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Yajna
By Shankara Bharadwaj Khandavalli

Yaja is the central concept of !rauta -- the tradition that follows from the !ruti (Veda). There are many concepts that are based on and evolved from the concept of yaja. The word yaja comes from the root-"yaj" which means to worship. Yaja is a broad concept which is hard to translate into English. The closest single English word for yaja is sacrifice. There are multiple synonyms of the word yaja that convey different aspects of this broad concept. For instance it is also called karma, meaning action or the act of sacrifice/offering/worshiping. In the general sense it can be understood as any action done with the sense of sacrifice, like praying, remembering, meditating. In the specific sense it is the act of offering oblations to propitiate a Devata. The word karma is also used in different contexts. Yaja is karma in the general sense. In the more specific sense, karma is the component rite of a yaja. In the most general sense, karma refers to any action. The path of karma/yaja is called Karma yoga or Karma m"rga.

Contents
1 The Theory of Yaja/Karma M"rga 1.1 Prav!tti and Niv!tti 2 Constituents of Yaja 2.1 Karma 2.1.1 Artha Karma 2.1.2 Gu"a Karma 2.2 Bh"vana 2.3 Svadhyaya 2.4 Ty"ga 2.5 Devata 2.5.1 Agni 2.6 Phala 3 Prayoga 3.1 Yaja Dravya and Homas 3.2 Participants of a Y"ga 3.3 Y"ga S"la 3.4 Classification of Agni 3.5 Types of Yajna 3.6 Samsk"ras 4 The Concepts Involved 4.1 Anna (Food) 4.2 Bali (Sacrifice) 5 Texts 6 Yaja in the four Ashramas 6.1 Yaja in the Daily life of G!hastha: The Panca Maha Yajas 7 Extension of the concept of Yaja 7.1 Karma 7.2 Symbolic Yaja 8 Jn"na and Karma Approaches 9 Notes & References

The Theory of Yaja/Karma M"rga

Karma m"rga is based on the concept of Dharma. The result of an action performed is determined by the Dharmic or adharmic nature of the action. Dharma determines the fruit of karma and karma determines the course of experience of beings. Karma M#m"msa the base text for Karma M#m"msa, opens up by saying "ath"to dharma jij"sa", to expound the nature of Dharma. The text clearly states that karma and its results are based on Dharma - "Dharma m"tre tu karmasy"d niv!tte# pray"javat" [1]. In karma m"rga, mukti is possible through karma niv!tti, through the performance of righteous karma. The object of central importance in karma m"rga is karma or action. Worship or sacrifice too, assumes importance in the path of karma, primarily as the act of worshiping or sacrifice (karma), rather than the state of worshiping (which is the object in up"sana m"rga). In

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contrast to the yoga/up"sana m"rga where the worshiper and the process of worship dissolve in the object of worship ($%vara), in Karma the act of worship assumes importance. Being action-centric does not make yaja any more outward or superficial compared to Up"sana m"rga. For instance, Baudhayana's "n" rudro rudram arcayet" [2] (one who is not Rudra cannot worship Rudra - meaning one becomes or unites with Rudra in order to worship Him, by invoking Him) is interpreted differently in Karma and Up"sana m"rgas. Up"sana, the state of union of the seeker and Rudra is primary, while the act of worship is secondary. In karma, the union is taken to be implicit, and the act of Rudra worshiping Himself becomes primary. In the grand scheme, everything involved the one who is performing sacrifice, the rites, the material involved, the offerings, the one who receives the offerings, are each a part of the act of sacrifice. Even sacrifice becomes part of a grander sacrifice (the universe itself is a grand sacrifice, involving many rites like creation). The Puru$a s&kta of Rig Veda for example, explains this grand sacrifice. Sacrifice itself is the purpose in yaja, and there is no greater purpose. Everything else desires, transcending desires, liberation -- are only by-products. In Karma Yoga sacrifice assumes primary importance and $%vara assumes secondary importance. The affirmation of $%vara in the path of Karma is not unanimous. $%vara and Nir#%vara [3]approaches are held by G#ta and Karma M#m"msa respectively. In Nir#%vara approach Karma phala or the result of sacrifice follows the rules of Dharma. In $%vara V"da, $%vara receives the offerings of a sacrifice, presides over the sacrifice and gives the Karma phala.

