Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period: Archaeobotanical Analysis

of Mud Bricks and Mud Plasters from the Area of Dayr al-Barsha
Elena Marinova1, Gertrud J.M. van Loon2, Marleen De Meyer2,3 & Harco Willems2
1

Center for Archaeological Sciences, Celestijnenlaan 200E, bus 2408, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium, E-mail: elena.marinova@bio.kuleuven.be 2 K.U. Leuven, Research Group Egyptology, Faculty of Arts, Blijde Inkomststraat 21, bus 3318, B-3000 Leuven, E-mails: Gertrud.Vanloon@arts.kuleuven.be / Marleen.DeMeyer@arts.kuleuven.be / Harco.Willems@arts.kuleuven.be 3 Postdoctoral Fellow Research Foundation Flanders

Abstract: The current study presents the archaeobotanical analysis of mud bricks and plasters from the Coptic occupation (from ca 400 to ca 800 AD) from several localities in the vicinity of Dayr al-Barsh, Middle Egypt. The data set presented comes from three locations, i.e., Dayr Ab Hinnis (reused quarries), Dayr al-Barsh and al-Shaykh Sad (reused Pharaonic tombs) and consists mainly of desiccated plant material retrieved from 32 samples. The chaff and particularly rachis fragments of main cereal crops characteristic for the period of study, barley and free threshing wheat, dominate the archaeobotanical finds. Apart from these, there are rather numerous remains of radish, which are interpreted as by-products of oil-production. In most cases, one of these three species is the dominant tempering material found in the studied samples. The plant assemblages from mud bricks and plasters compared with those from settlement contexts in the same area show good potential for obtaining information on the principal crops for the study area. A wide variety of non-cultivated plants found helps to reconstruct the habitats exploited in the areas surrounding the site during the period studied. The botanical analysis of dung pellets found in some mud bricks permits an estimation of the contribution of animal dung to the variety of plant taxa identified. Keywords: archaeobotany, monastic diet, desiccated plant remains, temper, chaff, crop processing by-products, animal dung

Introduction The archaeobotanical study of plant materials preserved in mud bricks, wattle and daub or other building structures already has a tradition in arid areas such as Egypt (see Thanheiser 1999; van der Veen 1999; Smith 2003; Newton 2004; Cappers 2006; Thanheiser & Knig 2008; Fahmy & Fadl 2009; Hendrickx et al. 2010). The straw, chaff and other crop processing remains preserved in building structures were valuable raw materials for traditional agricultural societies, and especially so in arid areas (van der Veen 1999). The archaeobotanical analysis of such materials can help to gain insight into the crop plants used and associated weeds, which may be indicative of crop husbandry practices. Information of this kind can also be considered in general terms to allow us to trace different aspects of the plant economy of the period studied.

This paper presents the results of botanical analysis of plant macrofossils recovered from mud bricks and plasters from several localities in the vicinity of Dayr al-Barsh, Middle Egypt, inhabited during the Late Antique to Early Islamic period. The study is based on fieldwork being carried out by Leuven University under the direction of Prof. Dr. H. Willems. The plant remains in this study derive from structures related to the monastic occupation of the studied sites. Considering that the plaster and brick material is continuously eroding, it was decided to conduct archaeobotanical analysis on these materials. No other archaeological structures could be used as a source of archaeobotanical information for the study period, because they have not yet been excavated. Aims of the study were first to establish the botanical composition of the temper materials of plant origin in the mud plasters and mud bricks; secondly to trace how
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the plant remains became incorporated in the building materials based on their taphonomy (see Newton 2004; Cappers 2006; van der Veen 2007); and thirdly to consider the results of the study in the light of what they can contribute to our understanding of the ancient agriculture and the environment in the region. Study area The study area is situated approximately 280 km south of Cairo on the east bank of Nile. The mud plasters and mud bricks analysed originate from of the Coptic monastic complexes at Dayr Ab Hinnis (reused quarries), Dayr al-Barsh, and al-Shaykh Sad (reused Pharaonic tombs) in Middle Egypt (Fig. 1). Natural conditions The study area, situated in the Nile valley, is characterized by an arid climate with high temperatures, low relative humidity, high evaporation and an annual rainfall of ca 14 mm. The vegetation of the Nile valley includes two main habitats: river (and canal) banks and cultivated fields (Zahran & Willis 1992: 265267). In the wadis surrounding the sites, representatives of desert vegetation common in limestone desert landforms (Kassas & Girgis 1970: 339342) can be found such as Zygophyllum coccineum L., Zilla spinosa (L) Prantl, Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq., Fagonia bruguieri DC, Farsetia aegyptiaca Turra, and Panicum turgidum Forssk. Archaeological setting The sites of Dayr al-Barsh and al-Shaykh Sad in Middle Egypt harbour many rock-cut tombs in cliffs on the eastern Nile bank (Willems et al. 2004, 2006, 2009). Most of these tombs date from the Old Kingdom, First Intermediate Period, and Middle Kingdom, but many were secondarily inhabited at a much later point in time, during the Late Antique to Early Christian Period (De Meyer 2008: 653658). The monk Anb Bishy, who lived in the nearby mountain of Antinoopolis or Ansina in the early 5th century AD, is the titular saint of the old church at Dayr al-Barsh. This church once belonged to a monastic settlement (Coquin 1991: 20292030; Coquin et al. 1991: 794796). According to local tradition over one thousand monks belonged to this monastery during the 6th and 7th centuries AD, one third of them residing in the rock tombs as hermits (Timm 1984: 694; Meinardus 2000: 200). While this

Fig. 1. Map of the study area, the approximate position of the sites indicated with ellipses (AH: Ab Hinis, DALB: Dayr alBarsh, SS: al-Shaykh Sad). In the overview map of Egypt the study area is indicated with a grey star.

number may be exaggerated, archaeological settlement remains do show that it was not a few sporadic monks who inhabited the rock tombs and quarries, but that these were fairly densely populated. These monks altered the pre-existing rock tombs and quarries into living environments. The modifications range from painting red crosses on the walls, to carving hooks in the ceiling, to damaging Pharaonic imagery, and even breaking out entire walls or creating windows. Coptic monks frequently smoothed the fairly rough tomb and quarry walls. They did this using claw chisels, the remaining traces of which are often covered by a layer of mud plaster. Mud was also used to create floors and other structures inside the tombs and quarries. It is from these mud wall plasters that several samples have been analysed (Tab. 1). A mud brick construction (bench?) on the side of the entrance door to tomb 15J67/1 the Old Kingdom tomb of An-Ankhy on the south hill is dated by a Late Roman coin found underneath the mud plaster

