this prop tv (s(x: Appendi\ 2). As in thc crse ol thc s.tl t fietd s one finds thtt hoth 9(r) rnd,1,+(,) arc oper:rtors \rhidr hrl'c mal ri elemdrts connectin'. steles lor i'hich the ocorPrtion nurnber n. changr:s trv

pp rr., i- , of Ure de0i.ron in the cricrnal fntrl. ,\grin rhc l1urLi principte wilL limit the vrlu; ol tlic o.cxpr.ij(n numtrers ,'l, to onlr 0 or t. 'fhe mrtri\ elerrcnt ol thc fttrl,y'(d rld of tne comtncx conjugrre qurnlity /*(f \,i11 (Dnrect strLtes in slnrtl,rr clmgcs L\. + l rs foLlows (scc {ppendir ,)l

sisn shoul(l t)c ll.:lop{d accordnis to a s.n\trrt (onpiicai(id rulc,i s'hich n(!d noi (n.reln us liere sincc ir mosl cLses Lhc sqrrle Dr)dulLN ol rhe nririr eleururr; Ni be u.rol. It shout(l be noiql tlui'y' r.Lir lis a rl.stiucrioL opcrrror (iursi tion L - 0) :lnd,r'* rs a c(,arion opcrator GlrilsirnD 0 - 1). jr $ilren no i(x.1's act on rlie p rir,les rhejr r.|r.s{xrt ion terms ol shies ol gi\.cl Nrmenirm (phnc 1\rvcs) i,. the most conleriort. lvhcn ihe st)jn pl.opurijes :Lre rcg|rctcd this ler!:ts to thc mrhir .lonenis (21). 1\rh()1 e\tern:il fr)roes Nci on rhe porliclcs, ho1rl]\'(T, ii, is prelel.|1blc ro annl].zrj in tcrms ot iscllunclidrs ol lho plr.r.tic]cs nr the ldd ot U]e ext,(lrxil torres rdher than in plcne war..is. Tnsi(x of chrracterizirs I stalc t)v indical,i s ihe number ot '. b! eleclrons of r gi1B. mollintu p., \{r drrlaci{Jizc ilie slxte

i-cli- r

qr

t, (r) (i + 0) : +1r,(/)

,r'*(r)0+1):+trl(r) jyhclc r.(r) is thc eisenflnn tion ol rh{) t l sratc ot ! ete(tronh ihc sir(! nnce firld. Notico tl,rt ilc mrt x eldnu,rs (!l) c,r
pariicul
crsc of (22) 11hrin no lorcs lcr on tL{) (t(jrron rrec:,us(j the cxr)ressions rn the r.iglrr Land snhs of (21) rrc rtro pl:lne $rKjr
5. (he nNt ordc. llie srai.s a..rrding io s.m. r.biimrj.rul{r, tor cr ahpl., in.(!sirg vrlncs ol2. . Oi tlr slrles tlLri pr..cdc s r o.ririn nx,trlje. \Lill be oocut,icd.'l'lie sisn l,! be choscr is + or - r..ojdirs to rtrcrtrcr lhis runber is .v.,r .r o.id

(.2))

QUTNIA Ot ,1 IIELI) '15 l A E',f ICI'88 that rcpresent lhe normaliz l ejgenhnci.ioDs ol an electroD or
lvhich no forces lr,ct.

In mosi calcuhtions of orders-of mrgnitudc lornules (21) or (22) are uscd. HoNcver, tllc case in Nhich thc relatifistic Dimc equation is acloptcd will also be bricnv ouilined. ln tlis case
instead ol (20) the licld eq,,Ation Nill Le llie Dilac equ{tior

l1ilh its order ol magnitu(]c 1. The malilix etements rhen becone ideniical i0 (21). ID thc Dn&c hole thcory alL tlle posirjve-energy sl,ales in the

PRINCIP].1' 15 I moit ol Ure :rppliittio.s ol iljs formula \t shal bc loncencd mercly with orde$ ol mqlnitude end shall rhcrcfore rijplace t
PANTlCLES OBEYING TI]E PAULl

1!-"rt,+ffa*

(28)

ll'lrere a., d/, a., P ar the rvell kno$n llil:rc mairices ln this js clse th.,lield,y' js no lonser t scalar brrt r four componcni' spinor' Ior crch momcniuur p, there ue four staies corrcsponding to the two spin orienlations and to positivc or neg:Ltivc energv:

fuuy ociiupied by one elartroD per sirtc. Creation of a posit|on conespords to the deslirLietion oI :'n clotron in one ot these negaLive cDergy slaies. Consequenily the opeHtor / serves the dual purpose either ol d.istroying {n cleciron or of crcnting a positron. l'he operaior ,y'* hlrs the opposite efect.

va.,,,,o ' ,r1o-.D:^d .i i.

rh",.. '...F.i. jy .,,nc

d-4

b,: :tv t'p; +

The

tn'c'

(24)

fo r componetrt \rave functioDs ot one of tlrcse siates can be ryritte in the lorm of a planc wave sotulion ol the Dimc equntior: VO

J--

31'

;"^""

\tLclc the lour vahed indr:r p specifies the spin rnd tlle sign of the encr$'of the strLe, and ihe lourvrlucd indc\ I dcroles the fo r .omponents ofthe wave fu ciion Tlle qulnliiies Ij :'r'e dnncnsionless and are ol Lhe ordr ol magnitude 1 " In the electron-field ihory all loL1r componcnts ,h(,.) j1nd ihejr conplex conj,rsates 'r'i(r) are operttoN Thev induce destruclion rind crertiorl transitions ol the odlpatjon nunber 1'l'" {rom I to 0 or from 0 to 1 $'ith m{trix elernents l t^.r)Ll ,0/ - ' w! ;. E, "' " l l:Lt(o l) - + '^ Bl P '1'"'

Q;)

VV

6. Whcn the eleclron mo!s f ilL velocitv smrll corrr)r.cd nith c o.e nrds tbai t$o of thc lour quttrlitica A ar ol l,!e o er or 1lrd t\to.r ol ihe orde. of masDilude ,/. For a losilivc cncr$ staie tlLe conilonenis 3 rnd 4 ore larse and lh. cornporerls I ard 2 rre smdll, ud lor a siate oI regaii"e elergy lle otposiie is ilo crse

cE);IR)t,'tf
interaci

Pr.F

oli t]*TtR.1at tntL

only

lcn llrey occupt ih(i slurc posilion in sp[(e (contact

clt,lPf ER t lt'o

nltraclion
ti.

oJ'

thr Iri,'/ds

cttNERIL TfPES O! INTnnlATIOlf The fieldr dijcusled in (i,{ptcr I $'i]l b(iuled in thc
:1ppli0flinn$ to folloN lor tlrc inleryrotlrtirnr ol lies ol tlio tr)llo$ins elomuitrry prri csl

i nuilLcr of proper

'lhc photor (.qyrnhol'r) is describd bv itrc r.rdiation field ol So.ti(D 2 s'iih amt)Lilude,l lhe l'e.ior pr)tc ii: . The pitrrs, clarged t d neulml (indicticd by syrnboLs n*, u , l'1, .r'itt tre assumcd lor simtli(itv to hlve spin zero. Th clurscd pions rrc (lcicribed by a oonplca scrlar field as

interrciion) or \Lhen tlre]'' e scprratcd by r finitc rli,(lNnce. 1'lris li'si .ise is us(ally id(irpreled noi :1s .iL acturl lcti(,r rt r dist.nce btrt rs lhe eflccl, oI r field thit lunsnils ilru i)r(i) lrom oDc io thc otlier parliclc. h thc qlnnlurn illi.crprcl.til,i l.lis ficl(] r'ill lure its o\yn quml,a lnd the iDlc,racl,ioo bcl$.txr tlli tn( orislnxl prrlicles \rill bc dcsoibed as. proccss irr \lhnih I' qr!nturn ol tlLis tielcl js cmilftrl hy o.e ol lhe pxllicL.s rnd rlbsorlrcd by lhe oilLcr. l'l1is gircs riso to 0 muluxl cncrgl.ol illr t\'o prflirles thrl is 1 lnnciirD ol ilrcn dislllnce m(l r{)trrsdrts ihc poti.jrtial ol the lorce Iield. Thc tr.nd is to co|sid.r n1,1i sriisir(torr.l theorr' Njlh ooly conia,.i. iniorr(iions irhich is nr)rc olsily hrousht nrto :r relativistically n1!rriant loml. In:rlmost:Lll lield lheorics ilut ue at prcsent under.liscus-.i(r th{i inierrction nergy ot i\Lo or morc ivpes ol ptrriicles is rtt)r(l s{xitcd rs ihe voluDre inl,.gral ol rn niierriion energJ. dcnsilt. lhis hlrs usurily the form ol .l frodu.t ol,rmt)liiudos ol ihe yxrious
ficltts.

in SectnD l rnd 1e ncutl.ll pions lrl'a rc.rl scalar field as nr Se.inm 3. As a rule, tlru lctier indnrtinu ihc partjcles will bc used to i dicite tho ficld amplitndc as well. lor pions, ftrr errmt)lc, Lhe leller n n'il] denotc tlic .rmplitude of the fiold in p] ce of ihe letter e [sed in Scciidrs l] lnd 4.
-\ ), mLrons (stmbol

Electrons Gvmhol r), prot!,r$ (symbol P), neutrons (synbol !), reut*ros (syorbol !) lrro {ll tssuncd io obey the Ilirrc licld qurti(n ol Seclion 5. lt (istinalics of

tn thc 0!se of the nrtenciil:,r ol (t(xirons {nd tle furlirtion h(t(] of the clensiil ol irit(irrctior {rrcrrjv is suggcsicll by iis cx|r.ssion dr$sical el:c trorll rrrn ics. l his is siren bJ ifc scalar prrhrrt -1 ./ ol lhe lecl,or r)o{crlirl ,{ rrxl ihe c ent dcnsiiy ,/ ol th. c|ritrons. Sincr: thr: scrler f,)t{)riirl rxrlshes in e radiatiui licLrl this is the onl) iuicriclio]l l'rrrn. OilierNise the prodler| ol cl(]cliriri dcn;it! and sc rr potenliJ also should be addcd. Thr: crrint dcl1jit,r J crD Le e\pressed iL t.m: ol the ampliiudc / ol l,hc cl{1.lircn neld. Negleciing spj .ind rditi!.itiv, one can exprcss ,/ .rs in ilie elernenluy Sdlroedi gcr theor). b-v

th. sul()rl lorm

order ol mngnitudo ihe spn!' ch acter rvill hc dlsrcgttded and ihe simplilicd e\pressnns (21) for tlic metrix ddnenis of the fiel(l rml)lilrldes Nill Le applied.'l.hc synbols of tlie paticles $i11 bc used to rcprcsent eiiller ihe particle or the :unrlitudc oI the conespo di4 tield

'T_

.,,",,,1 \,1

,1,

- lv/.ru'
ir tlie lorm

z,\

Thr: iriierLction ene|gy is tlrLrs \rriiten

/,/it_

r,t Jl lt.