Prav!tti and Niv!tti

There are two directions of movement or phases in life, prav!tti and niv!tti. Prav!tti is accumulating and indulging. Niv!tti is clearing debts and transcending. In prav!tti, yaja brings material possessions, righteousness and heavenly bliss. This helps man fulfill his aspirations as well as contribute to social living. Man gradually grows beyond desires and becomes more impersonal. This is how he enters the niv!tti phase. During niv!tti, yaja is done without any desire, merely as a duty. This helps in clearing past karma, but this greatly helps the well-being of surroundings (loka kaly""a). This is the way the realized soul performs yaja. This is the ni$k"ma karma explained in the Karma Yoga of Bhagavad G#ta. In niv!tti, yaja brings eternal bliss. Brahmandavalli of the Taittir#ya Upanishad expounds the gradation of happiness experienced by men, manes, Devatas, lord of Devatas, teacher of the Devatas, creator of Devatas and the creator of the universe in the ascending order, increasing hundred fold for each level[4]. At each level, the bliss is equated to that of a veda-wise person (!rotriya) who overcame his desire (k"ma hatasya). In prav!tti one experiences the bliss of Devatas. In niv!tti one grows beyond desires and experiences the bliss of Brahman. In niv!tti, yaja brings liberation. If this is seen in parallel to the ashrama dharma, brahmacarya and grhastha ashramas involve prav!tti. In brahmacarya, one increases his debts through his dependence, for sustenance as well as learning. In grhastha ashrama he attempts to repay these by offering the same back to the society, but increases his sources of attachment in that attempt. Through fulfillment of responsibilities and desires, one enters niv!tti. V"naprastha is the phase of containment, where rites are performed without any personal material desire. However some of the rites like pitru yaja are still performed. Sany"sa is the phase of complete renunciation. It is not mandatory for a Sany"si to perform any yaja/karma, for he can renounce karma itself.

Constituents of Yaja
The primary constituents of a Yaja are the inspiration or urge of the doer (bh"vana), learning (sv"dhy"ya), rites involved (karma), offerings (ty"ga), devata and the results (phala).

Karma
There are two types of rites in a sacrifice, principal (artha karma) and subsidiary (gu"a karma). Gu"a karmas are the constituent accessory rites associated with a principal rite. In artha karma, the rite is primary and material is subsidiary to the rite. Material is treated as accessory. In gu"a karma, material is primary and rite secondary to it.

Artha Karma
Artha karmas are three types. Nitya karma, done regularly. Example of nitya karma is Agni hotra (the homa done thrice a day). Naimittika karma, done occasionally. These are rites involving specific occasions. Those like pitru tarpana are naimittika rites. Nitya and naimittika rites are mandatory. There are specific Vedic injunctions that make the rites mandatory[5]. K"mya karma, done optionally. Optional rites are performed when a specific purpose is intended to be served through a sacrifice. The sacrifices like soma y"ga and v"japeya are examples of optional rites. These are in turn three types based on the results they give. The rites that give results in the present life are called aihika. The ones whose results are enjoyed after the present life (such as heaven, prosperity in the next life or breaking the cycle of life itself) are called "mu$mika. The rites that give both kinds of results are called aihika-"mu$mika.

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Gu"a Karma
Gu"a karmas, which are subsidiary and form components of artha karmas, are intended for purification (samsk"ra). They are four types: utpatti (origination for instance creating fire for the sacrifice) "pti (obtaining/attaining for instance learning required to perform the rite) vik!ti (modification for instance husking or cooking rice for sacrifice) samsk!ti (consecration/purification for instance purifying the material by sprinkling water and/or through mantra). Subsidiary rites are in general meant for purification. This is again of two types, disposal (pratipatti) and purification. Pr"ya%citta or expiation rites are also part of the subsidiary rites/gu"a karmas.

Bh!vana
Bh"vana is the urge, inspiration to perform yaja. This is caused by the desire for its result. Thus from the perspective of yaja, desire is seen as an inspiration to performing karma. Need and desire are the two inspirations for beings to perform karma that run the activity of phenomenal world. Bh"vana has three aspects: what is desired what is the means what is the method. From the injunctions of !ruti, these are learned. For instance, from injunctions such as one who desires cattle should perform Citra[6]. In prav!tti m"rga, one performs karma with a desired result. Following the injunctions of the scriptures and being righteous, one can fulfill these. However in the advanced stages in karma m"rga, sacrifice alone remains the purpose. All that is desired is also desired for the sake of performing sacrifice, making yaja the ultimate purpose. The Camaka of Sri Rudram[7] starts with praying for a variety of material gains, fulfillment of desires, grace of devatas, asking for devatas themselves, the various ingredients involved in sacrifice, the different rites of a sacrifice, and then towards conclusion, makes all these along with the life, mind, speech, soul and the whole sacrifice, a part of the sacrifice itself. This explains how desire is positively treated, and then sublimated in karma m"rga.

