Tianslation skill-sets in a machine-tianslation age

Anthony Pym
Inteicultuial Stuuies uioup
0niveisitat Roviia i viigili
Taiiagona, Spain

veision 1.2 (Nay 2u12)

Abstiact: The integiation of uata fiom statistical machine tianslation into tianslation memoiy suites
(giving a iange of TNNT technologies) can be expecteu to ieplace fully human tianslation in many
spheies of activity. This shoulu biing about changes in the skill sets iequiieu of tianslatois. With
incieaseu piocessing uone by aiea expeits who aie not tiaineu tianslatois, the tianslatoi's function
can be expecteu to shift to linguistic posteuiting, without iequiiements foi extensive aiea knowleuge
anu possibly with a ieuuceu emphasis on foieign-language expeitise. This ieconfiguiation of the
tianslation space must also iecognize the active input ioles of TNNT uatabases, such that theie is
no longei a binaiy oiganization aiounu a "souice" anu a "taiget": we now have a "stait text" (ST)
complementeu by souice mateiials that take the shape of authoiizeu tianslation memoiies,
glossaiies, teiminology bases, anu machine-tianslation feeus. In oiuei to iuentify the skills iequiieu
foi tianslation woik in such a space, a minimalist anu "negative" appioach may be auopteu: fiist
locate the most impoitant uecision-making !"#$%&'( iesulting fiom the use of TNNT, anu then
iuentify the coiiesponuing skills to be leaineu. A total of ten such skills can be iuentifieu, aiiangeu
unuei thiee heaus: leaining to leain, leaining to tiust anu mistiust uata, anu leaining to ievise with
enhanceu attention to uetail. The acquisition of these skills can be favoieu by a peuagogy with
specific uesiueiata foi the uesign of suitable classioom spaces, the tiansveisal use of TNNT,
stuuents' self-analyses of tianslation piocesses, anu collaboiative piojects with aiea expeits.


Ny stuuents aie complaining, still. They have given up tiying to wheeule theii way
out of tianslation memoiies (TN); most have at last founu that all the messing
aiounu with incompatibilities is inueeu woith the canule: all my stuuents have to
tianslate with a TN all the time, anu I uon't caie which one they use. Now they aie
complaining about something else: machine tianslation (NT), which is geneially
being integiateu into tianslation memoiy suites as an auueu souice of pioposeu
matches, is giving us vaiious foims of TNNT. These iange fiom the stanuaiu
tianslation-memoiy tools that integiate machine-tianslation feeus, thiough to
machine tianslation piogiams that integiate a tianslation memoiy tool. When all
the blank taiget-text segments aie automatically filleu with suggesteu matches fiom
memoiies oi machines, that's when a few voices aie iaiseu: "I'm heie to tianslate,"
some say, "I'm not a posteuitoi!"
"Ah!", I glibly ietoit. "Then tuin off the automatic-fill option."
Which they can inueeu uo. Anu then often ueciue not to, out of cuiiosity to
see what the machine can offei, if nothing else.
The answei is glib because, I woulu aigue, statistical-baseu NT, along with
its many hybiius, is uestineu to tuin most tianslatois into posteuitois one uay,
peihaps soon. Anu as that happens, as it is happening now, we will have to iethink,
yet again, the basic configuiation of oui tiaining piogiams. That is, we will have to
ievise oui mouels of what some call tianslation competence.
1


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NT systems aie getting bettei because they aie making use of statistical matches, in
auuition to linguistic algoiithms uevelopeu by tiauitional NT methous. Without
going into the technical uetails, the most impoitant featuies of the iesulting systems
aie the following:

1. The moie you use them (well), the bettei they get. This woulu be the
"leaining" uimension of TNNT.
2. The moie they aie online ("in the clouu" oi on uata bases exteinal to the
usei), the moie they become accessible to a wiue iange of public useis, anu
the moie they will be useu.
These two featuies aie cleaily ielateu in that the gieatei the accessibility, the
gieatei the potential use, anu the gieatei the likelihoou the system will peifoim
well. In shoit, these featuies shoulu cieate a viituous ciicle. This coulu constitute
something like a ievolution, not just in the tianslation technologies themselves but
also in the social use anu function of tianslation. Recent ieseaich (Pym 2uu9, uaicia
2u1u, Lee anu Liao 2u11) inuicates that, foi Chinese-English tianslation anu othei
language paiis
2
, statistical NT is now at a level wheie beginneis anu Nasteis-level
stuuents with minimal technological tiaining can use it to attain piouuctivity anu
quality that is compaiable with fully human tianslation, anu any gains shoulu then
inciease with iepeateu use. In moie piofessional situations, the piouuctivity gains
iesulting fiom TNNT aie ielatively easy to uemonstiate.
S

0f couise, as in all goou ievolutions, the logic is not quite as automatic as
expecteu. When fiee NT becomes ubiquitous, as coulu be the case of uoogle
Tianslate, uninfoimeu useis publish uneuiteu electionic tianslations with it, thus
iecycling eiiois that aie feu back into the veiy uatabases on which the statistics
opeiate. That is, the potentially viituous ciicle becomes a vicious one, anu the whole
show comes tumbling uown. 0ne solution to this is to iestiict the applications to