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

covering the rock floor. On top of the bench and in the immediate vicinity six other Late Roman coins were found, one of which could be assigned to the reign of Theodosius I (379395 AD). These coins are still under study by Barbara Lichocka and the preliminary results are mentioned in De Meyer (2008: 527528). The second series of samples comes from a monastic community located near the village of Dayr Ab Hinnis (Fig. 1). This village is situated a few kilometers north of Dayr al-Barsh and to the south of the ruined town of Antinoopolis/Antino (founded by the Emperor Hadrian around AD 130132) and Ansin. The later was an administrative centre of Middle Egypt between the 8th and 13th centuries (Bagnall & Rathbone 2004: 169172). In Pharaonic times, mainly during the New Kingdom, the hills to the east of the village (ca 7080 m high) were quarried extensively for limestone (Willems & Demare 2009). These gallery quarries on several levels, have nearly all been converted by monks into working and living quarters and for liturgical purposes from approximately the 4th century onwards. Doorways, windows or cupboards were cut or carved, stone walls were built to divide spaces into smaller units, and outside structures were added. The studied material comes from a selection of these quarries, situated between two wadis, on the upper and intermediate level of the limestone layers. The plateau to the east also contains a fair number of quarries with well-preserved built structures, which have not yet been documented (Delattre in press; van Loon in press). At first sight, the quarries look bare and poor. This is deceptive: Plaster fragments show that most were well finished and there was a certain degree of comfort. Paintings and sculptures preserved show care and attention to detail. In the south-western corner of one of the largest quarries (AH-12), liturgical spaces were installed and decorated with wall paintings, the most famous being the cycles of the Infancy of Christ and Saint John the Baptist. The paintings in this area, traditionally called the church, have been known since the 17th century (for recent discussions see Delattre 2003; van Loon & Delattre 2004, 2005, 2006). Several walls inside the quarries, both constructed walls and rock faces, still retain part of their mud and lime plaster layers or whitewash. Sometimes lime plaster or whitewash was applied directly to the rock face. Very rough walls were smoothened with a coarse mud plaster or mortar mixed with small stones or pottery, followed by preparatory layers of mud plaster and a finishing layer of lime plaster. A small part of a mud brick wall was found near the southern church entrance. In a quarry space to the east of the church (AH-12 Eastern entrance 1), a few loose mud bricks were collected for archaeobotanical analysis. Remains of mud brick structures, however, are rare.

It is difficult to estimate how long monastic communities have occupied these quarries. Plaster layers, inscriptions and paintings show several phases of use. A few coins have been found (surface finds), which have been in circulation from the end of the 4th until the 9th century (Castrizio in press). The complex was certainly still in use during the 6th to 8th centuries but the exact dates of occupation and abandonment have not been established. Materials and methods The study of the mud plasters and mud bricks from Dayr al-Barsh was conducted using measured volumes of material ranging from 50 to 500 ml. The sample volumes were estimated by liquid replacement in measured cylinder. Wet sieving, using sieves with mesh sizes of 2 mm, 1 mm, and 0.3 mm, was used to extract plant remains. First, the mud bricks were observed carefully for destruction by insects or other animal activity, as this can bias the result by contamination with modern plant material. For this reason only building materials preserved intact were taken and gently broken into smaller pieces in order to observe possible modern disturbance. In cases where sheep/goat coprolites were encountered, they were extracted intact and studied separately. The same was done with larger visible plant macro-remains, which were removed with the aid of a brush. The samples were soaked in water for 1012 hours in order to release the fine plant material embedded in the dry and compact clay of the mud bricks and plasters. This approach permitted the extraction of plant material, which could easily be damaged if dry sieving had been applied on the compact and clay rich matrix of the brick and plaster fragments. When extracted in this way plant remains were preserved mainly in desiccated state. In some samples small quantities of unidentifiable mineralized material or charred fragments were observed. The plant remains extracted from the clay matrix of the bricks and plasters were then sorted and identified using a zoom stereo microscope (NOVEX RZT-SF with up to 67.5x magnification. For documentation a digital camera (CMEX 5000) integrated with the stereoscope was used. To aid the identification, the portable portion of the reference collection of the Center for Archaeological Sciences, K.U. Leuven and the Flora of Egypt (Boulos 1999, 2000, 2002, 2005) were used. The botanical nomenclature for the wild growing plants follows the Flora of Egypt (ibid.). The nomenclature of scientific plant names for cereal crops follows van Zeist (1984) and for most other cultivated plants Zohary & Hopf (2000). The identified material from the samples was counted and is presented in Tables 1 and 2.

PROOFS

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It is logical to expect the different functions of both studied structures (mud bricks and mud plasters) to be manifested through differences in the botanical material used for tempering. Such differences were already observed by van der Veen (2001) in the mud bricks and plasters from the Roman occupation of Mons Claudianus. In order to recognize possible similarities or differences not obviously traceable by simple comparisons between the samples, numerical approaches such as cluster analysis were applied. Taxa which appear in less than 10 % of the samples and also samples with fewer than 15 identified items were removed from the data set following the considerations given in van der Veen (1992) on statistical analyses of archaeobotanical datasets. For the analysis the software PAST (Hammer et al. 2001) was used, applying the paired group linkage correlation (a variation of unweighted pair group method) clusters analysis. Clusters are joined based on the average distance between all members in two groups and the most similar clusters are combined at any given stage. Results A total of 58 samples was taken and prepared for archaeobotanical analysis at Dayr al-Barsh (11 from mud bricks and 47 from mud plasters). In 17 samples no significant identifiable plant macroremains were found and they were omitted from further analysis. These were mainly samples from the so called fine plasters, i.e., plaster consisting mainly of fine clay and finely chopped plant material. In the current study, 31 archaeobotanical samples with a sufficient amount of plant macroremains (over 15 identifiable items) attributed to the Late AntiqueEarly Islamic period were considered (Tab. 1). In total over 1800 desiccated plant items were identified and the average concentration of the plant remains was 488 items per liter. One sample, consisting only of branches of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), from AH-33 threshold III-E, was excluded from the table. The good preservation of the branches and the presence of inflorescence parts allowed the determination of the material using modern herbarium specimens. The most common plant remains identified and those of special interest are illustrated at Figure 2. The archaeobotanical analysis of the mud bricks and mud plasters has revealed the use of a wide spectrum of domesticated and other useful plants including durum wheat (Triticum cf. durum Desf.), hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), pea (Pisum sativum L.), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), fig (Ficus sp. L.), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), Christs thorn (Ziziphus spina-christi ((L.) Desf.), linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), radish (Rapha-

nus sp. L.), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), melon or cucmber (Cucumis melo L./sativus L.), bitter apple/ water melon (Citrullus sp. Schrad. ex Eckl. & Zeyh.), and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.). Some of the sampled plasters were dominated by the chaff of durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) and to a lesser extend barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), in others the fruit remains of radish (Raphanus sp. L.) were dominant. Apart from these dominant remains other plant remains were also present. Along with crop remains, weeds and wild plants associated either with them in the crop fields or with other habitats such as river/canal bank areas, desert edge, or wadis, were identified. The proportions of the main groups of plants found in the mud bricks were compared with those found in the mud plasters (Fig. 3) in order to compare the general vegetal composition of both types of building elements. In the mud bricks there is 12.8 % more chaff identified than in the plasters. The reason for this could be that less plant material was used for the plasters. Considering the fact that in many of the plaster samples the plant material was finely chopped, this difference could be explained by a reduced number of identifiable chaff remains in the plasters. The difference (10 %) between proportions of oil/fibre crops from mud bricks and plasters is mainly due to the fact that the Raphanus sp. L. remains were interpreted as remains of oil crops and they are rather numerous in several plaster samples. All studied mud bricks had a similar spectrum of plant remains. The plant materials used as tempering ingredients partly derives from animal dung, as suggested by the presence of individual dung pellets of sheep/goat inside the bricks. Ten sheep/goat pellets were analysed in order to determine possible sources of plant seeds in the mud bricks and the diet of the ovicaprids kept at the site (Tab. 2). Two of these showed a composition dominated by wet area and riverbank vegetation which included Cyperus sp. L., Schoenoplectus praelongatus (Poir.) J. Raynal and Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani. In other coprolites Chenopodium murale L. or Trifolium cf. alexandrinum L. were mainly found. In one of the dung pellets, desert vegetation was represented by Pulicaria sp. Gaertn. and cf. Zygophyllum sp. L. Some of the dung pellets consisted of strongly fragmented possible Poaceae/Cerealia material, which probably originated from fodder or herbaceous vegetation. The Dayr al-Barsh mud plasters were classified into two categories according to their consistency: 1. fine (with quite well chopped plant tempering), and 2. coarse (where larger plant remains were visible). The cluster analysis (Fig. 4) of the sample composition revealed certain similarities between the coarse plasters and the mud bricks. Also according to the cluster