Svadhyaya
Svadhyaya means learning ones Veda (the branch of Veda one is ordained to pursue) along with the Vedangas. It is through learning that one gains the knowledge of the rites he should perform as his duty, the rites he can perform for various other desired purposes, how to perform those, and what his conduct should be to gain the desired results (these could be material or heavenly or liberation). Svadhyaya is the primary duty during brahmacarya, and forms the basis for performing all the rites of subsequent ashramas.

Ty!ga
Ty"ga is associated with offering. There are three kinds of offerings: y"ga (sacrifice) d"na (giving) homa (offering) Of these, the word y"ga refers to principal rite and the other two are associated with subsidiary rites. D"na is transferring ones right over what is given, to the one who is taking. This does not involve any expectation of result (though it has an invisible result, and it ensues only when the result is not desired for). Homa is offering of havis in Agni. This involves ty"ga of what is being offered, with the mention na mama, meaning what is being offered is no more mine, it belongs to the Devata (or the pitri as the case may be) to whom the offering is being made[8]. There is no expectation of result in the homa itself, but its result will become part of the result of the entire sacrifice. Homa is central to any agni karya or sacrifice performed in Agni. It has become almost synonymous to the word yaja itself. However it should be understood that homa is a component of yaja. In some kinds of yaja which do not involve Agni karya, oblations are offered as dana instead of homa.

Devata
Devata is a constituent of sacrifice as well as its result. Devatas consume the havis offered in a sacrifice and give the result of sacrifice performed. As a result of sacrifice, along with the desired result, the grace of devata remains. When sacrifice is performed without desiring a result, devatas grace remains the result of sacrifice. Devata is mantra-baddha, meaning He is bound to give the result of a

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sacrifice/mantra when invoked[9]. Thus the result of any form of worship is bound to come. Havis offered in a sacrifice is the food for Devatas. Devatas grow on havis and bring the well-being of men (through rains and so on). Thus Devatas grow on mans offerings and mans elevation is brought by the Devatas. Thus through mutual nourishment, men and Devatas bring about the well being of all. This is explained in the Karma Yoga of Bhagavad G#ta:

!"#$%#"&'#() * !"# %#"&$'+ ", ./0./1 %#"&$', 23&, ./4"#50&6 78- 997

dev"n bh"vayat"nena te dev" bh"vayantu va#

parasparam bh"vayanta#[10]

sreyah param avapsyatha[11]

All life is said to be a yaja. Every action, when made as an offering to the $%vara, is a yaja. Worshipping, eating food, fighting war, creating wealth, contributing to human knowledge, running family, each of these is a yaja. Doing these as offerings to derive something greater, makes these actions yajas. When these actions are not done for material gain but with a selfless motive, that is the highest form of yaja. Sacrifice brings transcendence. Transcendence through sacrifice is the meaning of life in the Vedic religion.

Agni
Agni[12] is called Deva Mukha[13] and is the central deity for yaja. Oblations (havis) are offered in the fire and Agni is said to carry those to the Devatas. Offering and the carrier of offerings are inseparable and the former is stated to be the consort of the latter (Agni). There are two contexts of offering, the para (pertaining to Devatas) and apara (pertaining to Pitris). The presiding deities of these two kinds of offerings are Sv"ha and Swatha respectively. These are the two consorts of Agni. The offerings to Devatas and Pitris are made through these two.

Phala
The result of a sacrifice ensues from the results of each of the subsidiary rites, combined with the result of the main rite. Each rite creates a unique result, in terms of visible or invisible effect. This is called apurva[14]. The total of unique results of all the rites of a sacrifice cause the grand unique final result of the sacrifice, called Mah"purva. Different schools hold different opinions on the results of nitya karmas. According to Prabh"kara School it is said that there is no additional benefit or fruit of performing nitya karmas but there is a loss of merit or righteousness in not performing those. According to Kum"rila Bha%%a, there will be an additional merit even in the performance of nitya karmas. In case of k"mya rites, since they are optional, there is only an additional result in performing those. There are two kinds of results of a sacrifice visible (pratyak$a) and invisible ("laukika). Pratyak$a is the visible gain that results from performing the sacrifice, material or otherwise. Alaukika result can be like begetting heaven in prav!tti and mukti in niv!tti (through karma niv!tti).

Prayoga
Literally prayoga means performance. It is the performance of sacrifice, the application of text to perform yaja. The injunctions to perform the sacrifice or vidhi are found in Brahmana portion of Veda. Kalpa S&tr"s explain the prayoga part further. There are different stages in performing a sacrifice. It begins with cleaning the place and building the altar. Then the dravya is acquired. Then the priest is invited to officiate. Following that the altar is decorated and Agni invoked. Then the purification of each of the dravya is done. Then the homas (in the fire) and danas (alms etc) are done. The sacrifice concludes with cleaning up the place and taking the fruit of sacrifice.