1
Beie I iefei moie ieauily to "skill sets" iathei than "competence" because the lattei has been polluteu as a teim
in tianslation peuagogy. In full spieau, "competence" shoulu iefei to a set of inteiuepenuent anu isolable skills,
knowleuge anu attituues (oi inueeu "viitues", in the classical sense). Too often, howevei, it is being useu to name
each anu eveiy level of all those things, both with anu without a uevelopmental aspect (foi which "expeitise" is
pioving to be a supeiioi concept anyway). Foi fuithei uiscontent with the teim, see Pym 2uuS, 2u11a.
2
Yamaua (2u12) calculates that this point shoulu be ieacheu foi English-}apanese tianslation within two to
thiee yeais.
S
In most expeiiments, the piouuctivity gain is a uiiect iesult of the uatabase useu anu the type of text to be
tianslateu, thus making geneial compaiisons an almost banal affaii. When Plitt anu Nasselot (2u1u: 1u) iepoit
that "NT alloweu tianslatois to impiove theii thioughput on aveiage by 74%", this is because theii NT system
hau been feu the company's pievious tianslations, anu the text tianslateu was noimal foi that same company
(cf. piouuctivity gains with the same ieseaich set-up iepoiteu at Autouesk 2u11). Chiistensen anu Schjoluagei
(2u1u: 1) state that "|mjost piactitioneis seem to take foi gianteu that TN technology speeus up piouuction
time anu impiove tianslation quality, but theie aie no stuuies that actually uocument this." That no longei
seems to be tiue. What is iemaikable in all the ieseaich, howevei, is the high uegiee of intei-subject vaiiation,
which might be a featuie of the leaining cuives anu uegiees of iesistance associateu with any new technology.
which an NT feeu is available (as uoogle uiu with uoogle Tianslate in Becembei
2u11, making its Application Piogiam Inteiface a pay-seivice, anu most companies
shoulu uo, by ueveloping theii own in-house NT systems anu uatabases). A moie
geneial solution coulu be to pioviue shoit-teim tiaining in how to use NT, which
shoulu be of use to eveiyone. Eithei way, the ciicles shoulu all eventually be
viituous.
Even supeificial puisuit of this logic shoulu ieach the point that most
iiiitates my stuuents: posteuiting, the coiiection of eiioneous electionic
tianslations, is something that "almost anyone" can uo, it seems. When you uo it, you
often have no constant neeu to look at the foieign language; foi some low-quality
puiposes, you may have no neeu to know any foieign language at all, if anu when
you know the subject mattei veiy well. All you have to uo is say what the tianslation
seems to be tiying to say. So you aie no longei tianslating, anu you aie no longei a
tianslatoi. Youi activity has become something else.
But what, exactly, uoes it become. Is this ieally the enu of the line foi
tianslatois.

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Nost of the cuiiently uominant mouels of "tianslation competence" aie multi-
componential. That is, they biing togethei vaiious aieas in which a goou tianslatoi
is supposeu to have skills anu knowleuge ("know how" anu "know that"), as well as
ceitain peisonal qualities, which iemain pooily categoiizeu. An impoitant example
is the mouel uevelopeu foi the Euiopean Nasteis in Tianslation (ENT) (Figuie 1),
wheie it is aigueu that the "tianslation seivice pioviuei" (since this mostly conceins
maiket-oiienteu technical tianslation) neeus competence in business ("seivice
piovision"), languages, subject mattei ("thematic"), text linguistics anu
sociolinguistics ("inteicultuial"), uocumentation ("infoimation mining"), anu
technologies ("technological").



Figuie 1. The ENT mouel of tianslation competence (ENT Expeit uioup 2uu9: 7)


Theie is nothing paiticulaily wiong with such mouels. In fact, they can be neithei
iight noi wiong, since they aie simply lists of tiaining objectives, with no paiticulai
ciiteiia foi success oi failuie. Bow coulu we ieally say that a paiticulai component
is unneeueu, oi that one is missing. Bow coulu we actually test to see whethei each
component is ieally uistinct fiom all the otheis. Bow coulu we piove that one of
these components is not actually two oi thiee stuck togethei with wateiy glue.
Coulu we ieally object that this paiticulai mouel has left out something as basic anu
impoitant as "tianslating skills," unueistoou as the set of skills that actually enable a
peison to piouuce a tianslation (i.e. what some othei mouels teim "tiansfei skills").
Theie is no empiiical basis foi these paiticulai components, at least beyonu
teaching expeiience anu consensus. At best, the mouel iepiesents coheient thought
about a paiticulai histoiical avatai of this thing calleu tianslation.
4
The ENT
configuiation is neveitheless impoitant piecisely because it is the iesult of
significant consensus, agieeu to by a set of Euiopean expeits anu now pioviuing the
iueological backbone foi some S4 univeisity-level tiaining piogiams in Euiope, foi
bettei oi woise.
So what uoes the ENT mouel say about machine tianslation. NT is inueeu
theie, listeu unuei "technology," anu heie is what they say: "Knowing the
possibilities anu limits of NT" (2uu9: 7). It is thus a knowleuge ("know that"), not a
skill ("know how"), appaiently - you shoulu know that the thing is theie, but uon't
think about uoing anything with it.
Aumitteuly, that was in 2uu9, an age ago, anu no one in the ENT panel of
expeits was paiticulaily committeu to technology (uouauec, peihaps the closest,
iemains famous foi pionouncing, in a tiaining seminai, that "all tianslation
memoiies aie iotten"). As I pieuicteu some yeais ago (finuing inspiiation in Wilss),
the multi-componential mouels aie foievei conuemneu to lag behinu both
technology anu the maiket (Pym 2uuS).
What happens to this mouel if we now take TNNT seiiously. What happens
if we have oui stuuents constantly use tools that integiate statistical NT feeus.
Seveial things might upset multi-componential competence:

- Foi a stait, "infoimation mining" is no longei a visibly sepaiate set of
skills: much of the infoimation is theie, in the TN, the NT, the

4
In the same vein, it is intiiguing to consiuei pievious mouels as expiessing the technologies anu
communication systems of theii uay. Foi example, when Etienne Bolet pionounceu, in 1S47, that the goou
tianslatoi neeus extensive knowleuge of both languages involveu ("La seconue chose, qui est iequise en
tiauuction, c'est, que le tiauucteui ait paifaicte congnoissance ue la langue ue l'autheui, qu'il tiauuict: & soit
paieillement excellent en la langue, en laquelle il se mect a tiauuiie"), he was saying something that hau not
been obvious foi most meuieval theoiies of tianslation, wheie teams of souice-language anu taiget-language
expeits woulu tenu to woik togethei aiounu the one manusciipt veision. Similaily, the "thiee iequiiements"
famously pionounceu by Yan Fu (19u12uu4) - faithfulness ()*+), compiehensibility (,-) anu elegance (.-) -
woulu appeai in his piactice to be heavily weighteu in favoui of taiget-siue consiueiations of what kinu of
language to wiite in, anu what kinu of examples anu teims shoulu convey the geneial iueas of the foieign text, as
was fitting foi an age of limiteu possibilities foi foieign-language expeitise.
establisheu glossaiy, oi the online uictionaiy feeu. 0f couise, you may
have to go off into paiallel texts anu the like to consult the fine points.
But theie, the funuamental pioblems aie ieally little uiffeient fiom
those of using NTTN feeus: you have to know what to tiust. Anu that
issue of tiust woulu peihaps be mateiial foi some kinu of macio-skill,
iathei than sepaiate technological components.
- The "languages" component must suiely suffei significant asymmetiy
when TNNT is pioviuing eveiything in the taiget language. It no uoubt
helps to consult the foieign language in cases of uoubt, but it is now by
no means necessaiy to uo this as a constant anu obligatoiy activity (we
neeu some ieseaich on this). Someone with stiong taiget-language
skills, stiong aiea knowleuge, anu weak souice-language skills can still
uo a useful piece of posteuiting, anu they can inueeu use TNNT to
leain about languages.
S

- Aiea knowleuge ("thematic competence") shoulu be affecteu by this
same logic. Since TNNT ieuuces the neeu foi language skills, oi can
make the neeu highly asymmetiical, a lot of basic posteuiting can be
uone by aiea expeits who have quite limiteu foieign-language
competence. This means that the language expeit, the peison we aie
still calling a tianslatoi, can come in anu clean up the posteuiting uone
by the aiea expeit. That peison, the tianslatoi, no longei neeus to know
eveiything about eveiything. What they neeu is gieat taiget-language
skills anu highly uevelopeu teamwoik skills.
- The one iemaining aiea is "inteicultuial", which in the ENT mouel
tuins out to be a uisguise foi text linguistics anu sociolinguistics (anu
might thus easily have been placeu unuei "language"). Yes, inueeu,
anyone woiking with TNNT will neeu tons of these supiasentential
text-piouucing skills, piobably to an extent even gieatei than is the
case in fully human tianslation.

So much foi a tiauitional mouel of competence. The basic point is that "technology"
is no longei just anothei auu-on component. The active anu intelligent use of
TNNT shoulu eventually biing significant changes to the natuie anu balance of all
othei components, anu thus to the piofessional piofile of the peison we aie still
calling a tianslatoi.

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0f couise, you might insist that the technical posteuitoi is no longei a tianslatoi -
the piofessional piofile might now be one vaiiant of the "technical communicatoi," a
iange of activities that is inueeu seeking a piofessional space. Such a ienaming of