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

analysis no notable difference was observed between the different sites included in the analysis. However, there is a difference between the compositions of the different building elements analysed. Figure 4 shows four different clusters that could be recognized. Group A (2 samples): includes AH-19 and AH-23; both are classified as fine plasters and consist of rather small amounts of identifiable plant remains (Tab. 1). Group B (4 samples): includes two samples of AH12, AH-19, AH-22; consists of samples with coarse or lime plaster, rich in threshing remains from cereal crops and dominated by chaff of durum wheat. Group C (16 samples): includes samples of plasters and mud bricks from Dayr Ab Hinnis (AH), Dayr al-Barsh (DALB) and al-Shaykh Sad and encompasses the greatest number of samples. These samples yielded a great variety of identified plant taxa and were generally rich in plant remains. Most of the plasters in this group are coarse and probably indicate a similar way of preparing the initial materials for both types of building structures. Group D (4 samples): includes AH-4, AH-22, AH23, AH-33; samples of plasters which are poor in cereal chaff and mostly contain concentrations of Raphanus sp. L. remains. The cluster analysis confirms that differences in the composition of the building structures are related mainly to their function. It also shows that the plaster and brick plant assemblages from the three sites are comparable in composition. Discussion The archaeobotanical finds from the mud bricks and mud plaster have provided a range of plants which will now be considered in the context of preservation, plant economy, possible environments and taphonomy. Preservation of plant remains The plant remains from the mud brick structures came mostly from inside rooms of the monastic complex built in the limestone rock cavities. These locations are either quite well protected from variations in humidity and temperature or the influence of these climatic factors was significantly. This special situation is most probably the main factor in the excellent preservation of plant macrofossils and further contributes to increasing the number of the plant taxa identified.

Information on the plant economy of the sites

PROOFS

Crop plants The main cereal crops recovered are tetraploid free threshing wheat (Triticum cf. durum Desf., Fig. 2A) and hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare L., Fig. 2C). They are represented mainly by chaff as they came from tempering material for which crop processing residues are commonly used. The only leguminous crop identified is pea (Pisum sativum L., Fig. 2B) which is represented by a few seeds. The few seeds of grass pea (Lathyrus sp. L.) could be both from crop or weed so were not placed with the pulses. The larger-seeded leguminous crops are obviously underrepresented in the plant assemblages from the mud brick and plaster material or are missing entirely (see Newton 2004: tab. 1; Hendrickx et al. 2010: tab. 2.) or form a very minor group (see van der Veen 1999: fig. 5). Together with those also Trifolium sp. L. (Fig. 2J) was found. These specimens are usually quite numerous and in many cases are preserved with their calyx (found in 50 % of the samples with a total of 87 seeds and 61 calyx remains). Considering the relatively large size of the seeds (on average 2.67 mm) and the morphological characteristics of the calyx (Fig. 2J), they could have originated from the fodder plant Trifolium alexandrinum L. Similar rather large Trifolium seeds in higher concentrations were found in the roughly contemporary monastic complex of Kawm al-Nan (ca 10 km to the south) and were also interpreted as possible fodder (Smith 2003: 5861). The Trifolium L. seeds and calyx fragments with similar morphological features were also found in three of the coprolites extracted from the mud brick and plaster (Tab. 2). This evidence points to their inclusion in the diet of contemporary grazing small ovicaprines. However, the quantity of coprolites analysed and materials found in them are insufficient to determine if the plant remains originated as fodder or if they were elements of the field weed flora. Another possible crop is attested by the relatively numerous finds of radish (Raphanus sp., Fig. 2D). The preservation of the material and its significant fragmentation do not permit a firm identification. The absence of clearly pronounced longitudinal ridges on the surface of the fruits, which are characteristic of Raphanus raphanistrum L., makes it difficult to attribute the archaeological finds to the wild radish. On the other hand the fruit fragments appear to be broken in oneseeded segments. Finds of intact indehiscent fruits of Raphanus sativus L. which would prove its presence are missing from the studied material. However it should be taken into account that the cleaning of radish seeds will also lead to fragmentation of the dry and brittle fruits. Further fragmentation took place when they became imbedded in the mud bricks and plaster and during

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Fig. 2. Most common plant remains mentioned in the text: A Triticum cf. aestivum/durum grain, glumes and rachis fragments; B Pisum sativum seed, C Hordeum vulgare grain with palea and lemma, rachis fragments; D Raphanus sp. seed, fruit fragment; E Vitis vinifera seed; F Ficus cf. carica nut, G Linum usitatissimum seed; H Carthamus tinctorius achene; I Cucumis sp. seed; J Trifolium sp. seed, calyx; K Pulicaria sp. achene; L Anthemis cf. pseudocotula achene; M Cichorium intybus/endivia achene; N Phalaris minor grain, with palea and lemma with grain; O Polypogon cf. monspeliensis grain, glumes with grain; P Sinapis arvensis fruit; Q Rumex cf. dentatus fruit with perianth; R cf. Lycium sp. seed; S cf. Glinus lotoides seed; T Coronopus sp. fruit; U Ranunculus sect. Batrachium fruit V Schoenoplectus praelongatus fruit W Fimbristylis bisumbellata fruit; X Acacia sp. leaf.

Fig. 3. Percentage proportions of the main groups of plant remains.

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

PROOFS

Fig. 4. Cluster analysis (paired groups, similarity) of the sample composition.

their extraction for analysis. The high concentrations of Raphanus sp. L. in some samples also point to economic importance this plant taxon, and the samples could represent the threshing remains of an oil crop. Nevertheless the possibility that we are dealing with the remains of a field weed cannot be not be discounted because the state of preservation does not permit a firm identification. Moreover the presence of both wild and domesticated specimens in the studied materials is probable because Raphanus raphanistrum L. occurs as crop weed in the study area (see Fahmy 1997).