:;

InterlctioN bc{s'een vorious particles rrc responsible for a variety ol phcnornena su(fi as ihe scrttcring of t\Yo colliding lementrry prrticles and th.r more complcr cvents in ilhich some prrticlcs djsapper,r *ud some are {rrcricd TNo Dorticls mry

ln order lo crlculiio iL. transitjr)ns due to the intcr:rcin)n (27) ot cl$,irons rnd photrtrrs, its mrtrix clonents {ill bc n.cdtrl. In cont)utins lherrr rho list tenn (27) \.ill be conlid{)r(xt fi$r. 11, niirins lhe opurtor ,{ which c,L (ir se the clestrLrcti('r or crc:lii,n ol c pholon accortnrg 1,o (5), n d the opercrors,y' and r+

.
T3
INTEEAQTIO,' AI TEN FIELDS GElit:RAL fYP}]S Ott Ii"TERICTION
ov-ar the larca r-olune

which, according to (21), putu(ie respectively the desir ction and tlie creation ol aD electron. Let p. be i,le momeDtum ol the photon thai is emitted (or absorbcd), ft be lhc momentum of the electron tliat is deslroyed, nnd p) tLe momentum ol the electron thrt is crated. Destroying nn electron ol momentum Ir1 s.nd cre:itjng anotller onc oi momcnium pr is of couEe equivalent to a tr,rnsition in which an clcciron changes its momenium from a to zi . Therefore the mrtrix clements of (27) will connect the inirial sicte to a find stftte ilrit djlTet's from it beoause a photon of momeDilun p, ciliher hls been created or destrcJed and at the same iime an elcctron has ohanged iiis momentum from a to p: .
We considerfor exrrnple the case in iyhich tlr jnii,ial si,rte contajns no pho ion of momentum p. I in other \vords, the initial valu of the

a will be dificrent from

i"-i":0
vanishes, bc(ruse otherwise

(30)

rle interjrand avenges to zero. The condiiion (30) expie,caes lhe colserr-ation of momentum: The malri\ clcrlerlt lanishes unl.ss the initial norncrfun p, of ihe electron is quil to the vecior sum of l,le momnts ?, ol ihe phol,on nn{l ?! ol the elecLron i the finrl state. Il itre nomentum ;s conservcd tlre exponeni.ixl is equrl to I and its volune inLegral is 0. thc totil co.liibution to ilrc nrtrix elemenli ol the Iirsr term ol (27) is then

occupatior number u, of the photors in tlie given state is zero. Il a photon ol momentum p" is crcrteil the occupation nunber ot the final siat will be 7i" = 1. ,{ccordins io the firsii form la (5) the conesponding mnirix elmenii of the vcctor poteni,ial is

2.
Th second tcrm
changed

2rh

aq

rPL ' r'

(3r)

'"

Jii n" . ,,,^,"" t-ffi'

"

(28)

ol (27) lriekls r similtr coDtdbuliion wjth Z, into p!. Sin.e (27) is a on r.lativistic fornuln, the erpressions 21,i m rnd pr,/,r aretle velo.jtics,r and u ol thcleiitron before end after the transition. The m{trix eleme.li is lh.,',lore

Accordnq h, (21) the operalor,, th"t cruses the destruction ol .rn electron ofmomentum pr 11ill contribute to ihe matrj\ elemcnt th t^cLat +etthb" /y'e. Accoriling to (27) we need ihe crdicnt of this factor. This gives merely an ildditional facior tr'ln. Fnially, the operator \r+ thrt is responsible lor the ueation of an el,"ctron of momenlum p, contributes in (27) l,hc frotur +c t'tt)'.'/\/s. In conclusion thc intcsr:md ol th fir$t tcm of (27) contribuics to ihe malrir elemcnt 1ilrc term'

(32)

ehL
2it
c

\/A

JN
2-a

tpr.")1:!!
9*
(yt
e,)

x
(2e)

rttt

h)

t"'-'

"' "1'

Ib can be proved in a sinil&r ryay thaii thc matri\ element corrcsponding to the desLruclion of a phoron also is sil'en by (32), plovided thc momcntun is conscrled between initi:rl and final Btates. Othe visc lihis mairir element al6o vrnishes. 'fh t{'o processes which have becn considered correspond to ihe eni$ion or Lhe abEorption of light rccompenied by , chrnse of moment:um of the eledron in comlormit)' x.ii.h ttre momentum consen':rlion. It shotrl(l be noticed, however, that ihe flot thai these processes have a non vanishins mjitrix element does not meen thAt the processes ,.iulllly happen. It is well hnown that:r frce clcct.on cannol emil radiation bec&usc in this case iL is impos Eible to sntisfv aL the ssme time Ure conserr-stion of momentum
and ol enrgy. Tn Seclion 10 the methods lor c&lcularing rhc prcbibilities ol l,ransiiion and in perticuhr lihe role ol the con servrtion ol energy wjll be dlscussed. (Soc also AppeDdix 4.) Eornuln (32) sives the correct order of magnitude of the mairix elemert also iD the rclativistic case in which the elcctrons obev the

'l'his expression rnust be ini.rsrried over l,he normalizrtion volume 0. 1he integraiion is immcdirte, sinre the onlv space-deperdenli factor in the abovc expr{)ssion is the e{porentiil. Its inl,gral

imloi.ni

1.

Tle

sigtr

ol uris cruessio! is eorectlr gire! iD crs. tlat onc c!.ctrD only is irvolled.

(29) iD

ih. pDciicolly

!o Dirrc equaii.,D. l'he

I\IE&ICIIO\"

OT

IEE FIEJ,DS

yuKAtyA IN't ER,lCl

IONA

91

interl1cti(D ene|gJr arc then

expresslons for the currenr densfty

ad

the

x:
vhere
,y'

r-

ments.]'he vohme irtlegrrl ofthe encryy densiry invoh-es thereforc merely the iDtegnl over ihc spoce 0 oI r producij.,i cxponentjals
which mrv be Nr;iien

-e{,av
(34)

I t.raa: -" ! t"v tan

t*'*'-* -'

'

(3ri)

is thc i,rinsposod conjuglte ot rhr tour-conponeni Dtrac

Thjs intcsral is dilTu.eni lrom zero only $4ren the vector

In the relrtirisiic cllse both the Dirr(i mltriccs a and thc qurniiiies, of (25) hrye ihr r)rder of ron!{nirude 1. lrljne (5)
fi!ds ihalithe mat.ix elemu t for rh e crerrioD or ihc desiruction ol ,. single photoD is ol the ordcl ol mlgniiude
orrc

+it+i,+.+i,:0
becausc oiher$ise

(37)

(35)

32 or r

When thc relocitics src clos(i

Iv.

Iror particLcs obeyi s th," Bosc ltinsiej st:riisrics, like the pions for exampl., the exprcssioD of thc ounent donsii,y an.i consequcn y also the lom ol Lhc cle0i,romqtnei,ic into.rction are soneNh4t dilTerenii fron (27) or (3r). Orc finds, troll.,er, rhrri jn rhe simple processes wLnjl] (e arc going tio discuss rhc order ot murnibuitc

rJ,

to c rhis exDressio difirs fron .rur,r,).

the intosrrnd avcfuses ro zero. When this conditidi is fr []lcd the inkisrand is I and rhe irrcgr becomes equal lo the nornrlizrtion rolune O. Thc above equr.iion expresses rhp tu^r p um 1"... r. ir " r,,, r L. " ot ,he parl,iclcs desj.roycd appcsr witli ihe plus Eign and those of rhe pariiclcs creaied oppear $'ith the minrs sign. Ilencc rhe vector sum of the lrlom(lri& of thc particles crcrted equats the \'$jtor sum
of iihc momeni{ of the parti(iles destroy(jd. One ihe foll(xvnrg thcorn and the follorving rule:

obrri$

theretor

l' ^r,,i, "l of r phoion is gir.en also

f, in the

pio..."

o1

by (32).

"r..';onanJ I-.riu",or

Theorcn a! thc nonL.ntun conseruition. Two sl,r.ies that arc connected Ly I non vlnishing matrj: etement of ihe interaction eneryy opellLor hrve equal momenta.

CONSEN|ATION OF MOMEN TU|I

for the destuction matrix elemcnts

It hrs l)een secn thc1, ihc 0onserQtion ot momntum casc ol ihc lectronrisneijic interaciion i! a necess!.ry condjtion jn order to harelr, non-v:l ishing m.t x etcmeni. The samc is lru. also for rlie othr field inreraciions rlt we shall encounter. It will be scen ihaji nll inier.rctions :ire volumc integrats of tcrms contrjnins fr.tors equ to thc rmplii,rdes of the va;ious tields (or sonxjtimes of tlieir d{rrjl,ativcs). rii is scen from (5), (15), (19), (21), (2;) thai lor rlt iypes ot ltdds ijtre space cl{rpendencc ol the mrtri\ clements ol the n ous ficld components is contained in an c\poneniirl lacior exr) \+ip.t lh) \.|rcrc p js the momenrum of th puticle th!.t is crc.Lted or destroycd_ Thc sisn is alilays +

RuIe Jot culxularinlt N)hme irLrestuts. rn calcr rrins the vollrme iniegrrl of thc enrgv dcnsity the momcntum conscNation is r{rquircd. 'lhe jntegral is then obiaincit by substitutins the volume [] for the volumc integral of ttrc prcduct ofalltlre exporlcntjal iactors. These prope.ties greal,lv simptjtv

rh" rurpurr r,' a rrp nJ,i\ F.FmF.lrj.

field theories

For fLuiiher discu-$ion ol thc enlgy-momcntum conservaiion jn see Appendix 4.

3.

YU K,,)IT',,)

INTENAqTIONS

and

for the crearion

ele_

In ilis section and the next tLe rnain interactions bets'een elcmeniary p:triricles llill be enumcrated. We begin vith the Yuhawa interaciion belween pions and nuclons. Thc assump-

-.e
lNTl:R,1ufION AF T E I.tt:LDS jsmade tion thal lhere.remNirix elem.nis seneratins the foli{) \.ins

fIi KlIf1

INTERACTTANS

possibilitv for the irlerrcinm brm in the Lrsrrnsiin densiiy is therefore tlrc HcrmjiisD opc[io]
e;(11P,9",",".,\

1'= li + II+ (, P.1P + f

(a)

(1,)NcP+r (l) N,rn +no.

rriri-rd,a:d!P).