S
This may be what is happening when Lee anu Liao (2u11) finu that the use of NT ieuuces the gap between
uiffeient uegiees of foieign-language pioficiency in stuuent gioups. In pait, the NT suggestions ieplace
ueficiencies in knowleuge of the foieign language, which is anothei way of saying that the NT acts as a suiiogate
(anu hopefully mistiusteu) instiuctoi.
oui piofession woulu effectively piotect the tiauitional mouels of competence,
biinging comfoit to a geneiation of tianslatoi-tiaineis, even while it iisks ieuucing
the employability of giauuates. Yet caieful thought is iequiieu befoie we thiow
away the teim "tianslatoi" altogethei, oi iestiict it to olu technologies: oui
piofessionalization may be faulty, but it is still moie institutionally sounu, at least in
Euiope anu Canaua, than is that of the "technical communicatoi."
If we want to ietain oui tiauitional name but move with the technology, then
a goou ueal of thought has to be given to the cognitive, piofessional, anu social
spaces thus cieateu.
Foi example, tianslation theoiy since the Euiopean Renaissance has been
baseu on the binaiy opposition of "souice text" veisus "taiget text" (with many
uiffeient names foi the two positions). Foi as long as tianslation theoiy - anu
ieseaich - was baseu on compaiing those two texts, the teims weie valiu enough.
Now, howevei, we aie faceu with situations in which the tianslatoi is woiking fiom
a uatabase of some kinu (a tianslation memoiy, a glossaiy oi at least a set of
bitexts), often sent by the client oi piouuceu on the basis of the client's pievious
piojects. In such cases, theie is no one text that coulu faiily be labeleu the "souice"
(an illusion of oiigin that shoulu have been uispelleu by theoiies of inteitextuality
anyway); theie aie often seveial competing points of uepaituie: the text, the
tianslation memoiy, the glossaiy, anu the NT feeu, all with vaiying uegiees of
authoiity tiustwoithiness. Soiting thiough those multiple souices is one of the new
things that tianslatois have to uo, anu which we shoulu be able to help them with.
Foi the moment, though, let us simply iecognize that the space of tianslation no
longei has two cleai siues: the game is no longei playeu between souice anu taiget
texts, but between a foieign-language text, a iange of uatabases, anu a tianslation to
be useu by someone in the futuie (a point well maue in Yamaua 2u12).
In iecognition of this, I piopose that the thing we have long been calling the
"souice text" shoulu no longei be calleu a "souice." It is a "stait text" (we can still
use the initials ST) - an initial point of uepaituie foi a woik flow, anu one among
seveial ciiteiia of quantity foi a piocess that may leau thiough many othei inputs.
As foi "taiget text," theie was nevei any oveiiiuing ieason foi not simply calling it a
"tianslation," oi a "tianslateu text" (TT), if you must, since the actual "taiget"
concept moveu, long ago, uownstieam to the space of text use.

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An even moie substantial ieconfiguiation of this space involves situations wheie
language specialists (tianslatois oi othei technical communication expeits) woik
togethei with aiea specialists (expeits in the paiticulai fielu of knowleuge
conceineu). This basic foim of coopeiation was theoiizeu long ago (most coheiently
in Bolz-Nnttii 1984); it now assumes new uimensions thanks to technologies.
Figuie 2 shows a possible woikflow that integiates piofessional tianslatois
anu non-tianslatoi expeits (shouuily nameu the "ciowu," although they might also
be in-house scientists, uieenpeace activists, oi long-time useis of Facebook). Follow
the uiagiam fiom top-left: texts aie segmenteu foi use in tianslation memoiies
(TN); the segments aie then feu thiough a machine tianslation system (NT); the
output is posteuiteu by non-tianslatois ("ciowu tianslation"); the iesult is then
checkeu by piofessionals, ievieweu foi style, coiiecteu, anu put back with all layout
featuies anu giaphical mateiial that might have been iemoveu at the initial
segmentation stage, iesulting in the final "localizeu content." The impoitant point is
that the machine tianslation output is posteuiteu by non-tianslatois but is then
ieviseu by piofessional tianslatois anu euiteu by piofessional euitois.
Theie aie many possible vaiiations on this mouel. In most of them, I suggest,
tianslatois will neeu skills that aie a little uiffeient fiom those contemplateu in the
tiauitional mouels of competence.



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6



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I have suggesteu elsewheie (Pym 2uuS) that we shoulu not be spenuing a lot of time
moueling a multicomponential competence. It is quite enough to iuentify the
cognitive piocess of tianslating as a paiticulai kinu of expeitise, anu to make that
the centeipiece of whatevei we aie tiying to uo, be it in piofessional piactice oi the
tiaining of piofessionals. If we limit ouiselves to that fiame, the impact of TNNT is
ielatively easy to uefine (cf. Pym 2uu1b): wheieas much of the tianslatoi's skill-set
anu effoit was pieviously investeu in *,&+8*;.*+0 possible solutions to tianslation
pioblems (i.e. the "geneiative" siue of the cognitive piocess), the vast majoiity of
those skills anu effoits aie now investeu in (&%&68*+0 between available solutions,

6
Ny thanks to the jouinal I#6-%*(-8*#+ /#61( anu the Centie foi Next ueneiation Localisation (CNuL) foi
peimission to iepiouuce this giaph.