Radish remains, found at Qasr Ibrm (Clapham & Rowley-Conwy 2007), indicate its use since the earliest occupation of the site during the Napatan Period (ca 700 BC). The archaeobotanical record from Egypt shows an emphasis on radish in Late Roman to Early Islamic times (O`Donogue et al. 1996; de Vartavan & Asensi Amoros 1997; El Hadidi & El Fayoumi 1997; Hopf & Germer 1998). This evidence is also in accordance with biochemical analyses, which demonstrate the use of radish seed oil in shell lamps (Romanus et al. 2008: 792793) from the period under consideration (8th
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10th century AD). The oil crops in the mustard family (Brassicaceae), to which radish belongs, have a wide adaptability and they mature quickly. The relatively easy and inexpensive production of oil (also used as food and other purposes), together with the collapse of the trade systems in Late Antiquity, probably led to an increased use of locally grown radish oil in Egypt (Bagnall 1993: 78). In light of this information, and considering the high concentration of radish plant parts in several samples, the remains most probably represent oil crop processing remains. Further evidence for oil/fibre crops is indicated by a few seeds of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L., Fig. 2G) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L., Fig. 2H). In contrast to the observations at Kawm al-Nan, safflower was used as temper in the mud bricks of Early Christian structures found in the limestone quarries and rock tombs in the area. This means most probably that no special selection was applied to the materials used for tempering. This may be connected with the location of the structures being far from settlements and crop fields. As such, the lack of easily accessible threshing by-products, would favour the use of any available plant residues or waste for temper in order to save energy in transporting special types of tempering material. Another explanation for the rather mixed character of the plant assemblages is the presence of animal dung which was in many cases added to the mud structures. Also oil pressing residues can be used as fodder, which could end up in the bricks from dung. Fruits and vegetables The evidence for fruits and vegetables is limited, which most likely reflects the function of the studied contexts. Fruits are represented by several species, the most common of which are figs (Ficus cf. carica L., Fig. 2F) and grapes (Vitis vinifera L., Fig. 2E). Possibly because of their small size, they had a better chance to become incorporated into the mud bricks and especially the mud plasters, compared to the larger fruit parts of plants such as date palm and Christs thorn, which were recovered only in very few cases. The finds of melon/cucumber (Cucumis melo L./ sativus L., Fig. 2I) and celery (Apium graveolens L.), which appear as single seeds, could be considered the remains of vegetables and condiments. Non-cultivated vegetation Possible field weeds The majority of the identified wild plant taxa can be classified as field weeds and ruderal plants. Those belonging to the segetal flora include: Anthemis cf. pseudocotula Boiss (Fig. 2L), Avena sterilis L., Bromus sp. L., Chenopodium murale L., Galium sp. L., Lolium

sp. L., Malva sp. L., Phalaris cf. minor Retz. (Fig. 2N), Polypogon cf. monspeliensis (L.) Desf. (Fig. 2O), and Rumex cf. dentatus L. (Fig. 2Q). These species are typical field weeds of Egypt and have been established in the archaeobotanical record in samples dating back as far as prehistoric times (see Fahmy 1997: tab. 1). Other wild growing plants Apart from the crops and their associated field weeds, there are other plant remains indicative of wetlands (for example Fimbristylis sp. Vahl., Cyperaceae-tubers, Schoenoplectus praelongatus (Poir.) J. Raynal., and Ranunculus L. subgenus Batrachium (DC) A. Gray) and species coming possibly from the desert or its edges (cf. Lycium sp. L. (Fig. 2R), Pulicaria sp. Gaertn. (Fig. 2K), and Zygophyllum sp. L.). Some of them were found in dung pellets (Tab. 2). This provides direct evidence for the habitats grazed by ovicaprines. Comparison with contemporary sites The mud plaster samples from the Roman site of Mons Claudianus in the Eastern Desert, half way between Qena and the Red Sea coast (van der Veen 2001: 206207, App. 1), are dominated by rachis fragments of durum wheat and barley, as are plaster samples from Dayr al-Barsh. The larger quantity of wild seeds in mud brick samples from Mons Claudianus, compared to plasters, is also evident in the mud bricks analysed in Dayr al-Barsh. Analyses of mud brick samples dated to the 4th century AD from Madnat Waf, western edge of Fayyum (Cappers 2006: 430440) also are comparable to the results of the current study. There the composition of tempering material is restricted to threshing remains of cereals (durum wheat and barley), weeds, riparian and water plants and they are clearly dominated by durum wheat. A definite similarity between assemblages from Madnat Waf and Dayr al-Barsh is the large number of riparian and water plant taxa in the mud bricks. Ethnographic observations from the Fayum area (Cappers 2006: 440) indicate that these riparian and water plant taxa usually originate from irrigated areas according to their ecological affinities. Comparisons between the Dayr al-Barsh plant assemblages and those from the more or less contemporary monastic site of Kawm al-Nan (ca AD 400650, Smith 2003: 10) could help to generate a clearer picture of plant use at Dayr al-Barsh. In this connection, the different character of the Dayr al-Barsh contexts should be mentioned. The plant assemblages from Kawm alNan originated from diverse settlement contexts including alleys, floors, ovens, pits, middens and mud bricks (ibid.: tab. 2.1). By contrast the Dayr al-Barsh

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

samples include plant material only from building structures (bricks and plasters). Also of importance for comparative purposes are the much smaller volumes sampled for the present study which average ca 0.146 l, while in Kawm al-Nan the flotation samples ranged between 1520 l in volume. In general both assemblages show great similarities although those from Dayr alBarsh are not as diverse as those from Kawm al-Nan. The composition of annual crops such as cereals, pulses and oil seeds is almost identical, with the exception of lupin (Lupinus albus L.) found only at Kawm al-Nan. Four of the eleven fruits recovered at Kawm al-Nan were also identified in the building materials from the Dayr al-Barsh area: fig, grape, date palm, Christs thorn. Most of those missing from the Dayr al-Barsh assemblage are those which are also rather rare in the samples from Kawm al-Nan. The group which is most poorly presented is the condiments from which only two (celery and rosemary) were found at Dayr alBarsh in contrast to seven identified at Kawm al-Nan (ibid.: 5258, tab. 3.1.). This may be due to the different character of the studied contexts at both localities. The percentage proportions of the main categories of desiccated plant remains found at Kawm al-Nan (ibid: 36, fig. 3.2) show certain similarities with those established in the mud bricks and plaster material from the area of Dayr al-Barsh (Fig. 3). In both cases the assemblages are dominated by chaff and wild plants, which is typical for desiccated plant assemblages as described by van der Veen (2007: 969970). The relatively good agreement between the plant spectra of both sites indicates the potential of analyses of mud brick and mud plaster in arid areas for reconstructing the plant economy. The results of the Dayr al-Barsh study also show general similarities with finds from the sites of Ab Shar, Red Sea Coast, ca 20 km north from Hurghada (El Hadidi & Amer 1996) and Phoebammon, Deir elBahari, located on the west bank of the Nile, opposite the city of Luxor (Tckholm 1961) both of which are contemporary with the Dayr al-Barsh localities. This is expressed mainly by the general composition of the chaff remains of cereal crops and several of the field weeds and wild species. Sources of plant remains found in the mud brick and plaster assemblages The plant assemblages identified reflect a variety of human activities in the surroundings of the studied sites. The analysis of their composition suggests that they originate from crop processing, food consumption, waste and animal dung. The wetland plants recovered could have originated from the clays used in the mud building structures.