Yaja Dravya and Homas

Agni karya forms the core of a sacrifice. It includes purification rites and the homas. The ingredients used in a yaja are called dravya. There are six ingradients involved in performing an Agni Karya. [15] They are: Sruk and Sruva (ladles used for making offering in fire) Idhma (wooden pieces/sticks used as fuel in the sacrifice also called samidhas) P"tras (bowls) There are three kinds of p"tras used: the prok$i"i (used for purification) "jya (to hold the clarified butter)

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p&r"a p"tra (literally complete, the one used for completion of the rite) Based on the dravya used and rites performed, there are two major classes of prayoga Catu$p"tra (using four ingredients) and &a%p"tra (using six ingredients). &a%p"tra involves the usage all the six dravyas mentioned above. Catu$p"tra does not involve idhma and p&r"a p"tra. However, the regular rite that a brahmacari performs, does not mandatorily involve any p"tra (though usage is not prohibited). Most of the prayogas nitya or otherwise, involve &a%p"tra prayoga. Some of the sacrifices are referred to variously as involving more than six primary ingredients. For instance marriage ritual in 'pastamba s"mprad"ya is called dasa p"tra (involving 10 ingredients). Major y"gas like Vajapeya use many more. However all of them come under &a%p"tra only and the additional dravya is classified as one of the six - idhma or ajya for instance. In general, Catu$p"tra is sufficient for the regular homas to praj"pati, Indra Agni etc. In order to propitiate a specific deity, one has to perform &a%p"tra. This involves additional dravya and homas. Dravya depends on the nature of rite. It could be rice, corn, specific samidhas, blades of grass, milk, curd etc. Fifty eight homas (to Praj"pati, Dikp"lakas and Grahas Lokap"lakas etc) inclusive of Cak$ur-homas (literally the homas of eyes - two homas with clarified butter poured in the fire circularly, as if they are the eyes of Agni) and done in the beginning of the sacrifice. Then oblations to the main deity of the sacrifice are offered. Jay"di homas (additional homas to propitiate various Devatas representative of faculties of consciousness, pr"ya%citta homas etc) follow that, and it is concluded with P&r""huti (literally the completion oblation or the conclusive one). These homas also include the pr"ya%citta rites (expiation rites), as applicable. However pr"ya%citta rites are common to Catu$p"tra and &a%p"tra.

Homa

Participants of a Y!ga
The primary participant of a sacrifice is the one who performs it the owner or the yajam"ni. A dvija performs regular rites himself. However any major y"ga requires the yajam"ni to be accompanied by his consort, she should offer the fire ('pastamba S&tras). In case of a k"mya prayoga, a !tvija (priest) is involved. In major y"gas, there are at least four rtviks involved. [16] They are hota, adhvaryu, brahma and udg"ta. Hota should be learned in Rig Veda, and chants the 'ks. 'dhvaryu is the one who performs the sacrifice (makes the yajam"ni do it with instructions). He should be learned in Yajurveda. Udg"ta sings the S"ma Veda. Brahma supervises the sacrifice.

Y!ga S!la
The regular rites are conducted in a designated place in the house. Major y"gas are performed in premises meant for them, called y"ga %"l"s. Y"ga s"la follows a specific architecture/layout. It has four entrances, representing the four Vedas. The four entrances have four gates, decorated with the leaves of four kinds of trees, or rather named after the four trees. They are Nyagrodha, Aswattha, Audumbara and Plaksha. In the four directions altars are built in shapes specified against those positions (they could be circular, square or following any other geometry according to the !rauta !&tras). The eight Dikp"lakas preside over the eight (four directions and four corners) positions of the y"ga s"la. Homas are performed in those designated places to the corresponding devatas, according to the rites of the respective Vedas. There are positions designated for the yajam"ni, each of the !tvijas, dravya and the audience. Besides there is a bali sthana, where the bali (sacrificial offering) is made.

Classification of Agni
There are three types of Agni, grouped as "tret"gni"s[17]. G"rhapatya (literally belonging to the g!ha pati or the owner of the house) Dak$i"a 'havan#y" G"rhapatya is the origin of the other two, and all the three are worshiped regularly. Besides, Aup"sana[18] is performed by g!hasthas. Agnis are also classified into two types: Vihara"#y" (those that can be moved) Upastheya (those that are fixed/deposited at a place). Each of these two have eight sub-categories and are positioned in different places in the premises where sacrifice is performed.