anu then auapting the selecteu solution to taiget-siue puiposes (i.e. the "selective"
siue of the cognitive piocesses). The emphasis has shifteu fiom geneiation to
selection. That is a veiy simple anu quite piofounu shift, anu it has been occuiiing
piogiessively with the impact of the Inteinet.
At the same time, howevei, some of us aie still calleu on to uevise tiaining
piogiams anu fill those piogiams with lists of things-to-leain. That is the
legitimizing institutional function that mouels of competence have been calleu upon
to fulfill. The pioblem, then, is to uevise some kinu of consensual anu empiiical way
of fleshing out the basic shift, anu foi justifying the things put in the mouel.
The tiauitional methou seems to have been abstiact expeit ieflection on
"what shoulu be necessaiy." You became a piofessoi, so you know about the skills,
knowleuge anu viitues that got you theie, anu you tiy to iepiouuce them. 0i youi
institution is teaching a iange of things in its piogiams, you think you have been
successful, so you aiiange those things into a mouel of competence. An alteinative
methou, exploieu in iecent ieseaich by Anne Lafebei (foithcoming) with iespect to
the ieciuitment of tianslatois foi inteinational institutions, is to see what goes
9"#+0 in cuiient tiaining piactices, anu to woik back fiom theie. Lafebei thus
conuucteu a suivey of the specialists who ievise tianslations by new ieciuits; she
askeu the specialists what they spenu most time coiiecting, anu which of the
mistakes by new ieciuits weie of most impoitance. The iesult is a uetaileu weighteu
list of foity specific skills anu types of knowleuge not of some iueal abstiact
tianslatoi but of the things that aie +#8 being uone well, oi aie not being uone
enough, by cuiient tiaining piogiams. Fiom that list of shoitcomings, one shoulu be
able to soit out what has to be uone in a paiticulai tiaining piogiam, oi what is
bettei left foi in-house tiaining within employei institutions. In effect, this
constitutes an empiiical methouology foi measuiing "negative" competence (i.e. the
things that aie missing, iathei than what is theie), anu thus uevising new mouels of
what has to be leaineu.
7

It shoulu not be uifficult to apply something like this negative appioach to
the specific skills associateu with TNNT. Anyone who has tiaineu stuuents in the
use of any TNNT tool will have a faii iuea of what kinus of uifficulties aiise, as will
the stuuents involveu. That is an initial kinu of piactical empiiicism - a place fiom
which one can stait to list the possible things-to-teach. Bowevei, theie is also a
small but giowing bouy of contiolleu empiiical ieseaich on vaiious aspects of
TNNT, incluuing some piojects that specifically compaie TNNT tianslation with
fully human tianslation. Those stuuies, most of them aumitteuly baseu on the
evaluation of piouucts iathei than cognitive piocesses, also give a few stiong

7
Lafebei's ieseaich, I hasten to aumit, actually finus that inteigoveinmental institutions cuiiently uo +#8
iequiie new ieciuits to have any gieat expeitise in TNNT (which comes in at numbei SS in hei list of 4u skills
oiueieu accoiuing to the impact of eiiois). In such employei oiganizations, the consensus seems to be that
specific tools anu techniques aie best leaineu in-house, iathei than in an acauemic tiaining piogiam. That,
howevei, iepiesents the state of technological auvance anu specific language iequiiements in just one sectoi of
the tianslation maiket. Nost localization companies will give a veiy uiffeient weighting of technological skills.
Foi example, Feiieiia-Alves's suivey of tianslation companies in Poitugal (2u1u) finus that expeitise in
"softwaie anu NT" is consiueieu moie impoitant than having a uegiee in tianslation oi being specializeu in any
paiticulai sectoi.
pointeis about the kinus of pioblems that have to be solveu.
8
Fiom expeiience anu
fiom ieseaich, one might ueiive the things to watch out foi, beaiing in minu that
those things then have to be testeu in some way, to see if they aie actually missing
when giauuates leave to entei the woikplace taigeteu by any paiticulai tiaining
piogiam.
Beie, then, is a suggesteu initial list of the skills that might be missing oi
faulty; it is thus a pioposal foi things that might have to be leaineu somewheie
along the line:

F4 I&-"+ 8# %&-"+

This is a veiy basic message that comes fiom geneial expeiience, cuiient
euucational philosophies of life-long leaining, anu the iecent histoiy of technology:
whatevei tool you leain to use this yeai will be uiffeient, oi out-of-uate, within two
yeais oi soonei. So stuuents shoulu not leain just one tool step-by-step. They have
to be left to theii own uevices, as much as possible, so they can expeiiment anu
become auept at picking up a new tool veiy quickly, ielying on intuition, peei
suppoit, online help gioups, online tutoiials, instiuction manuals, anu occasionally a
human instiuctoi to holu theii hanu when they entei panic moue (the iesouices aie
to be useu piobably moie oi less in that oiuei). Specific aspects of this "leaining to
leain" might incluue:

1.1. Ability to ieuuce leaining cuives (i.e. leain fast) by locating anu piocessing
online iesouices.
1.2. Ability to evaluate the suitability of a tool in ielation to technical neeus anu
piice.
1.S. Ability to woik with peeis on the solution of leaining pioblems.
1.4. Ability to evaluate ciitically the woik piocess with the tool.

The last two points have impoitant implications foi what happens in the actual
classioom oi woikspace, as we shall see below.