(38)

In the originrlYuhria theory only the reactnlrs jnvolrjrLg chareed ,r:idF r.t |p.cLr,.ite,.p rn,t F-. t.,.,,.e,rain that a neutral pion also eriists, rnd xccordinsly Lhe r\ro rexcl,iolls (38c) and (38d) havc been oddcd. tl ttre r(a'rtions (38) arc correct one \rould cxpect thc pion io obcy Rose stntistics and ha1.e inl,e gml spin. If the spj iE 0 a repr(isc.taLion $ith a sc:Ju fi{rld rs dis cussed jn Sociions 3 And 4 is plausible. tI rhc spin \\'.t? I :r, l.ector field shol,l(l be adopied insic&d. tn \.liat ft,lo$s a sp 0 wjlt be

ITem ei is a coefiicicnt lhlrl deicnnines the Etrcrlith ol the inleractrn and ha! ihc dimensionB ol ar elecliic ch{rsc If is found ih,t the abole tcrm in the Lrsfungixr le&ds to " Hrmilionjan density eqrl.1l to it crcepi lor the sign. 1Ve ceD th.*forc wrile i,he

:t' = "l / trrPl","^,'v + r*-Vrja,d,d,P)

.10

(39)

Tlis stiLl learnjs opn the possjbilii,jes ihrli the lletd amptjtude, tr'hich \1ill be denote,:l b], Ii, may be a scuhr or a pseudosr,lar. It is lashionable io rssume the latter sircc onc linds rhar i1i lcds to nuclear forces less 1n disagreemcnt irith (jxperimeni. 1V. slrall
loUow ihis fashbn.
be r rc{t qurnritv u.'r. r:c",ior ?. Io.:,\...n, a".l.. Lr,d nrskad by a complcx nel{l. Onc shoutd ot corrse use ll diflcrcnt notalion tor the ivo cxses. In order ro keep our founulas snnpld this $ill not be done.'rhe poinL will Lr ctarificil $henever necessrr.v. ll-p dis.u.,:no r'!r ",llu\- sr r,.1., o rr",.\rn ntF,t..,r.q;d p.ors ror q Lr, l- n is a .uTp ar fFlJ From (19) and (21) it follows il,rt the reacijons (3S:r :lnd b) can be producc{l by terms in the intcrx.tion enersl cont!in;rs r,he re.r',,.I V P,,ndnP \ ln.onLurr un oIo|ar.,ir.j-r 'u-" tbe intemci,ior cnergy density {jU Le trl(en proporijonrt tr) these

This is not the only possibilil,l', becouse ii n is a pseudoscalar its gladient is r p;eudorecior. Thcrefore an jnrllri'rnt expression crn Le lormed l.ls l,he for.rr dinensionrl ve.tor producl of the srrdieni of n or II+ and a fsord.,veclor frrmed wil,h P and lr' iccordina to thc p:ittern of (5) i Appendix l This yields in the

H'nillonian r tdrn

Whcn

II reprelcnts

a neuirAl pion {icld

jt rrill

:ll''
where

-*4 I(-.,r qi".\'+

c,,n'pt.

"o.'1.)

an

{+o)

thc pirn rnas:. The factor n,/!. h$ been writteo e \plniitlv cocHicic l, !1, thal the consturt e!' again will ha.vc tlle dnnensions ol rn lectric chlrlge. In oomputmg odcrs ol mrgritudr: snnplihed erprejsions $'itl be userl. Instr:ed ol Lrsing (39i or (10) or d co,nbnltiidr of tLen ooe can eimpLily thc crlculaLiions by Dcglcciirg thii spln propcrties

jn the

p is

of tlrc nlrcleons ard by writiDs thc inleraclion tc.m

jn the form
(r1)

a:"/{nr-.r-+n-rv)ao
where P,

it nay be inslr.uctil,c to tmk sonewh&t nlorc closely iDio the xciual fo.n of the possibtc interaction tcrm.l Sinca n and II* hive LeeD $sumed io L{j r)scrdoloalars, the simplest iDvarirnt combiDations ol the desjrld type
case, hoirever, are obtrind by issocioting l,hepion rmplii.udcs n ith a pseudoscrhr expresslon p&tterned accordnrs to (3) in Appendix 1. .uhe simllcst

For lihis

parlicul

/'*, N, N* hrvc mahir

elemenis

conptted tccoding

to

(21).

2 TILo reod.r inr.ro6ted iir this l)rrl, ol the,lir. ApDerdir 4. Otl)rsis. Eo r\,er to lormnh l.1l).

sj.r

sl,oulrL tjrsr

ud

1'hc errolls itltlodurcd by adopiing (1I) .rre varions Firsi of all, lle resulis aie nol rd|1iivistically inrtriani. Therclore one crnooi e\leci tlie bcllrjor ot pi li.les wiih enersl' rery hrsc conprlrcd lo lheif rc-ll elt1gy i.o be rct)reseolerl properly ilso ai l,nv 1'elociris errors mny be exDecictl. Althongh l,l1e Dirrc mlllrices rnd tLr.rir producls hrve elcrncdts of thc order oi uDitv, factors ol tlrc orcler ?,/c ffequcDtly appeu thejr expccl.iiion

Y
I

Ii 1'F)RAI]TlON OT

IHE NILLDS

YUKATYA

INTENACTIONS

95

values. TLe snmc is true

.'xamplc in (40). The mrin features thai are losi in substiturins (.11) for (39) o- ru rr. l,p quari, rr\",r1,1"r. . dirrg.,r r r" pir.l"l"n r.r.c of the nlrclexr lorces trnri of the contribution of rhc pion fietd to the magn.itic moment ol the nucleons. 'tliese eflcclis ot coursc \rould not be obtain:rble from ! spintcss expressnni litre (11).

ol tllo quantity (r,/pc)V .ppearnrg to"

'

math.im&lics h:rl been evolvcd cap{ble ot 11:1 dling inier.r{rtion terms umlnbiguously. The prccedurc most us&t currentlv is to

observc that a convincing form of the inicracijons is nor known. ericcpt in the case ol the intem.liion bei$ren elecirons !,nd etccrromasn{rtic field. Indced, no expcrimental c'idence crn be quorcd to pror-c thot inieractions lilte (39) or (a0) cre corrc.t. This uns{tisfach)ry silurtion is probably due in t to rhe t:ici thar no Droper

T F ,'ij. rtar'r1ts.. ,.rp irr t. r nt,, -1,"J , r h" er. mplr.Iy ,.f he . l, -. ion t",-pd o.. \j.., ulc .\., rl.l
,

According to (38b) lor exlmple, a neutron is converiiLrlc into a proton lrnd a negatire pion. llroln the existence of { strorlg interaction bctwccn these two possible strtes it {olloNs, m $ill be discusscd in more detail in Section I1. thrt tlicre is d coniinuous interch&ngc Loineen these lrvo forms of the neutron. fhc ncutron spends prrt of its time as ner.rlron proper cnd prrt ns r proton with o ncg:rtirc pi(]II noarby. Similarly, p:Lt of the iiimc:r proton is a Droton p(4xr and prri of rle liDre it is a neutron \vith n

'eB.'I I'cin.r,.riuI

rF ,'.,s16ru|l .rjon.rrI

i.omp prp

e\ist .xcellent monogrrlhs on qurntun eledrodvnanics, $,e wjll nol girrc il mucL &l,tenti(D here bnt reter rhc reader to more
specializ$t publicstions. The Yukrwa pro.csses (3E) h:rve a vcry imporianli consequence.

", ";t,, This disciplinc hlls progrcssed to r poinr Nhere it givcs usR (tetajted undcrstLnclirp of the plroton-elc(jiron irrcmcliion. cr.*Li shides hrvc heen nulc in ii i the lNt l$, yea$. Sj.ce, ho$.{x,!I, ihere

.hj

prol)rbiliiies ol lirsnsition to th lo$,est rpproxjmation rhlt vikts thc desired result. Iiven \.ithin tliis limited scopc one trcqucntly cncounters diversent c\pressions ihai {re esiinated bv cur otT nr'" " lu,." I lrr.'o1. 1r'..6,,; r' Under these conditn,ns one wonders wh{)ther ;i plvs to spend time and efiort h computing some terms exaclittr $,hile other 'lirerg, r'r re"ms r. 1FC ".r.J I l,F r".r rh., Fptd r..or:F. otren give results jr:rsreemni $'ith expe ment ar leasr as to the order of magnitude mrkes it appcrir likely that the linai theory IriI beir or.,".iTijri'\ r.,.l6pr.n. a:.nr1,r . t'"r rp.rt, ,1,o.t ",,.n of a finite sizc of the l.meniary plriids or evcn a granulcr geomctrt such as is suggested by I{eiscnberg :rnd Snyder may bc clucs to lle solLrtior. Th{rse sonxj\vL:r.t disprr:rging rcmarks as ro tlie shhrs ot Dresenl,
iFl

, rr,,,,"

o.,

o r,..' ,, .t . ,t-\,

ni..

positive pion jn thc vicinity. The anomrlies ol thc masnctic momnt of thc n clcons alrc:rdy mentioted are nrturyrcicd :1s bing due to thc mas ()iic ellecl,! of ],he pioDs thrt {r(i lound a part ol the time in t}lc l.ici il,x ol 1,!e nucleon. UnfortunAtcty ille attempts to e\phin thc mtignctic aDomaljes quantitttil.cly in this manrer li&\'e t'rihl, snd nothing more tlian cn qrccmurt jn the orders ol mosnitud.i hrs bcc ilchieved. lrormula (11) rppLnis io ihe clse of chrrged pions. fhc ilssumption js usurll]' madc ttltl, the irl.eracljon of tlic ncutr pions with the nr0lei is simihr to il. In ihis case, lio\re!.r, II is a real quaniity:rnd th{:rofor(i lr and rl* arc thc stmo. The present evidenc seems to indicrte Lhai, lhe couplins constitDts r! have appro\imntcly equill values for lhe inter$.tions ot thc cbarged and thc ncutral pio s. In tlis booh ttte t$'o t{rrAction consLants will bo i{kcn l1! (r|rlr]. Wc conclLldc illis seclion by compuiing thc mairix elements ol the intc ction (11) accordins to the lcs ai lhe end ol Section 7. lhcse lomulas vill later be usnl in ihc applications. fhe matrix rloncnis fol aU pro!,.ses (38) in which r pion js created or destroycd are obitrind fro,r tlle formul$ (19) lor crlculrtnrs tho mal,d\ lernenis of iI and (2I) nrr ciiculating the rnatrix elemcnts of P and -\t. The inl,egral over thc cxponerttial lrciol is replr(d bl' o as explained in Secl,ion 7. The rcsult is

0t cried totil cnogt Dion hm msnnted bceu or desiroyed. In computirg ihese formulas ii that the tmnsiinm oi ihe occupaLion number of thc pii[ was

{'here u" is the

t'hc hc I 1 .., "Vz!)u, VA Va O:-::V 2ttu" of the ihaL has been either

(42)

cither fron 0 to 1jn a crealjon process orfrorn I io 0 ir a dcslruclion pro(rss. Othcrlvisc ihe factors.v/n. -l- 1 or Vn. appcaring in (19) sbould be iDcluded.