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The Vihara"#y" Agnis are: 1. Vibh&rasi Prav"h", positioned near the 'gn#dhras (one of the !utviks) place 2. Vahnirasi Havyav"hana, positioned near the Hotas abode 3. !v"trosi Praceta, at the place of Maitra Varu"a (the place where these Devatas are invoked) 4. Tuthosi Viswaveda, invoked at the place of the !utvik designated as Br"hma""ccha 5. U%i Gasi Kavi, positioned near !utvik designed Potru 6. Angh"ri rasi jambh"r#, near the !utvik designated Ne$%!u 7. Avasyurasi Duvasv"n, near the !utvik called Acch"v"k 8. !undhy&rasi M"rj"l#ya, near the !utvik called M"rj"la (the one who does m"rjana or purification and consecration) The Upastheyas are: 1. Samr"dasi K!u%"n&, positioned at the secondary altar in the north. This is the 'havan#y" Agni. 2. Pari$adyosi Pavam"na, positioned at Dhruva sthali 3. Pratakv"si nabhasv"n, positioned at the C"tv"la sth"na 4. Asam!$tosi Havyas&da, positioned at %amitra (the place of pa%u) 5. 'tadh"m"si Suvarjyoti, positioned at Audumbara (the !tvija who chants the S"ma Veda). 6. Brahmajyotirasi suvardh"ma, positioned with the Brahma (chief !utvik) of the sacrifice 7. Ajosyekap"t, positioned at the sukha%"la. This is the G"rhapatya. 8. Ahirasi budhniya, positioned with the Yajam"ni.

Types of Yajna
Yajas can be classified in different ways. One of them is periodicity. Apart from the Panca Maha Yajas, Aup"sana and Agnihotra are performed every day. Any other yaja is occasional performed fortnightly, monthly, yearly or even once in a life time. Agnihotra is the homa done thrice a day. Dar%a and P&r"amasa are done on new moon and full moon days. Parvani sraddha is done once a month. Most of the other Yajas can be done once a year or even in a lifetime. Another classification is the scale of the rite. The ones like Agnihotra are done in the house while the sacrifices like soma y"ga or v"japeya need to be undertaken at a much bigger scale involving priests. The rites undertaken at a household level are called g!hya rites. The ones performed at a collective level are called %rauta rites[19].

Samsk!ras
Samsk"ra is a rite that involves mantra. There are forty samsk"ras or rites performed in ones lifetime: Seven are paka Yajas (a$taka, sth"lip"ka, parvana, sr"va"i, "grahayani, caitri and "sv#yuji). They involve consecrating cooked items. Seven are Soma Yajas (agnistoma, atyagnistoma, uktya, shodasi, v"japeya, atir"tra and aptoryama). The y"g" that involves the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma (in the general sense nectar, but extract of a particular tree specifically) is called a Soma Yaja. Others are usually referred to as haviryanas. Seven are Havir Yajas (agniy"dh"na, agni hotra, Dar%a-P&r"am"sa, "grayana, c"turm"sya, niruudha pa%u bandha, sautr"ma"i). They involve offering havis. Five are the panca mah" Yaj"s. Four are Vedavratas, which are done during Vedic education. Remaining ten are one-time samsk"ras that are done at different stages in life. They are garbh"dh"n", pumsavana, s#manta, j"takarma, n"makara"a, annapr"%ana, caula, upanayana, sn"taka and viv"ha. These are specified by the g!hya s&tr"s.

The Concepts Involved

Anna (Food)
Anna or food is the basis of life. Life is sustained by the consumption of life, and this is the inherent principle of nature. And sustenance of life is the highest principle. At the same time, consumption of life defeats the same principle (for other creatures). Harming any living being is against that principle. Thus there arises the need for reconciliation between the principle of consumption and the principle of sustenance. This is explained by the concept of sacrifice. Body is called anna-maya kosha or the sheath of food. It is the up"dhi, the basis for every rite, through performance of which the purpose of life is fulfilled. The rite undertaken for sustaining the up"dhi, namely consumption, is one of the most sacred and important ones. However, this means that only the consumption done with the sense of sacrifice, or with the sense of sustaining the up"dhi, is considered sacred. Superfluous consumption of life, is against the principle of sustenance.