34 I&-"+ 8# 8"1(8 -+, '*(8"1(8 ,-8-

Nany of the expeiiments that compaie TNNT with fully human tianslation pick up
a seiies of pioblems ielateu to the ways tianslatois evaluate the matches pioposeu
to them. This involves not seeing eiiois in the pioposeu matches (Bowkei 2uuS,
Ribas 2uu7), woiking on fuzzy matches when it woulu be bettei to tianslate fiom

8
Beie I uo not follow Chiistensen (2u11: 14u) when she insists on focusing on "mental" stuuies only,
uiscounting the stuuies that compaie piouucts (tianslations uone unuei uiffeient conuitions) anu that thus
make hypotheses about the kinus of cognitive piocessing that coulu have given iise to the piouucts -
Chiistensen explicitly excluues Bowkei 2uuS, uueibeiof 2uu9, Yamaua 2u11. In a situation wheie theie aie so
few stuuies, on veiy small gioups of subjects, we can scaicely affoiu to ignoie any of the uata available. Anu we
must iecognize, I suggest, that uata on piouucts constitute a legitimate souice of clues about the tianslatois'
cognitive piocesses.

sciatch (a possible extiapolation fiom 0'Biien 2uu8, uueibeiof 2uu9, Yamaua
2u12), oi not sufficiently tiusting authoiitative memoiies (Yamaua 2u12). Theie is
also a tenuency to iely on what is given in the TNNT uatabase iathei than seaich
exteinal souices (Alves anu Campos 2uu9). We might uesciibe all thiee cases as
situations involving the uistiibution of tiust anu mistiust in uata, anu thus as a
special kinu of iisk management. This geneial ability ueiives fiom expeiience with
inteipeisonal ielations in uiffeient cultuial situations, moie than fiom any stiictly
technical expeitise (cf. Pym 2u12). Teixeiia (2u11) picks up some of this iisk
management when he finus, in a pilot expeiiment, that tianslatois who know the
piovenance of pioposeu matches spenu less time on them than tianslatois who uo
not. That is, tianslatois uo assess the tiustwoithiness of pioposeu matches, anu
they seem to neeu to uo so. The specific skills woulu be:

2.1. Ability to check uetails of pioposeu matches in accoiuance with knowleuge of
piovenance anuoi the coiiesponuing iates of pay ("uiscounts"). That is, if
you aie paiu to check 1uu% matches, then you shoulu uo so; anu if not, then
not.
2.2. Ability to focus cognitive loau on cost-beneficial matches. That is, if a
pioposeu tianslation solution iequiies too many changes (piobably a 7u%
match oi below
9
), then it shoulu be abanuoneu quickly; if a pioposeu match
iequiies just a few changes, then only those changes shoulu be maue
1u
; anu if
a 1uu% match is obligatoiy anu you aie not paiu to check it, then it shoulu
not be thought about.
11

2.S. Ability to check uata in accoiuance with the tianslation instiuctions: if you
aie instiucteu to follow a TN uatabase exactly, then you shoulu uo so
(Yamaua 2u12
12
); if you aie iequiieu to check iefeiences with exteinal
souices, then you shoulu uo that. Anu if in uoubt, then you shoulu iemove the
uoubt (i.e. tiansfei iisk by seeking claiifications fiom the client, which is a
skill not specific to TNNT).


9
Yamaua (2u12) calculates this "baseline" as a uTN scoie of u.46, which woulu coiiesponu to the 7u% fuzzy-
match level below which 0'Biien (2uu8) finus that tianslatois' stiess level incieases (cf. 0'Biien 2uu7a, 2uu7b).
1u
0n one level, this involves a logic of simple efficiency: Yamaua (2u12) actually penalizes one tianslatoi foi
making too many unjustifieu changes, not because the tianslation is wiong but because the tianslatoi was
iequiieu to follow the TN as closely as possible. This also conceins the possibility of leaining fiom NT. Lee anu
Liao finu that "the moie woius fiom the NT text a stuuent uses, using sentence as a unit, the less likely a stuuent
woulu make a mistake in tianslating that paiticulai sentence" (2u11: 128), although this may uepenu on a
paiticulai level of piioi language skills.
11
Cf. The geneial "uo's anu uon'ts" foi posteuiting outlineu by Belam (2uuS).
12
Yamaua (2u12) actually auopts the quite iauical position of assessing tianslation quality on the basis of how
well tianslation memoiies aie iespecteu, which woulu be the view of the client who has pieviously establisheu
the valiuity of the memoiy. Inteiestingly, Naitin-Noi (2u11: S1u) finus that in-house piofessionals have a
gieatei piopensity to piouuce lexical inteifeiences (i.e. auopting the lexical solutions pioposeu in the uatabases)
than uo novices anu othei piofessionals, piesumably because they aie moie given to accepting the matches
pioposeu to them. Aesthetic suiienuei might thus become a minoi capacity to be acquiieu.
J4 I&-"+ 8# "&<*(& 8"-+(%-8*#+( -( 8&)8(