-trF
lNTLnlCftON
9.
01' II

OF TIIt)

FI

lt /,DS

oTul t lN't

LRACTION

r7

ER

]N

ER AC

IO N S

It
of abort 2

unslablc psrticle and

is knoNn riperincnially th$t the pion is an thrt it dec:,ys sponi.ancoLrsly vith a tifctime

lhis decay, fouDd that the muon decayirig trom a pion at rest always hll6 a consirnt r&nge ot about {j00 micrors in ihc photo-

l0'3 rcconds into a rnuon. Powc]l, $,tro firsr otrscn-ed

inv|1rnDt and should be replaced by more eiaborrte exprcssions somewhat on the liDcs folloircd in discussing vrrious lorrN of the Yulia$o jnieractio . Sincc orLr oim is ncrcly to cdcula|e orders of magniiude \ve shalt turi:go thcse conplicaiions in lhe inierst of simpliciL]'. f'hc mrtrix lemcnis of tlle interaciioD (aa) can be calculaid wiih lhe Lsual proccdure by combining the matrix elements of

gr*phic emulsion. From considerutions ol enersv momentum conscrv&iion one conclLxle6 that, in th pioD docav o neurrat partjcte mu5t also be emittcd which lcr\'es no photosrcphjc tracc. It is consislent $ith tbe rrther $idc limits ol experimeni.:it error ro assume ihat tbis neutral pariicle has niss zero. Tbc or.renr asslrmption l,hat se shilL loll(,w is i,hat it is a nentrino. Ii is, ltowever, more convenieDL to cail this parrjcle an anii neutrjno (symbol t), which ol oourse nakcs titLte diiTercnce. t.hercft,re we shali postulcte the rc{etions

II, p, r ohtnincd r.spci]tircly lron (19) atrd (21) and applyins ihe rulc of Scctiol 7. One {inds t}r&ii thc mtrix elements for ali
proccsscs (13) Lave equal values,'

nrncly:
(45)

\/

2a,"

s'hre u, is ttLe energv of the pion. ]'hii formula be used in "'ill Section I;l when the lifetime ol the pion is dis(,ussed.

Th interaction constrnt betweer elecirors and the mdiction

neld is the elecironic 0harge The interaction consliants e1 of the ':. Yuk!$'a theo.y (formuia (11)) snd the constant e3 lor ihe process (a3) all hrve tlie dnnensiors of an electric cbarse. Theil aciual

IIt=p'+t

ind 11:A +,.

(43)

An inier:r,ction term suiiable to causc tlre first ol thcse iransiiions should include lhe operotor II, s.hidr acmdins ro (tg) desiroys s posiiivc pion, ard the operators p+ and /, vhicL r(jcording to (21) crc.ric a posiiisc nuon and destroy a neutrino, i.e., crcaie rn &nti-neutdno. The samc combinatior ol ope.atoN wilL also cause the jnvcrse of i,he seud reaclion (13) because the operaior tr can creaie ! legnlive pioD.'fhe opemnrr !* ma) crc,te e positire muon of ihc negative Dir^c seo of ihesc prrrictes, thrr is, desi,ro)-a ncsative muon. Simlhrll.ihe operlror / mrv desl,roy a neutrjno. Since the hierartion erreryy is lL real qLL.tntitv (Ilerlnirir operaror) its complex conjug:Lie u+/*/ should bij riilded to the prcdous term. 'lhis complex conjugai,e is snitrble to prodrrce the second rc.cr,ion (43) nnd ihe inlerse ol l,he first. The sinplcsr form ot intcuciion enersy suil0.ble to produce the relrctioos (.13) ard rhejr inverses would thereloro be
""

vahes, liorvever, are quite di8'erent, as $'ill be seen in the next

rve shall procced now to dis{iussthree other elmentary processcs ,mo. hr' r \. .,,' 'I'hesc const{nts will hc dcnoi.ll by sj , t' rn{l ra .

.'

'" :u .n-,.r.* " l",liTr,'"r..rsc /

rhc first ol tlcse int{rrrctnms responsiblc lor the bcta rey dni-.sion. This proccss h.is long sincc bccn intcrprctcd as due to the dcmcniery'prrticle reaction
(46)

The formulas becone more symmetric by assuming thai an antineutrino and not a neutrino is associated wiih the emission ol an eleciron, and the reaction (ad) has been rvitten accordinsly. A transition of this type might be due to an iDteraction tenn in the Ecniltonion of the snnplilied lorm s,

0u*, + n*,*u)

a9

(44)

e.N"., + N*Pre) do.

(.47

rhreca,is r suitable nrteraction {xrnFtxnr hrr,ing ihe dimensions ofalr cleclric c]]!rg.1'lc interactiol iun (+ l) is not relaririsinja y

3. ir ih crse ol tlre similar lorN ! (42) the assumpiion has beer rntde ^s Urri ihe occuJJilior Jrurtrbe.s ol lle J]ioos chsnse either lron0 io I o. rrom I to 0. othowis. tlc Imtor y'i + I oL V; sotrld &ppcar in (aI).

INTERACTION OF

IIIL IIELDA

OTEER 1!t7 ER'|aTION

99

In this casc rll loul paticles arc of the I'ruli tvpe anrl (21) rvill rruly. \\ r'- 1,, r, ps o c", .,o ; L, m. ., , " "nl, ,,, on."i. ,i .rine ,o rle i1 .r1. rior, , i7 L rrmpd:r .t-, .d ,

This formula, horverer, corrcsponds rranEilion in which $ll four p:rrticles ol reaciion (16) rre in siates $.irh de lnirc rnomentum values (planc wavcs). In rhc applictrions atso ttrc toll1lutas .or_ rcsponding to the eLse in Nhioh thc states of rhe noltron, proton, and_clectm! ll,re not reprcscntabtc !s ptanc rLal es de treq[en y used l'hesc formul:is coutd be obr$nred by us;ng tLe erprcssions (22) irstead of (21) lor ihemlirix cl{rmenrts ofihen(td conlrronenis. Th ,-.p.,di,c o,mul.s, a. \1tts. rha, l'1!Fl...rm:,.|p nonJFrrod.,"...ir r,"n.,.,e-.-n ot he r.yirr"r.cri,.r.inr, .r.d""r h,r, i. q.c;,\ I "eru ""iTl.:rFd tj'pe (47), $'ill be meni,i.,ncd in Scction 11. 'lve procccd to discuss rnother ctement:ut jnremotion wtrich is rcsponsiblc for i|c spontaneous dccay ot ttrc uruon. t.he mLlon is an unstaLlc partide. It has a mcrn life oI 2.15 1 t0 'scconds and emits an electron. The me{sLrre ents ot Sr,.nrbergcr rnd AndcNon indjcai,e that ihc energy of tte clecrror (lnir,terl is nor always the srme. This fact has bccn inicrpreted br: Si.eilbereer 1rd \V'p"l r rta :t,e mu n dF- .. nrLo rl,ee

''G)"":3 to a

The spontrDeous de(ny (a9) js noi i,he only procesd by rvhlch a nuon mtyvanish. Thr:ri: is d idcrlce thal anegative muon crpLured Dear r nuclus mrx disrppear without ernitting rn clccLron. ,l r*r.tion ot ihc typc

(48)

r+t+N+r

(52)

is consisient with thclinown facts. ,\s soon o$ tLc muon is captured neu { nucleLrs ili ryould rcact with one of tlrc nuclcri protons and the t\{o ptrrticLcs rvould change into a neutron and ft neut no.

One leoture o{ tlris hypothcsis js that lrom it lolldrs thai ihe Dudeus in $.hnti thc rclciior takes place would not be slrongly excited sinc nost ol t]rc mass energy ot the muon r1'ould be losi jDto neuirino energy. This w{,uld erplajn why thc process as a rule does rot lad to st:ir lormalion. In the usual simplificd lorm ar jntemction tern suiLable to cause (52) may be $'rittcn s,

@-P,.p* + P*Np/) .Jr.

(53)

The mrtrix elemcnt corresponding to this inleractioD is quite similar to those of thc prcvious two iDterrNliions and is given by
0j
1' (5,1)

pr"i1...e|la

to be ncutrims. Or this assrLmption rhe reaciion $.outd be

r"r'.Ip1r:.,..,"-,"...

.""

(1C)

This reacinrn has been witten for the case that one of th t$,o anti-neutri o, a ma ftcr of li fttc prac ticjil importrnce. -4. sinplilied interacliioD term leadi4 to (a{l) coutd te
neuirinoE is an s"

The three constants sL , s: , s3 ol (a7), (s0), and (53) rll h{vc the same dimeDsi{,ns, crgs X cm3 = '. Ii is x reurLablc lact that thcir rctld values seem to be quite close, ntmcly aboui ltl " ergs x crnr. This faot w&s noticed indeperdently by Thmno ard lvlicel(ir, Lee, Rosenbluth and Yang, aud othcr luthom, and probably is !ot a cojncjdenc, {lthough at prcsent iis sigrtilicsnce js

,'M?

J a.*." + c+ptt)

iot.

(50)

n'ill be used for caloularirls rhe mririx ctelnents of rhc fie1d corn poDents. Onc finds as in ihc case ot the beta irtemctim rh,i ih{l mat x elments for the proce,.ses (d9) are
0

Also in this case the four particles rr all of the pnuti tJ,pc aDd (21)

unknoirn. Perhaps ii may bc (orrelaled to the somc\thal similar fact tL{t thc electric chargrs ol all ijhe elemontffy prrticles are equ0l. Thcir common talue e phyr ihe role of i"t.r^.1id. .nnstrnt betwecn thc clec tronagnetic ficld:!nd lhevariouskinds ofparticles. It shonlri be noticed hrrthcr that some ol the interactions dislusscd iri thc prel.ious scctions may not bc primary but may bc 0onstrucd is a conse.Ludrc. of oihers. Tlis possibilily, i'hioh is

(5t)

erenplilicd by the Yuliilwa theory ol betll disjntegntnrns, is discussed jn Appendix 5.

V
IN7'E]tAI,'TIAN OF TIl

':

FIT:LDS

ll.
CALCULATION OF TRANSITION

'

RATES

3I

IA. CALQT]LATION O]I 1,IIAN8lTION EA|,ES

.0lled fo. is not lino$n ar prcscnt. Tn this clemnt{ry discussic,n $e shdL avont the difiicllries l,\.

,le in -rr.r,,. ,Frns h,,nFFL i6tuq t.(e I,d. r,, ,,;o". .,. ,'pnr'a1ri,, lar,-.ty'rr rn"po,.r,,.-io. ,- -"*t. L,rofj bF., "" .. ,d ^,ti,"rg,nr .t. " . r rn cxcepi.ion. lvhethcr ultjmjitety a mathmaljcaL procedure \vilt bc L]+el ,ryu ,. oacl, .,'h,r , rgr."pr^,tFm.,,. 'hF',.rn^ " 1,r" .,LJ ,,,oifi.J ,r1....h, rpdInriF.\i ,,

In practicrl computations it is cusrornarv to hrn.lt.

ijnuun. This nrfinity, however, is compensated for by ihe fsct thal :1t;,,, is inlinitesimal. A conver$nt pror:edure lor avoiding mistnkes is to quantize le.+apl in a finiie |olumc a \rhich is later on allo$'ed to increase to -. = 4n j trVhen ihis proccdurc is followed the number ot finrl stntes will be frcquently exprcs-qiblc by a lomula lihe (17) an

dN:ltlr
momentum p ire rehtcd for s single pafiicle of l.elocity

r' -! +i
-Ly1 1t,

(56)
d,,"

where p is the momertum of the particle crcatd in the reaclion. Botli in relativistic lr,nd in cl{ssical meoliaDics the energy If and
1,

--

at'.ii

senerrillv responsible for lilre divcrsencjcs. Extcnsive use witl be made of I geneful formutaa which gir-es rhe rate at r.hich the transitions trom arr initiat staie zer; inro a continuum of states ?i t!.ke place. (lrjg. 1_)

rFrn,n.:rg hcrt,oo,ia- o. I.o,!q. .."o".. ,.n_r..,i,:r "e"rl :. 1.1,i"?d..nJ:r .or."..qc. t.J .r, rr..r: r.m- rlrr l il".,.nrrib'||ion. ul"ar.. o. \"Jrgr r. ,r"rl n ., .t, ac

by

dW

: I d,p.