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Most of the offerings in a Sacrifice are edible offerings. Havis offered in a sacrifice is the food for Devatas. In turn, they bring prosperity to man. Offering and consuming are the two sides of a sacrifice. However, each participant offers as well as consumes. Thus while explaining violence/consumption to be inherent in nature, it is sought to be minimized by the same principle that makes it inevitable. When eating is performed as a rite, there are two aspects in food - consecration and consumption. Consumption of life involves consuming the karma samsk"ra of the creature being consumed. Therefore the food is first consecrated, offered to $%vara who is the ultimate absolver of every samsk"ra. Anna is called s"da. With consecration, the food becomes pras"da, a remain/fruit of sacrificial offering. In fact consumption is also done with the sense that $%vara the essence of each being is consuming the food in the form of the oneself. The Smritis give guidelines for the preparation consecration and consumption of food, along with what kind of food is to be taken. This depends on many factors. Some of them are Var"a of the person - practicing brahmins should be vegetarians in general and consuming specific vegetables in particular. However this has exceptions. The kind of D#k$a undertaken - one should be particular about diet during specific D#k$"s like Man(ala D#k$a or C"turm"sya. The Devata being worshiped - each Devata is propitiated with a specific kind of food, cooked with specific ingredients to the like of the Devata. The same is consecrated and consumed.

Bali (Sacrifice)
Bali or sacrifice is the most controversial topic in yaja, because of its implications. Broadly, there are two ways to look at it: the literal sacrifice and symbolic sacrifice. Literal sacrifice involves sacrificing an animal. In symbolic sacrifice, a pi$%a pa%u is offered. This could be k&$m"nda (ash gourd) or any other consumable. Yajas mostly involve symbolic sacrifice (pi$%a pa%u) and seldom involve a literal sacrifice. Bali in a sacrifice is part of the optional rites, one of the offerings involved in k"mya rites. The Bali sthana of the y"ga %ala is designated for this, where there is a Yupa (pillar) positioned. Vedic injunctions regarding sacrifices, such as saptadasa pr"j"paty"n pa%&n "labhet [20] are explicit in their message. However, such injunctions are interpreted in different ways. One of them is the symbolic interpretation of pa%u as the one that is bound by p"%a (binding), and making sacrifice symbolic. The other is the literal interpretation, where a symbolic bali (pi$%a pa%u) is offered. The history of yaja shows that Yajas rarely involved animal sacrifices and that they were always a matter of inconvenience to the Vedic seers. There is a story in the Pur""a [21]that tells how animal sacrifice is made redundant in yajas. The !$is had an argument with the Devatas that they would offer only symbolic sacrifice and not animals. The Devatas did not like it. '$is mandated that animals will not be offered in yaja, and king Vasu conducted a sacrifice by inviting the !$is as !tviks for the sacrifice, in which he made only symbolic sacrifices, and mandated that Devatas should not make it obligatory for yajas to involve animal sacrifices. Appreciative of this, the !$is mandated that in every sacrifice the havis after p&r""huti should go to Vasu. To this day major sacrifices involve havis to Vasu starting with the mantra Vasordh"ra juhoti. The fact that Vasordh"ra is performed, makes it clear that the sacrifice is not intended to be literal, from the !$iss perspective. Seers like Sankara have taken the path of advocating symbolic bali in temples and interpreting ritual itself in a symbolic way in case of personal worship.

Texts
The samhita portion of the Veda contains the mantras used for yaja. The Brahmana portion of the Veda deals with Karma k"nda. Specifically, out of the four Vedas, Yajurveda is the primary Veda concerned with yaja. It is called Yajurveda because it is composed of Yajus or the mantras used for yaja. Kalpa S&tr"s deal with the rules, regulations and austerities of yaja, the geometry of altars, and the rites to be undertaken at each stage of life. P&rva M#m"msa deals extensively with the philosophy of yaja, how to understand the mantra and brahmana portions, and their application in sacrifice. This is also called Karma M#m"msa. The text expounding Karma M#m"msa is Jaimini's M#m"msa S&tras. This is divided into 12 chapters, called lak$a""s. It is primarily an inquiry into the Brahmana portion of the Veda and deals with various sacrifices, their purposes and methods. The authentic commentary on P&rva M#m"msa is !"bara Bh"shya. In turn, Kum"rila Bha%%a's Tantra V"rtika is a commentary of !"bara Bh"$ya. Jaimini also wrote a four-chapter supplement to M#m"msa, called Sankarsha K"nda. It is also called Madhyama M#m"msa, Madhyama K"nda, Devata K"nda and Up"sana K"nda. It deals with the purpose of mantras, the nature and essence of devatas, and the purpose of worshiping devatas.

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Yaja in the four Ashramas

In all the four ashramas, nitya and naimittika rites should be performed. However the prescribed rites are different in each ashrama. In brahmacarya, the principal rite to be performed is svadhyaya - Vedic learning. This is apart from other rites like daily oblations to Agni and service of Guru. In grhastha ashrama, one should perform the panca maha yajas (or nitya karma astaka as the school may be). Along with these, his family and social responsibility as the smriti prescribes, form part of his main rites in grhastha ashrama. In v"naprastha, many of the rites of grhastha ashrama become optional and even unnecessary. Nitya and naimittika karmas should be performed. Raising children as an injunction is no longer relevant here. However pitru tarpana is still done during v"naprastha. Teaching should be done. In sany"sa, there is no compulsion on karma, though minimal nitya karma is performed. A sany"si also undertakes naimittika rites such as Caturmasya (four-month austerity undertaken in a year). Even teaching is optional for him.