The vast majority of plant remains found are byproducts of crop processing. The most numerous and frequently occurring are those of cereal crops (free threshing wheat followed closely by hulled barley) and to a lesser extent radish. In many cases one or mixtures of these species form the basic component of the plant temper in the bricks and plasters (see Tab. 1). Pulses are represented by only a few seeds which are the exception than the regular component of the tempering. Together with the remains of fruits, vegetables, and condiments the pulses probably represent food debris incorporated into the building material alongside the threshing remains which dominate the tempers. Some pulses were found in association with mineralized matter and could also have originated from feces or dung incorporated in the building materials. The presence of many small leguminous, grass, and other seeds that tend to pass through the digestion tract of the domestic herbivores (such as Trifolium sp. L., Setaria sp. P. Beauv., Malva sp. L.), are usually considered to be indicators of dung (see Miller 1984). The use of dung in the mud brick production was also confirmed by the presence of dung pellets in seven of the studied samples. The remains of oil/fibre crops could also originate from dung if they were used as fodder; this explains their rarity in the building materials. Most of the identified potential field weeds are those with relatively heavy and large seeds/fruits or with other adaptation features that allow them to remain with the crop after sieving (for example Bromus sp. L., Galium sp. L., Lathyrus sp. L., Lolium sp. L., Phalaris cf. minor Retz.). This may be an indication that the materials used for tempering in the mud bricks originated as byproducts of the final stages of crop processing. But some of them, as demonstrated by ethnographic observation (Cappers 2006: 433435), like spikelets of Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. and valves and pedicels of Sinapis arvensis L., are more typical for threshing remains. The rosemary branches, registered in a threshold, were found bonded with yarn. Such a find of branches of an aromatic plant may be related to the use of the branches for ritual or decorative purposes. But from this single find it is difficult to conclude, whether or not they were deliberately deposited in the threshold. Conclusions The plant assemblages found at the Dayr al-Barsh localities consist principally of desiccated remains and likely originated from several different sources, such as threshing remains, food consumption residues, discarded plant material, animal dung, species from wetlands, and in very few cases plants from desert

PROOFS

E. Marinova et al.

habitats. The main crop plants that were identified (durum wheat, barley and possibly radish) are consistent with the plant economy understood for the period under study. The mixed origin of mud brick and plaster tempering materials in the Dayr al-Barsh Christian sites does not permit the reconstruction of specific crop husbandry practices, as was possible for other sites where the composition of plant tempers was analysed. Comparisons with previous studies from the period show that the plant assemblages derived from the Dayr al-Barsh plasters and mud bricks have provided a good general picture of the plant economy of the region, but the results are not as detailed and diverse as those derived from a wider variety of settlement deposits. Nevertheless the current study has demonstrated the rather good potential of mud brick and plaster materials as sources of information on ancient plant economy and the exploitation of nearby habitats. This observation has wider implications for archaeobotanical studies in arid areas such as Egypt, where much of the architecture would have been mud brick with plastered walls and floors. Detailed information can be reliably obtained by ensuring control of the deposits sampled to avoid sampling decayed plaster/mud brick or those partly destroyed by insects. Acknowledgements The fieldwork for the current research was carried out with the financial support FWO-Vlaanderen and the Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds of the K.U. Leuven. The first author would like to thank R.T.J. Cappers, Groningen University for his help in identifying some plant remains and for the productive discussion and inspiration on the research topic. We also would like to express our thanks to Ashraf Rashd Yssif Dkir, inspector of Supreme Council of Antiquity, who supported the archaeobotanical sampling at Dayr Ab Hinnis. We also would like to thank Alan Clapham, one anonymous reviewer, Stefanie Kahlheber and especially to Ahmed Fahmy, for the critical comments and helpful suggestions, which greatly improved the current paper. Bibliography
Bagnall, R. 1993. Egypt in Late Antiquity. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Bagnall, R.S. & Rathbone, D.W. 2004. Egypt. From Alexander to the Copts: An Archaeological and Historical Guide. British Museum Press, London. Boulos, L. 1999. Flora of Egypt, Vol. 1 Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo. Boulos, L. 2000. Flora of Egypt, Vol. 2 Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo.

Boulos, L. 2002. Flora of Egypt, Vol. 3. Al Hadara Publishing, Cairo. Boulos, L. 2005. Flora of Egypt, Vol. 4. Al Hadar Publishing, Cairo. Cappers, R.T.G. 2006. The Reconstruction of Agricultural Practices in Ancient Egypt: An ethnoarchaeological approach. Paleohistoria 47/48, 429446. Castrizio, D. in press. Coins. In: van Loon, G.J.M. & Delattre, A. (eds.), Dayr Ab Hinnis. The Laura in the Quarries. Vol. I: Material Culture. Clapham, A.J. & Rowley-Conwy, P.A. 2007. New discoveries at Qasr Ibrim, Lower Nubia. In: Cappers, R. (ed.), Fields of Change Progress in African Archaeobotany. Groningen Archaeological Studies 5, Groningen, 157164. Coquin, R-G. 1991. Pshoi of Scetis. The Coptic Encyclopedia 6, 20292030. Coquin, R-G., Martin, M. & Grossmann, P. 1991. Dayr alBarshh and Dayr al-Nakhlah, The Coptic Encyclopedia 3, 794796. Delattre, A. 2003. Lapophtegme de Grgoire de Nysse au Deir Abou Hennis, Aegyptus 83, 223227. Delattre, A. in press. Lapport des inscriptions ltude des ermitages chrtiens. Les exemples du Deir Abou Hennis et de la Montagne thbaine. In: Ghica, V. (ed.), Ermitages dgypte au premier millnaire. Actes du colloque international, Le Caire 24-26 Janvier 2009. De Meyer, M. 2008. Old Kingdom Rock Tombs at Dayr alBarsh. Archaeological and Textual Evidence of their Use and Reuse in Zones 4 and 7. Unpublished PhD thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven. De Vartavan, C. & Asensi Amoros, V. 1997. Codex of ancient Egyptian plant remains. Triade Exploration, London. El-Hadidi, M.N. & Amer, W.M. 1996. The palaeoethnobotany of Ab Shaar site (AD 400700), Red Sea Coast, Egypt. Taeckholmia 16, 3144. El Hadidi, M. & El Fayoumi, H. 1997. Catalogue of the archaeobotanical specimens in Cairo University Herbarium. 1. Ab Shaar site, Red Sea coast Egypt; season 1991. Taeckholmia 17, 4760. Fahmy, A.G. 1997. Evaluation of the weed flora of Egypt from Predynastic to Graeco-Roman times. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 6, 241247. Fahmy, A.G. & Fadl, M. 2009. Plant macroremains from locality HK29A at Hierakonpolis, Egypt. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 45, 137152. Hammer, O., Harper, D. & Rayan, P. 2001. PAST: Paleontological Statistica software for education and data analysis. Palaeontologica Electronica 4 (1), 19. Hendrickx, S., Huyge, D. & Newton, C. 2010. The walls of Elkab. In: Bietak, M., Czerni, E. & Forstner-Mller, I. (eds.), Cities and Urbanism in Ancient Egypt: Papers from a Workshop in November 2006 at the Austrian Academy of Sciences (AAS), Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Vienna, pp. 145170. Hopf, M. & Germer, R. 1998. Pflanzliche Reste aus NagelScheima. In: Bietak, M. & Schwarz, M. (eds.), Nag el-Scheima. Eine befestigte christliche Siedlung und andere christliche Denkmler in Sayala Nubien. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, Wien, pp. 545554. Kassas, M. & Girgis, W.A. 1970. Habitat and plant communities in the Egyptian Desert: VII. Geographical facies of plant communities. The Journal of Ecology 58, 335350. Meinardus, O.F.A. 2000. Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo. Miller, N. 1984. The use of dung as fuel: An ethnographic example and an archaeological application. Paleorient 10, 7179. Newton, C. 2004. Plant tempering of Predynastic pis at Adama in Upper Egypt: building material and taphonomy. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 13, 5564.