(57)

STATE O

_F

a(0+z):

Tl,'79

:a
($)
]'rc. 1 TrDsiiiors lrom lhe sirtc When a sinsle
zcro

modulus :lC,J for a sroup ot si:lres ?, cDerserjc,ltv .lurp osErFz.'o. lb!"\pr, !'orJ\ a ,.p,,.".,.r"nu,,,e ot t:o.rl .re,ps p.r uni ..r" sy nrer.,t ror pnFrsr .to.. o ,.. I oi state zero- StricUy specking, dlldtt/ $.iI be infinitc for a con_
mean square

R'0-,' . rl,erruu.iri,nrJ ".rh.r ,,,"oo. :ti., uf ,r. - :o,, P4r ur . rm...^m. rrna. rTp"otr ,'y I L r-d .1,. uioorLrl \ o r". tC f rh.mf i.,tpm, oIr-.De . .".,n,".po,.r tF ".nsi l^, ,p, !1.i.u 1, i. jr..TFd t,1 i, I.t,..1" J",r,.rte

irio ihe.ortinuum

of ststes a

ticlc is produced one will haye

dN

Opr

(58)

.lisous6ed L,.e krF o''.-r,o,^, "s'.."?.,o . ..a,p .i.1,.e, *,,,-..,,. .,-",,.;i,; "0. 9. . q ,r- s ,," /" o 1 ,.,s ,, 1.r.,, o,,",.h ",i ..^n yi\a,i ot " ..s|h 'h.r,.ro..,,,,,r "h.n:-..^,. .-o ".. .. *.,... .. . r ..-F , i I o,r. .."."".. L1 , :, ":'... ,A ,s rror. ,tp, o --,, "r L r., \.,.i.. \bi.h ma\ /iT"r I .,.J

sl.esdy been rlis.ussed itr $eciio! 7. Th

)",,1,1-","

4 Spp ^r...r.

"1., fi.t/ o,.1

...or.

tt..,rr?r. \.u \,r... t.{,,.-.

.,,J.

lvhen ihe reactjon yields tx'o psrticles of equal and opposite momentum, p and -p, and speeds u and r,, formuia (56) is mchanscd but one finds insNeld ol (57)

inositio!

n,...,n

JW:(r,+Ddp.
In the
parenthesis

(5e)

tlie 6um of
dN
tlIV

1,he

magnituds of the velociiies

one obtains
(bo)

and not their vector sum appears.

In ihis cr,se

"

".,,o.,

"n, tsv,0.,

!)p" 2n'1hxlh

u')

A2

discussed in the srxrcial applioarions.

|NTEN|CTION OI' TEE ILIILD' The cnse x.heD three prrtictes cmerge olrt of rhc reacrion wil be Fornula (55) for the tri1nsition rrte is obrr,ined fron rhc ouaD-

DEYELOP}TENT

PANAMET'ERg

99

r.nmalar '.-'l p"r 'rrbr .,1 al.tr,\i.'ld:o,..\,.. 'Jrdirts ro i, 5l,ouu p " l,t,"p .,,t..- .h" n. ri\ ,lam" or,r..,i-sr\p \o"r1p, FJir,";,.tr,mzero tnrn.rv
o
",..-,,;" even wben th matrix lemcnt vanishes. In rerrns oI the perrurba_ tjon ihcory this is due to a p.ocess of highcr approximarion. i.he connected by non,vsnish;is mairix etements borh to srat. zero &nr:l to the strtes n. As a rule these intermcdiate strtes havc energy quite dilTerent fr.,n sts,re zcroJ and therefor no permane t transi_ tion of the system into ihcm is possibte o sccount ot the consewa-

.. na ,""",,,, , , ;,; ,.":.,;";

t.aDsitjon occuls tluough rhe jntermerliary of onc or more stares

obviursly spoil ihe argLrment. In any case, the srrlatl vrlue ot l,he developmeni prmmeter may bc tahen as a indjcaiion of the .eliability ol thc approximatior procedure. ,A,s rn e:rample of ihe meanirlg of the development paramerers appropri:rte io the va ous forms ol field iniGricrions \' shau djscu;s ji$t ihe Yuka$a interaction (a1). The st$te represcnrins proton P ai rcst i6 connectcd hy a non-vanishing mardx element (a2) tu r sialie (X + I1 )! reprcscnting a posiiir-e pion and a neuj.ron with qual nnd opposiie rnomenta p and -p. !-rom thc pefiurbation theorl. we hnox'lhat ihe unpefiurbed sliete (P) will be mixed with siates (N + n)! i the l or conbhrtion
11

(P)+Xk(N+n),

(62)

theorys (second approxjmiion). The rr:rnsitjons from zcro to,i o.cur ns if l,he tso st:rtes w.jre connected dirorty by an ,,cfictive

One rpplics in such cass ihe strndard rules of jitre perturbation

^ The sum is cxtendcd to all rhe intermcdiate sraics ??1 conneciect to slatcs zero rnd n by non vanisbing mrtrir elcnenrs. In pracri.e such suns rre frcquntty diverseni,. When rhis is ihc inse we 6hall .dopi crude cut-ot1 procedures in ordel to obrain so catled

a:

tv,-

tr,

(.t1)

nhere .AlIr is lho anergy dificrence bet$een thc two statcs. In rhis :lpproximatior the probability of firlding the stsrem h the staie (rV + n), js :hj,,, ',/Alt/!and ihe prcbrbitiiy ot findins the svsiem inrnyoneof lhcsi,its(N+ l]),is>! j1!. i,A /!whcrerhesum should be rahcn Ior all allowablc v ues of p. In order ro cv{luate this sum one r.phoes the matrix element:h- bv iis vatue (42)

"plausible" results.

Sirut tlLe pion muss is smat compiud to that of the nuctcon the encrsy difierence bcli$'een the statc (rV + n), rnd the unperturbed siatc (/) caD be tak{r equal to u. Tho sum cln rhen be converted into an integral by mtltiplying l,he snmmand Ly rhe expression (56) ol lihe nunber of sraics beiNeen p rnd p + dp rnd integratins to all vrlres of p. Introd cins as a virirlte insread of p the new

.1 \ '/.1 .r,.^,

-\r'

" |,r'

- Ip.n,rqJ o|1,,

p,on.

1]. bEI'EI,O

vadaLlc, = tipc, onelinds

PJ4EN

T P}lRAMETENS

\ ("ll bo\'F- ."J h.r i. t,., .h .n"-.,fl,.r1-".oi ^ .r1nr ,'6, ll37 1.... r." ro,.orJ. "top1"ar p,nFF i, hJi.ri,, r'..,n"n" f . rpan. rj, I r r jps p\t"r:ion rn porrers of e obtainrd x.helr applt'ing rhe perturbari.D meihod Jp. - .p n ord. I ot m. rnir .,h r. rr,+s.i\^ pu p' ol Vp a. .08;. \. u.'llr, ml l" r. . .i rrLr ,ti-ren
sionallv, irrfinitc numcrical cocfiicicnrs ofren arc excountere.t which
5.
See

'
,?

\rl

",, Jo ; t ,d, - trh 1rr''

11

U lorhrnatelJ' the int{rgral has

foi era.rlle: Sctjifr, emntlm ltect,anics, D. tg6.

ol ihe momerrLum w(i limir thc integral io rnaximum rnomcrltrun ol the ordel p., lihrt is, to 1'alrrcs of r7 ol orrler onc. A jusliticrijon h this cut-ofi is thc expecrtatirD ihat rhc eapressiorr (42) ol Lhe rmtrix elenrent max in frct breali d.nl.n at rclrrivistic velocities of ihc pion. Th inteeral in tlie formul:r above bc(x)mes
values

We gei arol1lld ihis dilticultr by one of thc clude cur ofi proccdrros Nlready nlultlorcd. Instead of integrarjng up to infidte

: o.

losariilnnic dir,'ergcnce at

INTER}ICTlON OF TEE IIELDA

now of the order oI magnftude of udty and the exprssion itreu becomes of tbe order of Dagn ude

DEVDLOPMENT
Since e,

PANAMETENS

36

Gh;

(63)

&lso quite The pcrturbaiion is presumebly reliable method sm l so that th parameteB for lhe intractions development same is true ol the (a7), (50), (53). These parameters ore siven by

ijuns out to be verl small i,his p3rametal is

ruar'u1 " o 'h"r ! f,o,.,. o..!.ionellv pmir. a p,- ;.. pion snd converts"rr temporerily into a neurron. Soon atrcrs.ard it reabsorb the pion and goes i]'ctr io the proton forni. Tha ncurron h1c a .;n,r1r 'e\r\ pr.,b, r,t,r! ot In, r,6 r, "". I t" ^ p-uron rn 'hr si ir \ fl ralrelrrr r I " -r.r .. ,t i luire iarse, boing of the order of masniiudc ot ttr{r dev,toproonr, pa.r,,n_ eiier, or perhrips 25 per ceni. When trro rLtcteons other thci surrounding pjo. fields inicracr in a mrnner "pp.o""t "u"r, thai gives rise to the stronll short,rflnse foroes betileon nucteons m rvill te explsined in Scction 17. The developmeni parameters for the other typcs of intemction arc obtained in s similar way. tror rhe interactjoir (a+) rhe pararn eter b siven by sn expressioD like (63), naneiy
rha a
"1 164)

about twenty times the elcmentary etectric charge. These lsrge velues of 4 and of (63) mean of coursethai d physic proton.is rath$ poorty reprcsenied by rhe methemrticaffy simpfe 6late that $.e have indicaicd bjr (l'). _{cruattx, ir, js a rnixture of the state (j') rcpresenring D proion proper, nnd ot stahs ff [ + represeriins a_neutron with a positive pion narby. The physicnl proioDis,btrFro far hum, L n " "1 J.y.Tl,Fu usIn11 o"a... i; ,;p.

is thcre beccuse;n r. yukawa ihon, one rdopr, r, :on1l:Fd urir. Tl,F d"re opmcn 1,.r,r.."r 6r, ;" . qmsll nraber. I i, d..i.Ll. ro "",ro a.c, in ro . a fr".F. \l! ,r,. sin.c meson theory accounts for the nuctear torces $lt enough to permit 6. determinr,tion of the coupling consiant. However, it is blieved ihat (63) nu.y bc of thc order of 1/a. Then r, wouid be

4/ in the denominator

(..v, l,n \"di1 wi,l, P,.Trpnyurpi.ion.L,3 L n.ar"og,r" ol ,LFfroesru.,u,F.o,sranr oir " r,o",ior .h.".1 Tt,. ir^i,"

whichjs the usual expression adopted tor the devetopmeni param eter of. the_Yuk$wa theory. The devetopmenji prraneler repre sents therefore ns order ol magnirude tlie traction of ihe states

9mc
where

(65)

sliould be repiaced in ihe tllree cases by 91 , s' , g' s.Ld m should be rcpllced for tlie mses (a7), (50) by the m,ss of the electron rnd for clse (58) by th&t ol the muon ln aL1 cr,r.scs the paranetr (65) is qujle smail, ranging in value fro," to " to l0-" The approxi,ni1tion meihod lor thcsc cales should therefore b

relirble prorjdcd lhe actunl

been gucssell correcl,ly.

foD ol the jnterottion ter!]!

has

=
ELECTEOMAGNETIC AND

YUEAI|A
a

37

to the beta interaction excepi that the electron is

CElPTER TIl
RFN

t3

the interaction constant of

hypothetical process similar

replaced

T'he

Interaction Constants
19. ELLC'l
IN

FOIl7t)N |t't,IC tlND I'OK,4WA I LRAQ 1' ION CONSII]\r?S

rarFr.,crion

Perhaps fubure developments of thc thcory will eniblc us to undeNtand ihe rcasons lor the e\isicncc nnd thc strnsth ol thcse vadous interactidF. Ah prescnt, howcvcr, \1'c must trkc an empiricd approach and detcrmine lihc values ol thc various coutArrts from the intcnsity of the phcnomem lihnt arc c:ruscd by them. In Appendix 5 sono ol thc possiLle relationships bet$,een various constanis Are dis(usscd. Thc ehctromisnctic intcr{.tion constent is ofcoursc vcry $'ll

. ra\.