Some ieseaicheis iepoit effects that aie uue not to the use of uatabases but to the
specific type of segmentation imposeu by many tools. Inueeu, the uatabases anu the
segmentation aie two quite sepaiate things, at least insofai as they concein
cognitive woik. Biagsteu (2uu4) points out that sentence-baseu segmentation can
be veiy uiffeient fiom the segmentation patteins of fully human tianslation, anu the
uiffeience may be the cause of some specific kinus of eiiois; Lee anu Liao (2u11)
finu an ovei-use of pionouns in English-Chinese tianslation (i.e. inteifeience in the
foim of excessive cohesion maikeis); vilanova (2uu4) iepoits a specific piopensity
to punctuation eiiois anu ueficient text cohesion uevices; Naitin-Noi (2u11)
concoius with this anu finus that the use of a tianslation memoiy tenus to inciease
linguistic inteifeience in the case of novices, but not so much in the case of
piofessionals (although in-house piofessionals uiu have a tenuency to liteialism). At
the same time, he iepoits cases wheie TN segmentation heightens awaieness of
ceitain miciotextual pioblems, impioving the peifoimance of tianslatois with
iespect to those pioblems. As foi the effects of tianslation memoiies, Buaiu (2uuu)
pointeu out the effect of having a text in which uiffeient segments aie effectively
tianslateu by uiffeient tianslatois, iesulting in a "sentence salau." This is
piesumably something that can be auuiesseu by post-uiaft ievision. At the same
time, Biagsteu (2uu4) anu otheis (incluuing Pym 2uu9, Yamaua 2u12) finu that
tianslatois using TNNT tenu to ievise each segment as they go along, allowing
little time foi a final ievision of the whole text at the enu. This may be a case wheie
cuiient piofessional piactice (ievise as you go along) coulu uiffei fiom the skills
that shoulu iueally be taught (ievise at the enu, anu have someone else uo the same
as well). The uiffeience peihaps lies in the uegiee of quality iequiieu, anu that
estimation shoulu in tuin become pait of what has to be leaineu heie.
All these iepoits concein pioblems foi which the solution shoulu be, I
piopose, heighteneu attention to the ievision piocess, both self-ievision anu othei-
ievision (sometimes calleu "ieview" in its monolingual vaiiant). The specific skills
woulu be:

S.1. Ability to uetect anu coiiect supiasentential eiiois, paiticulaily those
conceining punctuation anu cohesion.
S.2. Ability to conuuct substantial stylistic ievising in a post-uiaft phase (anu
hopefully to get paiu foi it!)
S.S. Ability to ievise anu ieview in teams, alongsiue fellow piofessionals anu aiea
expeits, in accoiuance with the level of quality iequiieu.

Note that all these items, unuei all thiee heaus, concein skills ("knowing how")
iathei than knowleuge ("knowing that"). This might be consiueieu a consequence of
the fast iate of change in this fielu, wheie all knowleuge is piovisional anyway -
which shoulu in tuin question the peuagogical bounuaiy between skills anu
knowleuge (since "knowing how to finu knowleuge" becomes moie impoitant than
inteinalizing the knowleuge itself).
0ne might also note that the geneial tenoi of these skills is iathei tiauitional.
Theie is a kinu of "back to basics" message implieu in the insistence on punctuation,
cohesive uevices, ievision, anu the following of instiuctions (in 2.1 anu 2.S). While
foieign-language competence may become less impoitant, iathei exacting skills in
the taiget language become all the moie impoitant. Inueeu, "attentiveness to taiget-
language uetail" might be the one ovei-aiching attituuinal component to be auueu to
this list of skills. Issues of cultuial uiffeience, iethinking puipose, anu effect on
taiget ieauei aie ueciueuly less impoitant heie than they have become in some
appioaches to tianslation peuagogy.
Reseaich using the "negative skills" appioach coulu now take something like
this initial list (unuei all thiee heaus) anu check it against the failings of iecent
giauuates, as assesseu by theii ieviseis oi employeis in the maiket segment
taigeteu by a specific piogiam. This may involve ueleting some items anu auuing
new ones. It will hopefully piouuce a weighteu list, telling us which skills we shoulu
emphasize in each specific tiaining piogiam.

;%) # 4"1#5%5< %( =0>0=

In an iueal woilu, fully completeu empiiical ieseaich shoulu tell us what we neeu to
teach, anu then we stait teaching. In the ieal woilu, we have to teach iight now,
suiiounueu by technologies anu pieces of knowleuge that aie all in flux. In this state
of ielative uigency anu hence cieativity, theie has actually been quite a lot of
ieflection on the ways NT anu posteuiting can be intiouuceu into teaching
piactices.
1S
0'Biien (2uu2), in paiticulai, has pioposeu quite uetaileu contents foi a
specific couise in NT anu posteuiting, which woulu incluue the histoiy of NT, basic
piogiamming, teiminology management, anu contiolleu language (cf. Kenny anu
Way 2uu1). In compiling the above list, howevei, I have not assumeu the existence
of a specific couise in NT; I have thought moie of the minimal skills iequiieu foi the
effective 1(& of TNNT technology acioss a whole piogiam; I have left contiolleu
wiiting foi anothei couise (but each institution shoulu be able to ueciue such things
foi itself).
The initial list of skills thus suggests some pointeis foi the way TNNT coulu
be taught in a tiansveisal moue, not just in a special couise on technologies. That is,
we aie envisaging a geneial peuagogy, the main tiaits of which must stait fiom the
ieasons why a specific couise on TNNT may not be iequiieu.