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Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

O`Donogue, K., Clapham, A., Evershed, R. & Brown, T. 1996. Remarkable preservation of biomolecules in ancient radish seeds. Proceedings of the Royal Society London: Biological Sciences 263 (1370), 541547. Romanus, K., van Neer, W., Marinova, E., Verbeke, K., Luypaerts, A., Jacobs, P., De Vos, D. & Waelkens, M. 2008. Brassicaceae seed oil identified as illuminant in Nilotic shells from a first millennium AD Coptic church in Bawit, Egypt. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 390, 783793. Smith, W. 2003. Archaeobotanical Investigations of Agriculture at Late Antique Kom el-Nan (Tell el-Amarna). Egypt Exploration Society, London. Tckholm, V. 1961. Botanical identification of the plants found at the monastery of Phoebammon. In: Bachatly, C. (ed.), Le monastere de Phoebammon dans la Thebaide. Vol. III. La Societ dArchologie Copte, Cairo, pp. 138. Thanheiser, U. 1999. Plant remains from Kellis: first results. In: Hope C., Mills A. (eds.), Dakhleh Oasis Project: Preliminary Reports on the 1992-1993 and 1993-1994 Field Seasons. Oxbow, Oxford, pp. 8993. Thanheiser, U. & Knig C. 2008. Plant remains from habitation areas at Kellis: Some considerations concerning their accumulation. In: Wiesman, M.F. (ed.), Oasis Papers 2: Proceedings of the Second International Conference of the Dakhleh Oasis. Dakhleh Oasis Project Monograph 12, pp. 141150. Timm, S. 1984. Das christlich-koptische gypten in arabischer Zeit. Eine Sammlung christlicher Sttten in gypten in arabischer Zeit, unter Ausschlu von Alexandria, Kairo, des Apa-MenaKlosters (Der Ab Mina), der Sketis (Wadi n-Natrun) und der Sinai-Region. Vol. 2 (DF). Beihefte zum Tbinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients, Reihe B (Geisteswissenschaften) 41/2. Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden. Van der Veen, M. 1992. Crop husbandry regimes. An Archaeobotanical Study of Farming in Northern England, 1000 BCAD 500. J.R. Collis Publications, Sheffield. Van der Veen, M. 1999. The economic value of chaff and straw in arid and temperate zones. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 8, 211224. Van der Veen, M. 2001. The botanical evidence. In: Maxfield, V.A. & Peacock, D.P.S. (eds.), Survey and Excavation Mons Claudianus 1987-1993. Volume II, Excavations: Part 1. Institut Franais dArchologie Orientale, Fouilles de lIFAO 43, pp. 175247. Van der Veen, M. 2007. Formation processes of desiccated and carbonised plant remains - the identification of routine practice. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 968990.

Van Loon, G.J.M. & Delattre, A. 2004. La frise des saints de lglise rupestre de Deir Abou Hennis. Eastern Christian Art 1, 89112. Van Loon, G.J.M. & Delattre, A. 2005. La frise des saints de lglise rupestre de Deir Abou Hennis. Addition et correction. Eastern Christian Art 2, 167. Van Loon, G.J.M. & Delattre, A. 2006. Le cycle de lenfance du Christ dans lglise rupestre de saint Jean Baptiste Deir Abou Hennis. In: Boudhors, A., Gascou, J. & Vaillancourt, D. (eds.), tudes Coptes IX. Onzime journe dtudes (Strasbourg 12-14 juin 2003). Cahiers de la bibliothque copte 14, pp. 119134. Van Loon, G.J.M. & Delattre, A. (eds.) in press. Dayr Ab Hinnis. The Laura in the Quarries. Vol. I: Material Culture; Vol. II: Inscriptions. Van Loon, G.J.M. in press. Patterns of monastic habitation on the east bank of the Nile in Middle Egypt. In: Ghica, V. (ed.), Ermitages dgypte au Premier Millnaire. Actes du Colloque International, Le Caire 24-26 Janvier 2009. Van Zeist, W.A. 1984. List of names of wild and cultivated cereals. Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture 1, 816. Willems, H.O. & Demare, R.J. 2009. The quarry of the Aten. Remarks on the source of limestone used in the construction of al-Amarna. Revue dEgyptologie 60, 222226. Willems, H.O., Delattre, A., De Meyer, M., Depraetere, D., Dupras, T.L., Herbich, T., Van Loon, G., Peeters, C., Vereecken, S., Verstraeten, G. & Williams, L.J. 2009. Report of the 20042005 campaigns of the Belgian mission to Dayr Al-Barsh. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 65, 377432. Willems, H.O., De Meyer, M., Depraetere, D., Peeters, C., Hendrickx, S., Herbich, T., Klemm, D., Klemm, R., Op De Beeck, L. & Depauw, M. 2004. Preliminary report of the 2002 campaign of the Belgian mission to Deir alBarsh. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 60, 237283. Willems, H.O., De Meyer, M., Depraetere, D., Peeters, C., Op De Beeck, L., Vereecken, S., Verrept, B. & Depauw, M. 2006. Preliminary report of the 2003 Campaign of the Belgian mission to Deir al-Barsh. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archologischen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 62, 307339. Zahran, M.A. & Willis, K.A. 1992. The Vegetation of Egypt. Chapman & Hall, London. Zohary, D. & Hopf, M. 2000. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. The origin and spread of cultivated plants in West Asia, Europe and the Nile Valley. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

PROOFS

11

12
DALB 07/15 DALB 07/65 DALB 07/69 DALB 07/17 DALB 07/20 DALB 07/21 DALB 07/23 DALB 07/64 DALB 08/71 DALB 08/73 DALB SS coptic wall SS front DALB DALB DALB DALB DALB Tomb AH-12, AH-12, eastern zone7/ sect.2 Werirni tomb zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 16K86/1 eastern room 1 room 1 brick 0.25 71 284 brick 0.5 205 410 brick 0.25 97 388 brick 0.1 38 380 brick 0.1 39 390 brick 0.15 24 160 brick 0.1 27 270 brick 0.18 9 50 brick 1 0.05 257 320 brick 2 0.08 59 337.5 12 1 1 14 6 16 9 23 7 5 10 1 2 3 3 1 11 4 5 4 2 3 1 4 1 1 39 7 1 1 6 1 3 2 1 1 4 1 2 8 4 8 4 57 12 12 5 1 34 19 1 2 8 5 5 6 14 2 1 7 5 1 17 8 4 6 2 7 1 1 8 1 1 18 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 1 1

sample laboratory no. site

trivial name

structure volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name

CEREALS domesticated cereals domesticated cereals possibly domesticated cereals possibly domesticated cereals hulled barley barley barley free treshing wheat free treshing wheat possible macaroni wheat possible macaroni wheat

Cerealia (glumes) Cerealia (grain) cf. Cerealia (clum node) cf. Cerealia (clum node with roots) Hordeum vulgare (grain) Hordeum vulgare (rachis frag.) Hordeum sp. (glumes) Triticum aestivum/durum (grain) Triticum aestivum/durum (rachis frag.) Triticum cf. aestivum/durum (glume) Triticum cf. durum (rachis frag.)