I,Fpn

and bcsides there ftre

-(uspectcd

could be additiond iricrt.tions amons the iiementarJr partjclcs,

, . r .,1 Tl-r do ro n,"r,l

prrrilles

Tn 11-

1,r'n".l,rg,rap,." 6i\

no. .hr ri,.. ThL.e

tro"".".s

known. Its

ue is

The first tlircc dre

dcirmlnes its strensth. Three ot rhem ha1,e the dimensions of an elclt.ic chargc lnd ihree have the dinensjons of energl,. X votume.

"-l.n,r, orr'. tr,rp.rip. I.orF,. ,.f .p.\in..rcrion processcs ol Chapicr Il 1r. consr.lni, h{s bocn inliroduce{t irt,r.

drich we have teti out of

hose 0xistence is either hnown or

consideratioD becruse

lo.

sr'/'sec*'. It is a rcmrrkable laci thab itre valuc of thc clementuy chnrge is the same for all chargcd pariiclcs: clcctrors, protons, muons, lnd pions. This ideniity is pr.sumably relntcd to tlro conscNrtion of cleclriciiiyand to ihe faci thalparticlcs can chango into erch other.
For cxample, the bcta processcs in which a neuliron chrnges into e proton, an elcctron, rnd a neutrino $'ould be incomprtible $rith the conservalion of eleciriciijr il the absoluie valucs oI the charge ol the proton and the electron $'ere diflerert. $re $ill troi discuss the eleciiromagnetic processes here oicepi lor a few cases h whicl they are necessary in order to undeniand oiher properlies of ihe
elementary particleE.

4.8025

10

"

cm'/u

r-the elemenrary etectdc charge ihat deic.mjncs the strength of the elcctronugnetic interaction_
cFthe interaction constrnt of thc yuk:iwa theorv .torer_ mrling rle .."",.gr1 _t ,1,. r,r, rs.,i,.1 b" ."er 1.ior" rr.l

The Yukawa interaction is responsible lor the nuclear lorces, and the 1'alue of the corespondins interaction constant c' should

e-the consrant ot an intc.action ihAt has been postut$.ted to act bets.een pions, muoDs, aDd nentrinos. Nhich .ont,l h. responsjblc for the Epontancous dccay of the pion.
The threc constants $ith climensions cnergy

be adjusted to fit the expcrimcnt'rl vrlues of these forces. r\ sketoh of the Yukor& theory ol Duclear forces will be siven later in Section 17. It wi be lound there tllAt in order to obtain an
order of maqnitude aercment bctircen the observed andcalculated strcngth of thc nuclsr forccs lihe mnstrnt c' must be taken about ti.'nty times hrger th$n the clemcntary elcctic charge. In the numedcal c:ilculations we shall $dopb the value

volumc &re

,1-ilre iltcraction constant of thc betli

pmcesses.

: ru cm Ar sec It should be stresEed tlirt this 1'alue i6 merely

r?

(06)

,,-on jnter&ction that has bcen postutated to act ]retneen muons, alectrons, andneuirinos and vhnjh coutd bc responsibte for ihe lpontancous dc(jly of the nuon.

an order of magni' tude. The quantitstive rgreement betlveen the Yukawa theory of nuclear forces and experiment is so indeflnite that it haE not

v
3A
TEE INTENACTION CONS?,4NID'
,f

EE BE'I'N

INTENACTION
3

SO

been possibla 1io determi.e rhe precise fotm of rhc jni,rlction enrsy and therclo.e thc value of ihe constnnii musr atso be lell Lrncertain. In pnrticutar, rhe vatue of th spin irl rhe pion

Martinelli

from the experimerltal value ', : 2 X l0 eeconds given by arrd Panofski we obtain t|e interacii.m consklnt
cr

,siLtucd.

i.rot noro. I .^,rll Fnur Lorp"rt .psr...prD,.Fr r.:ErrFr.L.p. In ou, "i1lpt r- I Jr".f;o" a cnr zi.., ,,q ...,.," t.""
13,

1.1

10

15

2.4

,(

10

6r.

(63)

It Nill be secn in Appendix 5 that this

interrction may not bc 1t mry Lc an indirect efect of other iDter;ictions that pdmary. hsve been tostulatcd.
14,

DECAv OT THE PION,IS DIRLCT PROAESS

E BNTA INTEAACTION

s'ld i t'", ri.l di.. .."o i, cp.,:u1 eniJ t.- uu, .o I Jirc(L " rdc., .l rh":r ."!.r,u ..1 . t hp L F nF to hi" I,role"-, $i.t no\ lr ."l,, 1 eo ,{, rli.. 3. .n ,rio, , in , rd.r ,o ,"J_ce rr,,m rl. iuTtJ Unor rr,orJ ,n.r"\t"..n,.1 rr,,.v,1,, or,t" in.rcrron -{ pion at rcst h$ rcsi energy pc'. Tl,is cnergy is converted inio ihc energy of ile ncutrino oi momcntum p ancl tLe muon of rnornFniLm -i,. C^.!p.r. ,u.. ot,.aFfg\ rpluil.ce

TIre spontaneous conversjon ol the pion inio a muon

+ t/

dc1

to tlre reaction II p + y is 1/r, and can be cllcutaterl v:ii, (55) {nd (60) usjns- the rnatrix ctement (15). Sincc pjon o at rcsi disappears, its encrsv 1r. in (a5) \,iI be pcz. one finds

rvhere pr is the computes the momctrtum p of thc tFo particles produced in the rcaciio;. let be the lifetime of the pion. The ratc of thc pjon decay ft(cor.linrl

+-Cp, = pcx Frcm this cquaiion one

(67)

'-

The interaction responsjble for the beta transitions hos aLady been givcn in a crude forn in Section g. Nexi to the case ol ihe mdiation theory tbis is lhe process on \4ich Nc lnrve tlle greaiest amount ol etperimcnLal jnfonnriion. ln spitc of this {:rvorable situation thc attcmpis to subsiitute n,r (a7) a more delftiled expression lnYe not lcd so lar to a linol {ronclusior. Nlosi of the attempts sre biscd on assuning an interscliion tenn in the Lagrangian forned with cxpressioN p:rtternetl on those gjven in Appendjx 4. Since the tcrnl in Lhe Lrll{lansirn must L, a surl&r, one might for exrrnple proceed as folLos's: 'lhe expressior PPN js a scalar c.ecording to (2) in Appendix 1; so is the exprersion e$v. Therefore thef product multiplied by ;! arbitrrry jnteraction constant sr \ri[ be an jnva cnt sealar that cou]d be added to ihe Lagrlnsian to represent the iDterrctior. In prssins from the Lasrcngirn to the Ilamiltonicn thcrc is in ibis case only a chanse of sian and therefore a possiblcinlarirni inieraclion temr Fould be s,

| _?".( :r- \ . h \\'/2a"-l

ap, _ 2nt u
i.

."p"

Qi:NeS,

\trl)Pttsc) da.

(70)
has

2;t.,,,

u,'

In vritilrg this crpression the complex conjugate quaDtiiy

spins have bcen ncstecred, and ur and r,r are rihc sDecds of 'hF In | -i!,. ,n I ,. ,h. -iL, r,. Orp hr. ,t"rFt,. p - ... t.e velocltt' 4 of the nuoD rnd the momcnrum p c:rn be compuied frcm the ron-"ervainrn ol onergy. ]\ssuming p : 276 m antt pt : m, with m the eleciron mass, one finds by soh,ins (67) p : ,210 58.1 nc, florn $tich ii, Ioilorvs thai r]re neuirino canies N,v about 30 Mev rvlLile the lrilx,tic encrsy of ihe muon ts onty a.I Mti. The velocity of ihe nuon is 0.27 c. $/irh thesc nunefcal 1,eljr.rs

AI

been added sincc the Hamillorlian mttst bc Hcrlnitian. The inter acijon (70) is callcd scllar' inteEction. Onc can forn four cdditional relativistio inruinrli lypes of intertctio by trsing the erpressions (3) to (6) of \ipendix a in a sinilarmcnrcr. They are called respectively psetrdoscnlar, vector, pE.xxlolcctor rnd tensor intc.Actions. For example, the pseudovcctor intcr.rction would lead to n term ol

tho foliowing folm:

,".iac li,. ir ..r , -J l.

I d,

f otdld, \..d

4"o3
t

(71)

"=

3r

l0'ej.

(68)

'

"","U].