Yaja in the Daily life of G!hastha: The Panca Maha Yajas

A G!hastha is supposed to do five yajas every day. These are called panca maha yajas. These are offerings to Devatas, '$is, Pitris (departed fathers), creatures and men. They are called deva yaja, !ishi yaja, pit! yaja, bh&ta yaja and manu$ya yaja respectively[22]. Man has four debts, to Devatas, pitris, !ishis and fellow-men. These are called deva !na, !$i !na, pit! !na and manu$ya !na. By doing the above yajas, man repays those debts and fulfills his purposes in life. By praying to Devatas and offering oblations to them, and through sacrifices one clears his debts to Devatas. This is called deva yaja. By gaining Vedic knowledge, by teaching, sharing and passing it on to subsequent generations one clears his debts towards the seers. This is called !$i yaja. By offering oblations to pitris, and by continuing the race by begetting progeny, raising them properly, by getting good name for the lineage, one clears his debts towards the pitris. This is called pit! yaja. By showing compassion towards fellow men, by treating the guests well, by helping those in need, by excusing those by which one has been wronged, by doing actions that are beneficial to men, one clears his debts towards his fellow men. This is called manu$ya yaja. Bh&ta yaja is showing compassion towards living beings in general. This includes abstaining from inflicting violence and killing, living as a part of nature without harming it.

Extension of the concept of Yaja

Yajnic life is an ancient school, and over time, it became impractical to lead such life because of the rigorous discipline it requires. There are still people who perform regular sacrifice. But the concept of yaja has been extended in different ways, without losing its spirit.

Karma
The widest application has been the karma concept in life. Many of the ideals seen today in learned men, such as being righteous, maintaining a moral code, doing actions without being particular about results, not harming anyone unnecessarily, being content and not greedy, fulfilling desires in a righteous way, keeping righteousness above desires, and doing every action as a sacrifice, follow directly from yajnic principles. Leading a life with these ideals is treated as equal to living a yaajnic life, and causing liberation through karma niv!tti. The karma yoga that many of the men live (though they are not into the path of worship) is a reflection of the yajnic ideal in their lives. The yajnic ideal thus has wide impact, and positively influences a moral social order. Sm"rta which developed after !rauta, has also based its ideal on the same ideal of dharma.

Symbolic Yaja
The other extension of the concept of yaja is found in its yogic interpretation, as being performed in the subtle body. !r# S&kta of Rig Veda khila portion is used in sacrifices and also in Sri Vidya. Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad explains the yogic import of !r# S&kta. Y"ga becomes antary"ga (the inner sacrifice) performing homa in the sv"dhi$%h"na agni. In Mantra Vidyas mantra sadhana is likened to yaja. In fact this is supported explicitly by smriti, for instance Manusmriti says that a dvija becomes dvija by mantra japa alone, even if he cannot perform the panca maha yajas. Sm"rta, the religion of smritis, follows the Sm"rta S&tras (Dharma S&tras and G!hya S&tras), part Vedanga Kalpa. Sm"rta and !rauta are so closely associated that they are usually referred to as the combination Sm"rta-!rauta. Sm"rta prescribes japa, homa, tarpana and sandhyavandana as part of nitya karma, the eight daily rituals to be performed. These are from Brahmana as well as Aranyaka portion. For instance the Sandhya Vandana prakarana itself is

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found in Taittir#ya Aranyaka (Maha Narayana Upanishad). Dharma S&tr"s add one more category to the three classical kinds of karma (nitya, naimittika and k"mya) the pr"ya%citta or expiation rites. Thus in the general sense mantra japa, kundalini yoga etc are sacrifices, but the sacrificial approach to the same aim differs from the yogic approach. For instance, mantra japa itself is the sacrifice to be done, and devata is a result of the sacrifice. In yogic terms this is described differently: mantra is the means to achieving yoga with the devata. Temple, the institution that made religion reachable to common man, is a replica of yaja %"la (the place where yaja is conducted) in its major components as well as concept. The rites of a temple as prescribed by 'gam"s are four-fold, (nitya, naimittika, k"mya and pr"ya%citta) the same as that in !rauta/Sm"rta.