E. Marinova et al.

PULSES lentil pea OIL/FIBRE CROPS safflower flax radish radish radish

Lens culinaris (seed) Pisum sativum (seed )

Carthamus tinctorius (achena) Linum usitatissimum (seed) Raphanus sp. (fruit part) Raphanus sp. (seed) Raphanus sp. (pedicel)

FRUITS/VEGETABLES celery colocynth/watermelon cucumber/melon fig date palm wine Christs thorn

Apium cf. graveolens Citrullus sp. Cucumis sp. Ficus sp. (nut) Phoenix dactylifera (fruit) Vitis vinifera (seed) Ziziphus spina-christi

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS acacia acacia goat grass chamomile wild oat

Acacia sp. (seed) Acacia sp. (leave) cf. Aegilops sp. (glume base) Anthemis cf. pseudocotula Avena cf. sterilis (rachis)

Table 1 (continued on next pages). Results of the archaeobotanical analysis. (abbreviations AH: Ab Hinis, DALB: Dayr al-Barsh, SS: al-Shaykh Sad).

sample laboratory no. site DALB 07/15 DALB 07/65 DALB 07/69 DALB 07/17 DALB 07/20 DALB 07/21 DALB 07/23 DALB 07/64 DALB 08/71 DALB 08/73 DALB SS coptic wall SS front DALB DALB DALB DALB DALB Tomb AH-12, AH-12, eastern zone7/ sect.2 Werirni tomb zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 zone7/ sect.2 16K86/1 eastern room 1 room 1 brick 0.25 71 284 brick 0.5 205 410 brick 0.25 97 388 brick 0.1 38 380 brick 0.1 39 390 brick 0.15 24 160 brick 0.1 27 270 brick 0.18 9 50 brick 1 0.05 257 320 brick 2 0.08 59 337.5

trivial name 1 1

structure volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name

152 1 2 1 1 2 9

2 1

1 3

3 1 9 1 2 5 13 4

1 3

2 6

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS brome grass goosefoot chicory/endive coronopus dodder barnyard grass woodruff lotus sweetjuice grass pea rey grass boxthorn mallow canary grass timothy/meadow grass pulicaria plantain beard grass purslane water crowfoot dock dock club-rush bristle grass white mustard white mustard tamarisk clover clover caper bean 8 1 2 2

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

Bromus sp. Chenopodium cf. murale Cichorium intybus/endivia Coronopus cf. nilotica Cuscuta sp. (seed) Echinochloa sp.(grain) Galium sp. cf. Glinus lotoides cf. Lathyrus sativus (seed) Lolium sp. (small) cf. Lycium sp. Malva sp. (seed) Phalaris cf. minor (grain/chaff) Phleum/Poa cf. Pulicaria sp. (achena) Plantago sp. Polypogon cf. monspeliensis Portulaca oleracea Ranuculus subg. Batrachium Rumex cf. dentatus (with perianth) Rumex sp. (nutlet) Schoenoplectus praelongatus Setaria verticillata/viridis Sinapis arvensis (fruit) Sinapis arvensis (pedicel) Tamarix (twigg with leaves) Trifolium sp. (seed) Trifolium sp. (fruit with calyx) cf. Zygophyllum coccineum (seed)

3 1

4 11 1 3 1 4 2 + 1 + + 2 + 1 4

VARIA fig-marigold family sunflower family sedge family grass family not identifiable not identifiable sheep/goat coproliths 1 1 +

Aizoaceae (cf. Aizoon) (seed) Asteraceae Cyperaceae (tuber) Poaceae indet. bad reserved mineralized

PROOFS

13

(continued)

14
DALB 07/40 DALB Tomb 16L34/1 plaster 0.08 28 350 plaster on wall plaster on wall 0.2 0.15 179 39 895 260 lime plaster 0.25 136 544 lime plaster plaster on wall 0.1 0.1 36 106 360 1060 plaster 0.1 59 590 plaster 0.05 27 660 plaster 0.5 42 514 DALB 08/4 AH-room 22 DALB 08/7 AH-22 DALB 08/8 DALB 08/10 DALB 08/17 DALB 08/21 DALB 09/7 DALB 09/11 AH-19 AH-19 AH-23 AH-23 AH-38 AH-4, south wall plaster 0.05 29 580 plaster 0.1 54 540 4 2 1 3 1 3 2 5 14 6 2 2 3 1 3 1 2 4 4 2 2 3 7 2 7 1 4 1 11 2 9 7 3 17 1 9 8 9 5 2 2 5 5 12 1 7 6 1 2 8 3 2 7 9 34 1 1 1 5 48 1 11 3 4 2 4 9 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 12 3 2 1 2 1 23 2 3

sample laboratory no. site

DALB 07/14 DALB 07/16 DALB 07/63 DALB DALB DALB Tomb zone7 /sect.2 zone7 /sect.2 16L25/2

structure volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name

plaster 0.1 49 490

17

CEREALS Cerealia (glumes) Cerealia (grain) cf. Cerealia (clum node) cf. Cerealia (clum node with roots) Hordeum vulgare (grain) Hordeum vulgare (rachis frag.) Hordeum sp. (glumes) Triticum aestivum/durum (grain) Triticum aestivum/durum (rachis frag.) Triticum cf. aestivum/durum (glume) Triticum cf. durum (rachis frag.)

2 3

7 2 3

E. Marinova et al.

PULSES Lens culinaris (seed) Pisum sativum (seed ) OIL/FIBRE CROPS Carthamus tinctorius (achena) Linum usitatissimum (seed) Raphanus sp. (fruit part) Raphanus sp. (seed) Raphanus sp. (pedicel)

FRUITS/VEGETABLES Apium cf. graveolens Citrullus sp. Cucumis sp. Ficus sp. (nut) Phoenix dactylifera (fruit) Vitis vinifera (seed) Ziziphus spina-christi

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS Acacia sp. (seed) Acacia sp. (leave) cf. Aegilops sp. (glume base) Anthemis cf. pseudocotula Avena cf. sterilis (rachis)

(continued)

sample laboratory no. site DALB 07/40 DALB Tomb 16L34/1 plaster 0.08 28 350 plaster on wall plaster on wall 0.2 0.15 179 39 895 260 lime plaster 0.25 136 544 lime plaster plaster on wall 0.1 0.1 36 106 360 1060 plaster 0.1 59 590 plaster 0.05 27 660 plaster 0.5 42 514 DALB 08/4 AH-room 22 DALB 08/7 AH-22 DALB 08/8 DALB 08/10 DALB 08/17 DALB 08/21 DALB 09/7 DALB 09/11 AH-19 AH-19 AH-23 AH-23 AH-38 AH-4, south wall plaster 0.05 29 580 plaster 0.1 54 540