" ".)

ihis c,rse. ,Uso, linc combirariions ot lihei;e \ ious inier.t{itions may be adopted. ditonpts hive becl made b cornpl1rij $,i r erpcrinenl ih coDscquenoes oI ihe v n,us ir|crection lorns in ordcr to decide which if an]- ol rhenr sives aftepiabte rcsult!. Ii turDs out, unfortuutcly, i,hri lor rhc so caltcd Derniftcd r*insii".. I'F h t" ul h, l."r ,,by.,," 11,T i r.,. ..rp or rlt rynF. ol interacl,im. TIle cx(jelleni ssreemcni treiwcen the thir)rerical and erperim{rntol shrpe ol ihe fermjiied spoirr rherctore does not oller l1 clLre lor a decisior. Or tlic other txind. l,h(i difierenr types of interr(ition si|e diflerenr sclection tes. l1or xarrlptc, t|e scrlar {nd tle vcior irtcrocrions sjve rs s seleciiol rute tor pennilted transitions I

10 lII D lNlER,lCttO^" CONSTltt,tE *hcrc dp, represonts tlre vrlue oI rhc inieraotion constrnt tor

THE

BET\ INIERACTIOtr"

41

nodels. Ol course, the nuclear rnodels used are very crude so tlat lbe tost is not vcry con.lusir-e. 'flr(i virious trpos of nrftraction lead to difierent prcdiciions as to thc rnsular corelaiions of ihe dircctions ir Fhich thc clcctron and thc ncutdno sr emitted. Since, horrever, l,he obscrv{tion ol tlre rc(ioil of the neutrino is not sumciently rccuratc ii h{s not provert possible until noir to drcw reliable conclusions. In the present discussion ile sholl lirnit ou$elves to the use of i.hc simpli 6ed interaction (47) and to ine dedvation of its most imnediato

\o

clangc of nucletr spin, no clxnec ot

The scle{,tion

pa iy. (/-scle.tion fttes.) rules for the pscudovector or tcnsor inrc*r,ctiors

+1, no clnngo ot paritv. 0 + 0 transjrions

ln calcr aiing ihe maLrix element ol a bela iransiriion one cannot apply $'ithout modificai,iorl ihe rules ol Secliioll 7 bccausc |hc ncuLron r d l,hc prol,o cannoi be rcprsenicd by planc wavcs but tuc bound by slrorg torces i sidc the nrLclcrs. l'or this samc rerson no ixnscrvdtion ol noncnturn holds lor thc loL[ rnuticlcs
jn cqurtion (40) sircc thc rcsidLrI] nuclcus crn trkc up rny arnount

Chenge ol spin by 0 or

lorbiddn. (Cz-selacrion rulcs.)

of s,l.p{rprincnr Iiz,,t ov ,tL" shaps ol tlrc permitted spcctr,r and of sevcral forbjddcn speclra seem to folld{ the theoreticrl shape or shrpes wjth srrrprisinE

lvjsner ftnd CriLchnetd ture co$ntered in addiiion the pos, sibility ol a liDear conbinarion ot scr,tar, pscrrdovector anct pseudo_ scahr inieraotions $hich can be expressed in a rcrnerkabtv svm, m,,r',., lorn. 1,. r.., . .h.$ j1n alrFpn,||,,,,h "tlr..ir;"n. n" $-orse than thri of other {hcories. Tlie resutts of the c.,mDlrison

Ii appcrrs lhat experimntal evnlence tends i,o faror rhe Gf sdection mls, or perhaps r mixrure of thc IJ ancl 6'? nJes. This cvidence, hor.ever, is not quiie co.dllsive, sincc unforrunal,ety little is l(]ro\i'n expedmenlally of ihc spin and parity of betn aciive sul)stances nnd ore is usuallyforced tosuess on the b$is ot nuctear nodels whioh, althoush plausible, e nor vw wc esreblishecl. Il on assuDes the AI rulcs one {outd bc ted i,o rse eithcr Lhe pscudovector interaction (?1) or rhc tunsor iniemcrjon. In most crlscs thesc ts'o inrtcftrltions gjve almoEt jdcnti0at rcsulis.

fhe crltulation *'ill bc simplilicrt by disrcgrrdins thc Coulomh lorces e.rtins on tlrc {rlectron. ,{1so tho rrsLral {ssumption ii'ill bc na.de that the ivave lcnsths of the clcctron and thc ncutrino arc larse conparcd to th nuclear dimcnsions rnd thr:refore the phaso factor can be omitted {,om]rutins thc .(nitributiorl i,o tlrc mri,rix element ol the frctors , e*, r, r* according to (21). Iisch of thcsc erpressions cort butes ther thc mnstrnt frctor 1/\,/4, excei for the sisn Nhi(h is of no rele\arncc. TL firs1i ic.n ol (17) is lihc one that, is rsponsible lor the bclia proccssr:s with tnission of nesatire lectrons, whilc ihc sceond icrm produces thc reycrse

\.,J

.,n..'rrr

.vi.lsrt"

r%1.'rion pnJ rr" op I u''.. sr.\ I',.rrr"1 n' :u, Since proton and Dutron a.e bound in the nurLeus tlicir rnntlibution to the natrix clemcnt of (17) should bc complrtcd according to (22) and not (21). Dcnotnu by N rnd.1'tlt(i \\a'c funciions of the neuircn that is prcscnt in ihc nudqrs bcforc thc transformation and ol the proton that is thrc aftcr\vird, one finds ihe meiri\ e.lement

n".

r Or 'ce orr-r l,r,L o ll rnl I",,r .,..,.... f,,r ,cc; met until no$ in thc rttemprs to corretaic ihe inrensiiv ot ihe hera r"asr'on. .Li \ rl,n mrrrir FtFm.., s.rt, .'r."o frorllunte-r
:r.cuI

ff/r-r'ao

: ff,rn.

(72)

c culaiing thc probability froni the inil,ial si.ate to a siaie in wlich an of the tr.insiiion p and p + dp and is $ith momentum bei\veen electron emittcd
This matrix elem{)nt can Le uscd lor

Y
4E
IEE
INTDR,ACTIAN CONS?,1N7S

TgE BIIT.I INIENACTION

43

of the araril:ible energy. lf ?o is ihc maxjmum momcrtum wjth rvhich elecir.,ns crn be cmittd, the ndrtrino enerlrjr .q $,ill be rtrc dilTcrence beiwccn the energy of elecirons rvilh momenrrr p! and pl
t:.1

lihe neutriDo escrpcs Nith momentum q, carrJ,ins awaythe bahDce

: \//n/ +.i'pt

^,/m'4,

+ Cf

(73)

We complrtc the prob&biliiy ol r:rinsition witt tormutr (551. :l lhF ra ,./\ r'lr'$il p.o uo " I ". l' ;a "'r' for p the rnomenlun q of thc neutino and fo its vclocity, c. An additional l{ci)r represcnting tlrc nunber ot sratcs ot an eleclrod of nonenium belilltn p and p + dp given Lj. (56) must be included. ]'he fina] result is

2n s,rL

n s

,."ii t""h: ., rrh ''r,or'V,.."

" ad ap" ,:tp i, , , : silt)]t ,2rrt{c qP

r';

t1P

io do much morc lhan guess the order ol magnjtude of9n. There arc some fcrorable cises lor rliich orc has remon to bclieve thst the neutron and tlie protm ]ur-c approxinliely e(1u41 wa1'c Iu ctions. Such cases arc trorlucntly ertuuntered for lighh elelncnts, p:rrlicularll' for the so 0 |:rl \\'1gncr nuclei. If P rnd N in (72) are the sa e {ave lunclions, thc intcsml r{rduccs to thc normdljzaiion jntegrd and is tnerelore e.tu{l io onc- In such ijtses, tir{]rclorc, the simplified lheory lerds to the simple result 9)t : 1. Some{h$t more c.,mplicaled reslrlt! are etperted, however, even in this simplesi case il one oi i|e moLe elaborate forms of jnteractions thrt hrvc already been discussed is adopted. In particular, if onc uscs the G'l''scleciion rules, one finds for 9t the followjng exprcss n nlstcad ol (7:):

'71

- 1/n;

,p.p'dp.
however,

er

/P%N

,ro

(for G? rules)

(77)

This fornula sivcs the shape ot rtrc spectrum ot the emifted bera rays. lrrom it orc our also ralcutare the toiat prol)ebilirv ot rransirro. fo",1. r,.. ,.i.rnv rt ,.,.r'" en.r|v bi inlesrating lrom zero to p0 . Inl,roducins for corrlenience the new variAbles J? :rnd a0 repres{rniing rtrc momenra ni rurirs ?nc one findr the lilcinne Ior the tnnsilion sir-en by Lhc forDluta

$'here o is the Pauli spir operator of lhe nucleors. Even with (77), 9r usually is ol ih order of nngnilude ol ah least 1iD the

,
t'(n|t

I _ /i 9[ 1

-, :,""n "n''

s'l?s.r

(75)

:
;

I i,/ L + ti \/r
,0
1ta

ri

\, d,
(70

by (72). Its celcula&,n requircs ttre.efore l(no\,terlgc ot rhe $?\.c {un0tioN of i,hc ntidrl and linnt strrc ot rLe nucleus. Since thesc n' -e functions i! mosi crses ue noi knoi1.n, ir is usually impossiblc

,r'\ /' --;rn', ,;'.!:, -;/ The tcrrn i tll ]!i (75) js rerared to ihe Duclecr s.ave funcrions

An addjiional complication concerns the shape of i]]e spcctrum and the lorm of the funclion a(,r0). The aciiou of lhe Coulomb field of the nucleus on lhe eleclron llis ben neglecied so lar. The Coulomb field distorts lh electron rvi1.e lunctions and changes the shape of the speclrum especially rt low electron energies. Sirnil:[1y, the function /(?t \fiI] be nore coDpliccted. The reader is releued to specialized xrtntcs lor a rnore elaborat discussjon of tlie beta rav theory and of it; comprison irith experiment. The velue of th intcrurtion lonstrnt that sives the best aercement with experimental drtr is f(,r c1l f(,ms of nrterootion of the orrler ol 10 " r;rgs X cm'. fho prccise valuc depcnds ol course

on ihc inicraciion lorm th,i is a$umcd. For the intcructn,n (71) onc lirds for cxample 2 10 a'erss cm'.

pse,.tdoscalar

rr

(78)

i. Snr.c electror o ,ul . /i .t

xnd aeuirino ue retri,il,isiic lu.tiot.s

-.' mi!,L u..,p11'

."'1".'

tle retaiivisric r,, .. L. \,r, rh-.

rr

s' has the dimensions of enersy X 1'olume. In order to appreciate its order ol nasriiude we divnle it by tlre clasBical volume of the

..,,. too....\..I,,L.,ru,-.r-rtr,

z \M) =

9.4

X 1['3

cm.'.

-v14 IllE INI.IIRACIION

CANATAIITS

aclion potential beilrccn iwo nuctcons itrioh atso is somerimes reprsented l)r r poicntial hote ot radius equat ro re ctnssicrl cledron udtus has a depth oi 20 Mev, th&t is, abour ien mi ion
16. SPANfII"EOUS

The rcsult is 2.1 X 10 u crss or aboui 1.3 ev. fhis mry sive an idtrr of ho$ ileali thc bell1 bteraction is. lr.or erampte, rhe int{}

DECAv 0tt

lni

Mu(ttt

'?oN?-4XtOli'S (56) bv tlie rtte ol ibe nunber of these clecttrn st.ttts siven bv (55) Nesle(itnis trrnsiiion into one electron sirtc compuLed with r, a-mLa- 'l ' g r" ,r," u. n of n" r..|l'...-. r'n nttop r.', t,t . !\'i'' 1. '{p1 :or, J" Q I '\ 'lFr''rr' one 6nd. i! iltrs iYal ihe transiiion ruie
1

2' l. \'t:P'dD !'t .