Jn"na and Karma Approaches

Jn"na M"rga is expounded in Ved"nta and thus, Ved"nta treats yaja/karma to be a means of purification, a preparation for acquiring jn"na. Beyond that, in jn"na m"rga, spiritual knowledge is the means of liberation, and not worship. The different categories of yaja, such as vedic ritual, the subtle body yogas such as mantra yoga and kundalini yoga are acknowledged in jn"na m"rga as means to attain the necessary state for pursuing the path of knowledge. This is in contrast with all the karmic and yogic paths, where performing each of those rites at their highest level is the means for liberation. For instance, in karma yoga, karma niv!tti begets liberation. In mantra yoga realizing para vak is the final realization. In laya yoga dissolving the individual consciousness in the cosmic consciousness is liberation. In kundalini yoga the gross and the subtle unite with the causal being through the movement of kundalini[23]. All these involve different up"dhis of the subtle body mind, pr"na and n"dis. Detachment and consecration, the two approaches of jn"na and karma respectively, reflect in the rituals prescribed in these paths. For instance, while anger is sought to be overcome in the former[24], it is praised as a divine inspiration in the latter[25]. Jn"na m"rga involves nididhyasana, which is the intellectuals approach the path of discrimination. Through contemplation (on the import of mahavakyas) one learns to discriminate between "tma and non-"tma ("tma-an"tma vivecana). And realizing ones identity as "tma, as different from an"tma, is liberation because "tma is always liberated. J#va is bound because he does not identify himself as "tma but identifies himself with various up"dhis. Jn"na m"rga is about discriminating these up"dhis from self. Adi Sankara reconciles karma with jn"na approach by categorizing karma as the preparatory stage for acquiring jn"na. In jn"na m"rga, liberation is possible only through jn"na. In fact the self is always liberated, and the state of liberation for a being is the knowledge of difference between self and non-self ("tma-an"tma vivecana). Karma purifies and prepares the being for the state of knowledge/discrimination. As the means to acquire the necessary purity and wisdom for pursuing this path, jn"na m"rga acknowledges the performance of nitya karma. Beyond that, worship or ritual has no greater importance in jn"na m"rga. Thus most of the yajnic procedures are redundant from the viewpoint of jn"na m"rga. However this only differentiates between the Karma and Jn"na approaches, and does not necessarily make one of them superior. Vedantic approach is prescribed for a person who is technically out of the social fold, whose righteousness does not depend much on fulfillment of responsibilities. Fulfilling ones responsibilities is the primary criterion for detachment, and without that one is not deemed fit for the path of knowledge. In the path of karma, such fulfillment with dissociation brings about the necessary change for salvation.

Notes & References

1. ) P&rva M#m"msa S&tr"s 2.1.9 2. ) Mahanyasa 3. ) Nir#%vara V"da is one that does not affirm $%vara or the supreme existential principle. However, this does not amount to negation of Devatas or 'tma. Thus it is both 'stika (acknowledging the !abda Pram""a) as well as theistic. 4. ) Brahmandavalli of the Taittir#ya Upanishad (chapter 8) 5. ) Taittir#ya Br"hma"a 2.1.9.2 6. ) Taittir#ya Samhita 2.4.6.1 7. ) K!$"a Yajurveda 4.7 8. ) Agni carries these offerings to the Devatas 9. ) Please refer the article on Mantra Marga for more details on this 10. ) Here the meaning of the word bh"vana follows its technical definition according to Karma m"rga: the objective urge, inspiration or desire 11. ) Bhagavad G#ta 3.11 12. ) Agni is the God of Fire 13. ) Deva Mukha literally meaning face of the Devatas 14. ) Apurva literally means never before because it did not exist before the rite was done, and came into existence as a consequence of the rite 15. ) 'pastamba Dharma S&tr"s chapter 1.1 and 1.2 are dedicated to the injunctions for &a%p"tra procedure, as part of which the dravya is also enumerated. 16. ) Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Ch 3 17. ) The different classes of Agni worshiped are enumerated in !rauta !&tras - 'pastamba !rauta !&tras for instance. Chapter 51 of Matsya Pur""a,

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and Brahm"nda Pur""a also explain the different Agnis, including the Vihara"#y"s and Upasthey"s. 18. ) literally the one meant for up"sana 19. ) Note that %rauta is a general term and does not necessarily classify a rite. 20. ) Taittir#ya Br"hma"a 1.3.4.3 21. ) Reference required for this 22. ) 'pastamba Dharma S&tras 1.13 23. ) See article on Yoga Sastra for more details 24. ) manyuh-ak"r$# namo namah Sandhya Vandana, Aranyaka portion of Krishna Yajurveda 25. ) Manyu s&kta, Rig Veda

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