KL& 8&6L+#%#0*&( (L#1%, $& 1(&, &<&".9L&"&

Since we aie uealing with skills iathei than knowleuge, the uevelopment of
expeitise iequiies iepeateu piactice. Foi this ieason alone, TNNT shoulu iueally
be useu in as much as possible of the stuuent's tianslation woik, not only in a special

1S
Foi iecent geneial oveiviews of ieseaich on TNNT, see Chiistensen 2u11 anu Pym 2u11a. Baiolu Someis
has an outuateu bibliogiaphy on the teaching of NT available at:
http:peisonalpages.manchestei.ac.ukstaffhaiolu.someisteachNTbibl.html. Nost of the links uo not woik,
but many of the papeis can be founu in the Nachine Tianslation Aichive (http:www.mt-aichive.info).
couise on tianslation technologies. This is not just because TNNT can actually
pioviue auuitional language-leaining (cf. Lee anu Liao 2u11), noi uo I base my
aigument solely on the supposition that any paiticulai type of TNNT will
necessaiily configuie the stuuents' futuie employment (cf. Yuste 2uu1). ueneial
usage is also auvisable in view of the way the technologies can uiffusely affect all
othei skill sets (cf. my comments above on the ENT competence mouel). In many
cases, of couise, any geneial usage will be haiu to achieve, mostly because some
instiuctois eithei uo not know about TNNT oi see it as uistiacting fiom theii
piimaiy task of teaching fully human tianslation fiist (which uoes inueeu have some
peuagogical viitue - you have to stait somewheie). 0ui maikets anu tools aie not
yet at the stage wheie fully human tianslation can be abanuoneu entiiely, anu
TNNT shoulu obviously not get in the way of classes that iequiie othei tools
(many specific tianslation skills can inueeu still be taught with pen anu papei,
blackboaiu anu chalk, speaking anu listening). That saiu, at the appiopiiate stage of
uevelopment, stuuents shoulu be encouiageu to use theii piefeiieu technologies as
much as possible anu in as many uiffeient couises as possible. This means 1)
making suie they actually have the technologies on theii laptops, 2) teaching in an
enviionment wheie they aie using theii own laptops online, anu S) using
technologies that aie eithei fiee oi veiy cheap, of which theie aie seveial veiy goou
ones (theie is no ieason why stuuents shoulu be paying the piices uemanueu by the
maiket leauei).

M!!"#!"*-8& 8&-6L*+0 (!-6&(

Fiom the above, it follows that no one ieally neeus oi shoulu want a "computei lab,"
especially of the kinu wheie uesks aie aiiangeu in such a way that teamwoik is
uifficult anu the instiuctoi cannot ieally see what is happening on stuuents' scieens.
The exchanges iequiieu aie moie effectively uone aiounu a laige table, wheie the
teachei can move fiom stuuent to stuuent, seeing what is happening on each scieen
(see Figuie S) (cf. Pym 2uu6).



/*01"& J4 M 6%-(( #+ 8"-+(%-8*#+ 8&6L+#%#0. =N0+-6*# O-"6P- 8&-6L*+0 *+ K-""-0#+-@


Q#": 9*8L !&&"(

The woist thing that can happen with any technology is that a stuuent gets stuck oi
otheiwise feels lost, then staits clicking on eveiything until they fieeze up anu sit
theie in silence, feeling stupiu. uet stuuents to woik in paiis. Two people talking
stanu a bettei chance of finuing a solution, anu a much bettei chance of not
iemaining silent - they aie moie likely to show they neeu help fiom an instiuctoi.

R&%;C-+-%.(*( #; 8"-+(%-8*#+ !"#6&((&(

0nce ielative pioficiency has been gaineu in the use of a tool, stuuents shoulu be
able to iecoiu theii on-scieen tianslation piocesses (theie aie seveial fiee tools foi
uoing this), then play back theii peifoimance at an enhanceu speeu, anu actually see
what effects the tool is having on theii tianslation peifoimance. This shoulu also be
uone in paiis, with each stuuent tiacking the othei's piocesses, calculating time-on-
task anu estimating efficiencies. Stuuents themselves can thus uo basic piocess
ieseaich, bioauly mapping theii piogiess in teims of piouuctivity anu quality (see
Pym 2uu9 foi some simple mouels of this). The time lag between ieseaich anu
teaching is thus effectively annulleu - they become the one activity, unuei the
geneial heau of "action."
This kinu of self-analysis becomes paiticulaily impoitant in business
enviionments - anu theie aie many - wheie tianslatois will have to negotiate anu
ienegotiate theii pay iates in teims of piouuctivity. Simulation of such negotiations
can itself be a valuable peuagogical activity (see Bui 2u12). 0nly if oui giauuates aie
themselves able to gauge the value of theii woik will they then be in a position to
uefenu themselves in the maiketplace.

B#%%-$#"-8*<& 9#": 9*8L -"&- &)!&"8(

The final point to be mentioneu heie is the possibility of having tianslation stuuents
woik alongsiue aiea expeits who have not been tiaineu as tianslatois, on the
assumption that the basic TNNT technologies shoulu be of use to all. Some
inspiiation might be sought in a pioject that hau tianslation stuuents team up with
law stuuents (Way 2uuS), exploiing the extent to which the uiffeient competences
can be of help to each othei. This paiticulai kinu of teamwoik is well suiteu to
technologies uesigneu foi non-piofessional tianslatois (such as uoogle Tianslatoi
Toolkit oi Lingotek), anu can moie oi less imitate the kinu of coopeiation envisageu
in Figuie 2.

In sum, the peuagogy we seek cannot opeiate thiough fixeu iecipes. The above list
of ten skills, in thiee categoiies, shoulu be taken as no moie than a possible staiting
point foi cieative expeiimentation.


!"(")"&2"$


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