DEtatf OF IIIE
MUON

\a

/ ,'.|' l]r'
2

;l

The sponirrneous decry of ihc nuon Nith .rnission ol an elcctron h{s becn afirjbuied jn Secrjr)n 9 to ! pr.orcss p +

! + 2,

dLle

o,/{l siven by (51).

to {n inicraciion rerm (50) w h mBtrjx

etemeni

The number oi neut no srci(is per unii cnersv intcrval' 'lN/'llr' monrentun still niust l) lrlculrted ln lisure 2 tre reprer:ented thc ndrLrinos t\to p! ihe lhc rDomrntr pL ancl ol , "t tt ""a sidts ol a " "t,,"t."o ihe lorm 1i",," ,r." *"t- *-..anishes the ilrrce \tclo$ enersv tho ncglectcd' triangle. The rest mdls of th dectron bclng of thc ihrce eniited Pariicles is

It':
ot
lrc.2. I{onenl!
oI th-" t.oi.on {p) ,n,t ot rhc iso

c(l p,

+ lP, L+ lP

(80)

eners) Tf 11r h rD the monentum p of ihe eleciro and ihe pL and ?r, constant, ihe sum ol thc rnru tudes ol

Iy

rcuirilos (p,,n.l p:)

' i ol hhe thit follos's it this From will also be corstnnt'ertex ii'". ,.ilrr'"]" wiu nro\rc on an cliipsoid Bv sinple geomerri' con::]e.lor on.."n" .,,1 ,.;..\ lun,:

lP'1+ 2' : tric-\P

lifeiimc ol i,hc pion car ed orr jn.qoction t3 because in rhis.,se r'"e r,, i 1". Lr "rJ , ,s.,.,+ p, .t r.,J. I.rorn rr:. ,1 rol,,,s rr l', p1"" ,, "e. .l ns n,.m h. I ,n,^r.,.ior

Th.ralculation ol tLetiferime ot rhcmuon due to this ;rteuction is a liitle bit more comptical,(] un lihe simitar cil( jL l1 tion of the

-p" (r l'1.,

\vill vl1nisL. The rai,e of iransitioD into a sirt in *{rich rhc elecrron escaDes $il, n omFn,u 1L,,\Fpr pl,.il p r dp .,.t.rx:r..t L1 mrt iplirrg

elecllon energy is oLiained wh{rn tbe two ndrtrinos flv oui in ihF . n p J, ,,:on j,J i ..,.n"-rj t. ,t" m,.. .nrrAl t 1" .-on o. .o'. Ll |p ir -r"n,.",. ,l ,.' ,,...1t p..rrrro!. ln rt,, cal0ulalion tlDi loliows ihis rvil be dore. lvhen r muon at resr de(ays into ar olectron and r$,o ncut nos tltc vecr.or sum oI the monleria ?, ZL , p, of these three p&rtjctes

" ""t, .p*,.,,., ,r" ,r"rimur

rl ll - rrl , tZ" t,"\ ,. ). !.j\.. Tl,, c"rresDon.lrls Ih. " 'pa " o'r,oe: r"1-od oltlerlore r'r V nr rau ro : " ,'e.,, 'rr :,nd rlp \J,um' a Tr" run ^ r,/ ;;l l;;i"",;;;, ; : i" ot, ".u" " or r.d' 'o"r" /rr-;' rr" ii. i:a.^' '" ,*'1. ,rp-. ion ' ''\ .io-,,,. r' i ".1ur - ,,". ll - r'" "hF" J i rlFauon r'la''
and \re find

,./\ a",:f3. dPrz {,). lb!\

dll
ol lrarNition Srbstiiuting in (7!) oue obirins ihe rrte
48nr,{'i

,8t.

ri':c 11-nP +21\0",,r. r,r !{ /

\

(82)

ta

0 to pLcl2. TLa resull, is

TUL IT1.ERAC'| )^" CONs/,{l?s l'he to1,al rAte of iiransil,ion, rli{t is, itioinveNcot ihelifcrnne ot thcmuon, is obtained by integhting (E2) ro atl ratues of p, trolr]

L: 7080rr
Expedmcntally

n,

(83)

',

2.15

10 0 seconds. Subsiiluting this

41 roRcED DLC.lv Of ',t HE MOON known only vcry cmdely. The thcorctjcnl spcctrum. horvever. is noi, inconpaiiLle wilih ttrc meNuremeots of Sleinbcrgcr rnd Anderson. It should be re icmbdrrl ihrL tbe prccise form of th inter(;0) js not knond. \hrious tvpes ol interacliojr 0ou1d be 'iciion Llscrl irr ilris c$e as $'e l1rro {lrcxdv seen lor the betr interaciion. Wheeler hrs mide aL e\iensifc study ol the elfe{ri that a spccilic choice ol the inieraciion lorm hm on the shape of th spectrum and on the oiher lealures of disintesration of the nuon.

16. FORCED DDCAY OF

TNE MUON

Thc mLron may decay also br a difiereni procesg wlich is calkrd forcr:tl rtcr.ry becnrse ii hlppens only when tlle muon is ciptur&l rcrr r nurtcus. l'he lorced decay is observed only for negrti\-c nuons, pLsunably beoaus only muons of this sisn arc atiraclied n*r! lihc nu(tei bv electric forces. In Seclion I
forced decay has bccn rlitributed to the reaction (52) with m&irix
elements (5a).

In order to estimate Lhc v ue of ihe coupling constant g? ve shal assLlme thal n'hen a nrtive muon comes to rest inside a naierial it is very rapidly capiurcd in the vicinity of one of th nuclei in an orbiii $'hich is the andogllc of the lolyst Bohr orbit, only much smaller. Iis radius x'il bc obiained by dividing the Boh. radius o : 5.3 X 10 ! cm by a Iictor Z due to the nuclear chaqe and by a factor 210, ihe miio of the muon and the electron masses- The radius of this Bohrlihe orbii is therefore n' : (rtl210z) :2.t l10 "/Z cn. (85)

Frc.3. llnergy

sDccl,.um

",

,,,"

",".,,.." r.",:tj" I::

value and p1

210n in (83) onc ot)trins iihe vrtuc of Lhe.orptins

9x=3.3X104!

(8:1)

The closencss of the vrlues of sL rud s! i6 r.ery st kjns_ Fomulc (82) sives ilre specrillll disrribuiion ot r|e ernji:r,ed cLectrons. Its rcsults aro repreNrrte{t sMphjcalty jr Iisure J. Expedmeri,allv the slupc of ihe specirum ot rhese eltciroos is

The iirne required for ihe capture in this orbit js estimated to be 1' of t e order ol 10 seconds so thrt the probability that the muon may decay spontaneously during this time is neslisible. ,qjter the capture haE tlhen place 1,he destruction of the muon may occur either by the spontaneous procss of the prcvious section or by the forced prccess. f'he relative probrhility ol thcse t$'o mecharisms depends on the nucleus tllat hlis capturcd iihc muon since the probability of forced decay incrcases rripidly $'ith Z for two reasons. For larse Z the radius a' ol 1,he o rih is smaler so that the rnuon is found on the a1'erage closer to the nucleus. The nucleus furthemorc contains c large number of proions that ma,y induce the dccay. The experimntal rcsulis confijm this seneral picture

48

D INI'ERACTION COIVS?INrS

FORCED

Dlic,tf Ot lAD MtiON

40

n'c {ronolLlde thrt tle rate of for(ed demx by t nucleus wilih Z : 11 i6 also

ald dical,e lhat tlre proccss (52) is ncsligible lor ljglrr ccpl,utng demcnts ard is clomlmnt f or hul,icr elemerl,s. 'ery A0cording to the mcffiurcmnls ol ficho thc rate ol trxnsirion for the rrvo competing prolxjsses is alproxim.rtclv equrl lor Z : tl (sodium). Situie tbe sporrt:'neous dc.rr has .l tifetiDre of 2.15 X 10 i seconds
ol a muon mpturcd Z - 11). $t) fir6t calcrlaic the rate ot rllnsjrion for rhe process (52) . "1,.r. r\ orr" I ,.n rrJ ,,n" p.r ,r or 2,.,u pto.i,\. p prF.Fr,
sec

1/(2.1i X 10

6)

(tot

In calculating the prolubilitl' thai a muon capt{rcd in a Itohr likc orbit near a nucl:us ol charge Z js destroycd by the lorced decay process ire usc (88) sith the lollowing cb{ ecsi (a) multiply by Z because thcrc t're Z protons tliet crn iifitct lle carrture; (b) substitute lor a the eileciive volume oi thc Bohrlike orbii, of the muon of rdius r,', namely za"; (c) makc i1 lurlher cli{4e in the coefijcient of (88) in order to accouni lor lhe possibility that ihe process mry bc inhibiied by the I'ouli principle. In thc forced deca o rathcr llng energy neutron is producd and thc
reliciion

ral,e

in a vohrme o. The rnairia elemenr accordi {l ro (51) is o3i,0. Thc ol trcnsitiol car thur be cslcutated with (55) anct (60):

,u.

o, r'.o"nin"

'' /t'\' tt/" - t, \'.t / 2ah.+u.)

il the orbit ini,o which lhe neutron occupicd in ihe nuclcus. The reductnnr lactor would be diftiorlt lio calculaie accurately, but $'e eslimate i,hst A reduclion of the coellicicni from 11,400 to;,000 lnay be of thc correci order ol mrgnitudc. In conclusion, the probability ol iransjtion lor t]to lorced decay is
$ill
be possil)lc only

mry be crealed is not

(8ti)

ihat appcars jn the dcnomjnrijor is the sun of the speeds . ol the neutrino and I, of the ncutron. ?, is the maqnii,ude o r r. rur ard nf 'o-:r" I uT"1,r of \ !.r.r , i.8" r ,1 , a bp computcd frcm ttre conscrvrtion o{ crergy. II the sma m[Ss difierence bei,wccn proton ilnd neutron is negtcciid, the avrjlible cnergy is the rest cnergy of the muon, 210nd1. This energy appc:rls rs liineiic cnergy oI the neutrino and of the nentron, both havlng a
The term

.+

- :'' !'^; "

1
in il1e iDtensity oI this

s000Q101'
Za

"

m'cZa

(8e)

Notice the proportionality to

From thc expcrimdtal fact prcviously quoied ihat,lat Z : ll, is about ertual to 2.15 X L0 'seconrts, one ulculaies the value of the coupline constant si :

process for

Fhichbc:rrs out thc greaii difiern(c light arld heal'y nuclei.

,,

gg:1.3X10i'

(s0)

momenlum Z. Thc.efore

It
91

ztOnc':ce+{r.

hos aheady been noiiciid that the three couplins constants, , 9i , si are quit dos : 91

(87)

.U : trucleon rnrss. lrom this equatjon onc fincls the momentum 2 of the tn'o prrticles, p : l99,nc. The velociijy of the ncutron siven by this momentum divided by ihe nuiron mass is r,. :
0.11c. From (86) one finds now

1.3

X 10 .]'his sinil,rdty probably

-2xL1-an,9t:33X104',s!: js

ence t,ut has some dcep mctning

not an accidcnitl rcinvhjch, ho$'vcr', is not under'

ra,te ot transitioD

11,400 9.1-*

h4A '

(ss)

TIF nrF ol ,ransi,:nr is io\"'b"tt p,.,ponio,rt ro O Lprau.n wp hov rs.und hlr Ir,."i6on, roonrn hplot ,rneO,ldrrprFfo"c the concentmtior of protons is jn\rsctl' proportionat to A.