DALB 07/14 DALB 07/16 DALB 07/63 DALB DALB DALB Tomb zone7 /sect.2 zone7 /sect.2 16L25/2

structure volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1

plaster 0.1 49 490

2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 23 24 11 8 4 1 8 5 3 26 1 1

4 29

8 1 1 17 3 1 1 3

8 1

1 6

2 7 9

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS Bromus sp. Chenopodium cf. murale Cichorium intybus/endivia Coronopus cf. nilotica Cuscuta sp. (seed) Echinochloa sp.(grain) Galium sp. cf. Glinus lotoides cf. Lathyrus sativus (seed) Lolium sp. (small) cf. Lycium sp. Malva sp. (seed) Phalaris cf. minor (grain/chaff) Phleum/Poa cf. Pulicaria sp. (achena) Plantago sp. Polypogon cf. monspeliensis Portulaca oleracea Ranuculus subg. Batrachium Rumex cf. dentatus (with perianth) Rumex sp. (nutlet) Schoenoplectus praelongatus Setaria verticillata/viridis Sinapis arvensis (fruit) Sinapis arvensis (pedicel) Tamarix (twigg with leaves) Trifolium sp. (seed) Trifolium sp. (fruit with calyx) cf. Zygophyllum coccineum (seed) 16 9

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

1 2

1 1 +

1 1

1 3 1 + + 1 2 + 1 + 2

VARIA Aizoaceae (cf. Aizoon) (seed) Asteraceae Cyperaceae (tuber) Poaceae indet. bad reserved mineralized

PROOFS

15

(continued)

16
DALB 08/29 AH-12 coarse plaster coarse plaster coarse plaster on brick 1 0.1 0.08 0.5 29 57 25 290 712.5 118 0.03 34 1400 0.05 24 480 plaster on floor 0.03 33 833.33 plaster upper layer 0.05 16 680 fine plaster fine plaster upper fine plaster 0.05 18 360 DALB 08/72 AH-12 DALB 09/12 AH-9, east wall DALB 09/9 AH-14 DALB 08/75 AH-33 DALB 09/8 AH-39 DALB 08/69 AH-12 DALB 08/27 AH-12 7 3 8 14 5 2 5 9 3 6 1 2 3 14 6 1 1 1 2 2 7 1 1 7 2 3 6 3 4 1 14 2 16 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 1

sample laboratory no. site

DALB 08/28 AH-12

structure

volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name

low coarse plaster 0.1 42 420

11

6 2

CEREALS Cerealia (glumes) Cerealia (grain) cf. Cerealia (clum node) cf. Cerealia (clum node with roots) Hordeum vulgare (grain) Hordeum vulgare (rachis frag.) Hordeum sp. (glumes) Triticum aestivum/durum (grain) Triticum aestivum/durum (rachis frag.) Triticum cf. aestivum/durum (glume) Triticum cf. durum (rachis frag.)

9 2

E. Marinova et al.

PULSES Lens culinaris (seed) Pisum sativum (seed ) OIL/FIBRE CROPS Carthamus tinctorius (achena) Linum usitatissimum (seed) Raphanus sp. (fruit part) Raphanus sp. (seed) Raphanus sp. (pedicel)

FRUITS/VEGETABLES Apium cf. graveolens Citrullus sp. Cucumis sp. Ficus sp. (nut) Phoenix dactylifera (fruit) Vitis vinifera (seed) Ziziphus spina-christi

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS Acacia sp. (seed) Acacia sp. (leave) cf. Aegilops sp. (glume base) Anthemis cf. pseudocotula Avena cf. sterilis (rachis)

(continued)

sample laboratory no. site DALB 08/29 AH-12 coarse plaster coarse plaster coarse plaster on brick 1 0.1 0.08 0.5 29 57 25 290 712.5 118 0.03 34 1400 0.05 24 480 plaster on floor 0.03 33 833.33 plaster upper layer 0.05 16 680 fine plaster fine plaster upper fine plaster 0.05 18 360 DALB 08/72 AH-12 DALB 09/12 AH-9, east wall DALB 09/9 AH-14 DALB 08/75 AH-33 DALB 09/8 AH-39 DALB 08/69 AH-12 DALB 08/27 AH-12

DALB 08/28 AH-12

structure

volume [l] sum identified plant remains concentration [remains/litre] scientific name

low coarse plaster 0.1 42 420

1 2 1 2 3 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 5

2 7 1 5 2 2 2 3

Plant Economy and Land Use in Middle Egypt during the Late Antique/Early Islamic Period

WEEDS/WILD PLANTS Bromus sp. Chenopodium cf. murale Cichorium intybus/endivia Coronopus cf. nilotica Cuscuta sp. (seed) Echinochloa sp.(grain) Galium sp. cf. Glinus lotoides cf. Lathyrus sativus (seed) Lolium sp. (small) cf. Lycium sp. Malva sp. (seed) Phalaris cf. minor (grain/chaff) Phleum/Poa cf. Pulicaria sp. (achena) Plantago sp. Polypogon cf. monspeliensis Portulaca oleracea Ranuculus subg. Batrachium Rumex cf. dentatus (with perianth) Rumex sp. (nutlet) Schoenoplectus praelongatus Setaria verticillata/viridis Sinapis arvensis (fruit) Sinapis arvensis (pedicel) Tamarix (twigg with leaves) Trifolium sp. (seed) Trifolium sp. (fruit with calyx) cf. Zygophyllum coccineum (seed) 1

2 5

1 2 + + 1 1

VARIA Aizoaceae (cf. Aizoon) (seed) Asteraceae Cyperaceae (tuber) Poaceae indet. bad reserved mineralized

PROOFS

17

Table 1 (end)

18
DALB07/67 SS coptic wall 2 1 1 1 2 1 5 1 4 1 2 1 1 5 2 9 3 4 1 3 2 11 6 1 2 2 4 2 16 1 1 2 1 18 5 1 4 6 5 12 9 5 2 3 1 3 2 1 3 4 3 3 2 SS front Werirni tomb DALB Tomb DALB Tomb 16K86/1 16K86/1 AH-12, AH-12, AH-12, eastern room 1 eastern room 1 eastern room 1 AH-12, AH-12, eastern room 1 eastern room 1 DALB07/70 DALB07/71 DALB07/72 DALB08/74 DALB08/76 DALB08/77 DALB08/78 DALB08/79 2 1

sample laboratory no.

DALB07/66

site

SS coptic wall

volume [ml]

12

E. Marinova et al.

Aizoaceae (cf. Aizoon) (seed) Anthemis (cf. pseudocotula) Asteraceae Cerealia (glumes) Chenopodium cf. murale Coronopus nilotica Fimbristylis sp. Malva sp. (seed) Phalaris cf. minor (grain with chaff) Poaceae (grain) Polypogon sp. Portulaca oleracea Rumex cf. dentatus (with perianth) Rumex sp. (nutlet) Schoenoplectus praelongatus Trifolium sp. (fruit with calyx) Trifolium sp. (seed) Triticum cf. aestivum/durum (glume) cf. Zygophyllum coccineum (seed) indet.

Table 2. Botanical composition of the sheep/goat dropping samples.